Sexual Preference (book)

1088:, writing that it was tedious and succeeded well neither as a popular book nor as a scientific treatment of its topic. She maintained that it lacked "methodological detail", and that its true focus was homosexuality rather than sexual preference generally. She believed that there were many problems with "the premises and the execution" of the study, writing that its authors neither broke "new theoretical ground" nor offered "a critical reading of old theories" and ignored questions such as "how and why adults change their sexual preference, what meanings individuals ascribe to their sexuality, and how social context contributes to stability or change in sexual preference". In her view, other problems included their failure to critically examine "the accuracy of the retrospective memories" of their respondents and willingness to take their answers to questions at face value. She concluded that they must have been disappointed by the results of their path analyses since, "Very few of the respondents' reported early experiences were related to the emergence of homosexuality." She disagreed with their focus on theories relating homosexuality to childhood experience and their conclusion that "sexual preference is dictated by developmental experiences", and wrote that they seemed politically conservative despite presenting themselves as liberals. 540:. They wrote that while there was an ongoing debate over the origins of homosexuality, there is evidence supporting the view that homosexuality has a biological basis, and that hormonal factors could be involved. They could not explain how sexual preference might be related to biology, but considered their findings consistent with what one would expect to find if it had a biological basis. They suggested that biological factors have a more powerful influence on exclusive homosexuals than on bisexuals, and that if there is a biological basis to homosexuality, it accounts for gender nonconformity as well as sexual orientation. They also proposed that the "familial factors commonly thought to account for homosexuality" may actually result from the way parents react to their prehomosexual children. They argued that demonstrating that homosexuality is biologically innate would lead to greater social tolerance, and help to relieve parents of gay people of guilt. They expressed hope that researchers would eventually produce more definitive answers about the origins of homosexuality. 438:

sexual preference. Homosexual women were less likely to describe their mothers as having been pleasant people. This and two other connected variables were combined into a composite measure called "Unpleasant Mother", which had a weak and indirect connection with adult homosexuality. Homosexual women identified less strongly with their mothers, though this appeared to have very little influence on adult sexual preference, having only indirect effects, dependent upon its encouragement of childhood gender nonconformity. Homosexual women gave less favorable descriptions of their relationships with their fathers, and were more likely to have negative feelings toward them, and to describe them as having been hostile or detached. These variables were combined into a measure called "Detached-Hostile Father", which appeared to encourage childhood gender nonconformity and adolescent homosexual involvement. Homosexual women were less likely to identify with their fathers, but the "Identification with Father" variable appeared to be unimportant.

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predispose boys toward homosexuality more plausible, but emphasized that these factors have only an indirect connection to sexual preference. They suggested that relationships with parents might play a greater role in the development of female homosexuality, although they found having a cold or distant father less significant as a cause of female than of male homosexuality. They also rejected sociological theories such as the idea that homosexuality results from labeling by others. Overall, they concluded that sexual preference is likely to be already determined by the time boys and girls reach adolescence, and that there is a powerful link between gender nonconformity and the development of homosexuality in both sexes, but especially in men. Although stressing that their model "applies only to extant theories and does not create new ones", they wrote that they had identified "a pattern of feelings and reactions within the child that cannot be traced back to a single social or psychological root".

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criticism on the grounds that its sample of homosexuals was unrepresentative and that its subjects may have distorted their accounts of their childhoods by making them conform to their present views of themselves, and that its path analysis was open to question, and criticized its authors for failing to explain the operations of "childhood gender nonconformity". He observed that while they argued that sexual orientation might be biological because of the lack of any apparent psychosocial causes for it, it was possible that there were psychosocial causes that they had failed to investigate and that might operate early in life. He argued that a study such as theirs would be able to identify the causes of sexual orientation only if the causes were "few and very strong." However, he believed they deserved credit for showing that there was no support for the "standard psychosocial theories" or the belief that homosexuality is caused by seduction.

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race and sex. They wrote that while Bell, a psychologist and therapist, was "relatively supportive of psychodynamic theory", Weinberg and Hammersmith were sociologists with a different outlook. They argued that their varying outlooks helped counteract bias. They did not believe that completing their study earlier would have altered their findings. Believing that familiarity with scientific theories about homosexuality might bias their respondents′ answers, they did not report results that could be explained through exposure to them. They used path analysis, a statistical technique originally developed for use in the biological sciences, to try to establish which factors were most important. It required dividing "the independent variables into sequential stages, according to the time when their influences are most likely to occur." The dependent variable they wanted to explain, adult sexual preference, went at the final stage.

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composite measure called "Childhood Gender Nonconformity", which proved to be the most important developmental variable. It appeared to make male respondents less likely to feel attraction to the opposite sex during childhood, but more likely to feel sexually different from other boys, experience homosexual arousal and activities, and become homosexual as adults. Homosexual men were more likely to recall having felt different from other boys their age, or to say that they felt different because they did not like sport, or because they were not interested in girls or were sexually interested in other boys. They were also more likely to report feeling different because they had stereotypical feminine traits or interests. Feeling different during childhood appeared to be irrelevant, but feeling different for gender reasons during

369:." They anticipated that psychologists and psychoanalysts would object to their work on methodological grounds, such as that no attempt was made to access unconscious material, or that the interviews, which lasted only a few hours, could never reveal what truly occurred in someone's childhood. They argued, however, that the fact that their data was not obtained from clinical sources was a strength, that attempting to access unconscious material risks selective interpretation of the data, and that "if the differences between homosexual and heterosexual patterns of development are really as great as psychoanalytic theory claims" then such differences would be reflected to at least some extent in the reports of their respondents. 1535:′s findings support some of Freud's predictions about how homosexual men view their parents, writing that despite their claim that there is no strong connection, the "negative father" factor had a detectable impact on "gender nonconformity and early homosexual experience" for men. He maintained that they provided no information that could be used to evaluate Freud's vague statements concerning how homosexual women would perceive their mothers, but that their data does support his expectation that they would perceive their fathers in negative terms, despite their deliberately minimizing the overall importance of the father factor in the development of female homosexuality. He viewed their findings about 447:

Homosexual women were more likely to recall having felt different from other girls their age during grade school and high school years, and to say that they felt different because they were more masculine than other girls, more interested in sports, or not interested in boys. Homosexual women were also more likely to have felt sexually different. However, these feelings did not appear to play a role in the development of female homosexuality. Homosexual women, unlike heterosexual women, were sometimes labeled sexually different or homosexual before the age of 19, but such labeling also appeared to play no significant role in the development of female homosexuality.

1663:"analyzed every known hypothesis, idea, or suggestion about the origins of homosexuality and found most of them were wrong." He credited them with avoiding the biases of many previous studies, which had drawn their samples from unrepresentative sources such as psychotherapy patients or prison populations, but noted that they failed to identify the cause of homosexuality. He observed that their suggestion that homosexuality may have a biological basis placed them in opposition to Kinsey's views, and that they ignored research that correlated the origins of same-sex preference with factors such as time of puberty, the amount of early sex, and 1061:

they wrote as though the study was representative of the larger population, that they did not sufficiently explore the issue of bias in their subjects' self-reports, which might have been motivated by the subjects' ideology or desire to please the researchers by telling them what they thought they wanted to hear, and that they relegated the fact that respondents who had been exposed to scientific information regarding homosexuality were more likely to characterize their parents in accord with psychoanalytic models of emotionally absent fathers and domineering mothers to a footnote. She also suggested that readers might find

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adolescent homosexual involvement was important for non-masculine homosexual women but not masculine homosexual women. Bisexual women appeared to be more influenced by involvement in homosexual genital activities in childhood than exclusively homosexual women, but unlike exclusively homosexual women, their homosexual preference did not appear related to inability to experience heterosexual arousal in childhood. Childhood gender nonconformity appeared more significant for exclusively homosexual women than for bisexual women, and more significant for women who had been in psychotherapy than for women who had not.

1487:′s study as the "largest, best-designed, and one of the least heterosexist investigations" of the development of sexual preference. In her view, its only possible bias is that because of its nature and San Francisco location "activist" homosexuals were over-represented. Johnson argued that "this bias would probably work against finding support for any hypotheses concerning parental influences, because activist homosexuals have ordinarily been opposed to psychoanalytic speculations about parental involvements." Johnson concluded, however, that the study's credibility was enhanced by the fact that Bell 1243:. This included "the classical psychoanalytic account", as well as views that attribute the origins of sexual orientation to learning, conditioning, seduction, or labeling. According to Bem, their finding that "no family variables" are "strongly implicated in the development of sexual orientation for either men or women" is "consistent with accumulating evidence that family variables account for much less of the environmental variance in personality than previously thought". He proposed a hypothesis, which he referred to as " 1213:′s study meets these requirements, that their use of path analysis was appropriate, and that their procedures for developing a composite etiology model, which contained "virtually all paths advanced in the literature", are legitimate. He argued that the only plausible basis for disputing that the study definitively refutes "social learning theories of homosexual etiology" is to challenge the adequacy of its authors' models and the questions they employed. However, he criticized the questions asked. He wrote that while Bell 1209:, labeling theory, and societal reaction theory approaches. He considered its sample of homosexuals, while highly biased, to nevertheless be the most representative ever made, and argued that biased samples can be adequate for the purposes of refuting theories propounded in other studies "so long as the types of subjects used in those other studies constitute a subsample of the replicative study′s sample and the latter's population does not go beyond the claimed scope of the replicated studies." He maintained that Bell 1105:. He argued that too many studies suggest that domineering mothers play a role in the development of male homosexuality for their conclusion that mothers have at most a weak influence on the development of their sons' sexual orientation to be readily acceptable, that all questionnaire studies have inherent limitations, and that their data are inferior to those collected over time by psychotherapists. He suggested that homosexuals might give defensive answers due to not wanting to be labelled abnormal, that Bell 298:

Poor father-son relationships appeared to be weakly connected to male homosexuality. Homosexual women were more likely than heterosexual women to describe their relationships with their mothers as negative, and to have detached or hostile fathers, but only the latter factor seemed significant. In both sexes, but especially in men, homosexuality was connected to "Childhood Gender Nonconformity", which was a measure partly of behavior more typical of the opposite sex and partly of subjective feelings of

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unambiguously, instead of simply suggesting, that homosexuality is innate, and maintained that as social scientists, they could not properly assess research on biological influences on homosexuality. Smith considered the study useful for its challenge to established views about the causes of homosexuality. However, he was unconvinced by its conclusion that homosexuality has a biological basis and found its account of the subject remote from real experience. Smith argued that while Bell

1133:, that biological factors have at most only a predisposing influence on the development of sexual orientation. Using their subject pool, which consisted of people interviewed between 1938 and 1963, they produced similar results. However they suggested that some significant differences could have been partly a result of the different methodology employed. In their view, the most important difference was that their outcome variable was based only on "overt behavior" whereas that of Bell 429:, did not seem to be important, and neither did parental attitudes toward sex. Respondents' opportunities to engage in sex with persons of the opposite or the same sex did not seem to be an important influence on the sexual preference they developed, and sexual experiences with persons of both the same and the opposite sex were common among both homosexuals and heterosexuals. Sexual feelings appeared to be more important than sexual behavior as an indicator of adult sexual preference. 967: 376:, they noted that many of the variables used in their statistical analyses pertained to "experiences occurring outside our respondents′ original households", including relationships with peers, labeling by others, and sexual experiences. They added that it was not easy to answer objections to the use of retrospective data, given the unresolved issue of how accurate their respondents′ recollections of childhood were, and that even a 987:

theories, which he considered already discredited by professionals. While he nevertheless believed that they had rendered a valuable service by showing that psychoanalytic theories are unsupported, he rejected their argument that since psychoanalytic ideas are incorrect the origins of sexual orientation must be genetic and hormonal, noting that in order to draw that conclusion they had to ignore the work of sex researchers such as

1683:, like the Kinsey scale, places "too much emphasis upon discrete acts of sex and not enough stress upon the cultural context and total developmental outcomes to which those acts are related." He called the study a "quantitative sociological" survey of homosexuality that decontextualizes "the culture and lives at issue", arguing that all developmental changes need to be viewed in the context of social structure. Stein described 953:, sociological models that emphasize the importance of peer relationships, and labeling theory. However, while he accepted their claim that their study was methodologically superior to prior work on homosexuals, he still found it problematic for many reasons and hesitated to endorse its conclusions. In his view, the path analysis involved "arbitrary classification and sequencing of variables". Weinrich wrote that while Bell 1251:′s finding that gay men and lesbians were significantly more likely to recall having felt different from same-sex children during the grade-school years, and to other studies that drew similar conclusions. He maintained that Bell's view that people become erotically attracted to those who are different from them out of a "quest for androgyny" does not accurately characterize or explain the data, and rejected Bell 778:, suggesting that respondents' answers to the vague and general questions employed in the study might reflect a subsequent reconstruction of events rather than an accurate recall of childhood. He also criticized their decision to group together "the respondents' observations relating to certain behaviors and attitudes", and their failure to provide new biological evidence. Ignatieff wrote that even if Bell 1711:′s sample "considerably more homosexual males reported fathers who were detached or not affectionate than did heterosexual men", and concluded that, "While clearly not providing definitive support for the psychoanalytic hypothesis, this study is surely not the refutation of that hypothesis that it is sometimes supposed to be." The historian Laurie Guy observed that the type of evidence on which 1003:

were "vague" and "open-ended", and that its authors had an "arbitrary and rigid conception" of what could be done with their data, lacked "theoretical development" in its handling, and deliberately minimized the importance of the predictor variables they used to test psychoanalytic and other theories. He found their conclusion that sexual orientation has a biological basis unconvincing.

1364:′s data was collected in 1969 and 1970, prior to the "growth of the modern gay movement and the development of the macho style among gay men", and criticized them for confusing "social roles with what is inborn", thereby underestimating the extent to which masculinity and femininity are social constructs. The psychologist William Paul and the sex researcher Weinrich maintained that 425:

Homosexual activity involving genital contact in childhood was connected to adult homosexuality, though only weakly; homosexual arousal during childhood or adolescence was a stronger predictor of adult homosexuality. Heterosexual arousal during childhood was a moderate predictor of adult heterosexuality. Phenomena associated with sexual maturation, such as the age of first

995:, and replacing inductive with deductive methods. In the same issue, they replied to Tripp, accusing him of misrepresenting their data analysis and their conclusions and making "ridiculous criticisms" of the scientific method they had employed. Tripp responded in a later issue, accusing them of making personal attacks, and attempting to refute them on specific points. 865:

basis. He described their path analysis approach as a "complex theoretical model", and predicted that it would be a long time before it and its associated data could be "tested by the scientific community." Nevertheless, he considered the approach open to question, arguing that it was doubtful whether causal models could explain the development of sexual preference.

1109:′s data were of poor quality, since too few questions about parental behavior had been asked and open-ended questions yielded superficial answers, and that it was unjustified to conclude that parents must have only a small influence on the development of their children's sexual orientation simply because that influence did not reveal itself clearly. He accused Bell 938:

did not provide the data to resolve this issue. Although he considered it regrettable that it took them more than a decade to publish their analysis of their study's data, and believed it was "directed more toward the lay reader than to the professional community", he found their work valuable for its exploration of the possible biological basis of homosexuality.

1014:, writing that while their authors presented them as definitive, they suffered from the "theoretical blindness" that has dominated research on homosexuality in the United States since the early 1970s. He contrasted Bell and Weinberg's work unfavorably with that of European thinkers whom he credited with "provocative theoretical speculations": the philosophers 1293:

researchers saw the results of their own subanalyses, which made it clear that the bisexual respondents were not only very different from their exclusively homosexual counterparts but actually were more like the heterosexual respondents in theoretically critical ways." He argued that by grouping together the bisexuals and homosexuals Bell

1448:, to have found strained relationships between fathers and homosexual sons. He added that an unresolved question in such studies is what percent of heterosexuals give answers more typical of homosexuals and what percent of homosexuals give answers more typical of heterosexuals, and that such "contradictory" outcomes require explanation. 609:, which ranges from 'exclusively heterosexual' (a score of 0) to 'exclusively homosexual' (a score of 6). Respondents' sexual feelings scores were then averaged with their sexual behaviors scores. Those with a combined score of 2 or more were classified as homosexual; those with a combined score of less than 2, heterosexual." 1472:′s claim that path analysis made it possible to give each influence on homosexuality a particular weight at a particular time of childhood development unlikely, since retrospective methods cannot be converted to prospective methods. He wrote that the meaning of data depends on the models used to interpret them, and that Bell 782:′s conclusion that family upbringing and factors such as labeling have little measurable effect on adult sexual orientation was correct it would not justify their additional claim that homosexuality is biologically innate, and that they had not resolved the question of how responsible people are for their sexual orientation. 774:

on a biological predisposition was controversial. He criticized their use of path analysis, arguing that it over-emphasized differences between heterosexual and homosexual patterns of development. He also wrote that their reliance on adult recall of early childhood feeling was inconsistent with all recent research on

1314:′s suggestion that biological factors have a stronger influence on exclusive homosexuality than they have on bisexuality may seem plausible, it has not been directly tested and appears to conflict with available evidence, such as that concerning prenatal hormone exposure. The psychologist Bruce Rind credited Bell 1539:

as especially significant since their study was published in 1981 and had a large diverse sample. He argued that their finding that recalled patterns of relationships with mother and father predicted homosexual preferences during adolescence, but not the likelihood of being primarily homosexual as an

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of admitting the limitations of path analysis only to then ignore those limitations, arguing that the technique had "numerous dubious premises" and that they used it in a way that was open to technical objections such as its failure to "distinguish between different types of psychodynamic development

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had a "more than adequate sample size", the sample had at times been broken down into smaller groups, and some of their conclusions about those groups had to be considered tentative. Weinrich concluded that they effectively challenged environmental theories of sexual orientation, and that attempts by

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had "paternal variables" that were consistent with what clinicians had considered typical of homosexual males. Among whites, gender nonconformity appeared to be important in the development of homosexuality among masculine homosexual women, but not among homosexual women who were not masculine, while

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suggested that for effeminate males early homosexual feelings were the only important predictor of adult homosexuality, while other males were influenced by a combination of homosexual feelings and other factors. They found that sexual preference was much less strongly connected with pre-adult sexual

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They considered their sample of homosexual adults more representative than those used in previous studies, and argued that examining blacks separately from whites, and men separately from women, helped them to determine the extent to which patterns of homosexual and heterosexual development depend on

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as a "classic study". They maintained that its data, including its finding that "detached-hostile father" is relatively characteristic of a majority of the white homosexual men in their study and a minority of white heterosexual men, are consistent with those of previous clinical research, including

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were aware that their work would be criticized on methodological grounds, and that they carefully addressed potential criticisms. He suggested that media reports had distorted their views about the possibility than homosexuality has a biological basis, writing that they acknowledged that their study

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and sexual molestation did not appear to be significant in the development of homosexuality. Heterosexual arousal during childhood had a very small effect on adult sexual preference. Homosexual women were more likely to have their first homosexual encounter before their first heterosexual encounter.

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Homosexual women were more likely to describe their relationships with their mothers as negative, and their mothers as having been hostile or rejecting. These measures were combined into a single measure, "Hostile-Rejecting Mother", which appeared to have only minimal influence on the development of

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concluded that male homosexuality is not the "result of an unusually strong maternal identification", and that mothers have only a small influence on their sons′ psychosexual development. Homosexual men were less likely to give positive descriptions of their fathers, but more likely to have negative

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adult, could be explained by the fact that only some of those willing to engage in homosexual sex during their earlier years are able to do so as they leave adolescence, which might make it more difficult to find correlations between early parent-child relationships and "later overt homosexuality."

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with helping to support the idea that adult sexual preference has a biological basis, and with showing that a biological basis for homosexuality probably accounts for gender nonconformity as well as sexual orientation. He endorsed their view that the unfavorable relationships homosexual men tend to

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engaged in "an unfortunate dichotomization of the dependent variable, sexual orientation ... grouping the bisexual and homosexual respondents into the same category." In his view, while this procedure "might have seemed reasonable on a priori grounds ... it should have been abandoned as soon as the

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would likely be seen as "a shock and a disappointment", since its authors abandoned or misrepresented many of Kinsey's methods and conclusions. He criticized them for ignoring Kinsey's warning to make careful observations and "avoid theory", and for attempting to test the validity of psychoanalytic

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a politically motivated study that would inevitably be received as a political and moral statement. He noted that its authors' conclusion that the lack of correlation between sexual orientation and early family experience means that the development of heterosexuality and homosexuality must be based

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helped suggest "the likely worth of ideas", but that given its shortcomings there was no way in which its authors could definitively resolve the issues they explored, despite their claim to "once and for all" discredit some ideas about homosexuality. He wrote that the study employed questions that

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was likely to cause controversy because of its findings and its reliance on path analysis and its subjects' memories. Brody noted that path analysis could be misused and that it "can only explore existing notions, not create new ones." According to Brody, Bell said that he expected the study to be

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theories exaggerate the role of parents in the development of their sons' sexual orientation, and that the psychoanalytic model that attributes male homosexuality to dominant mothers and weak fathers is inadequate. They found the idea that "cold, detached" fathers and poor father-son relationships

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suggested that this finding could show that black males became homosexual due to their early homosexual activities, which was consistent with a learning theory interpretation, but that alternatively it might reflect "the freer sexual attitude of the black community", which could have allowed their

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carefully explored the evidence for the aetiology of homosexuality, unlike Kinsey they failed to consider that homosexuality might not be a single phenomenon with a single explanation. He criticized them for concluding that if a social or psychological explanation of homosexuality cannot be found

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for using a sophisticated methodology and trying to avoid "poorly designed measures and biased interpretation of data". Nevertheless, she found their methodology and interpretation of data open to question, writing that although their San Francisco Bay Area sample was arguably non-representative,

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with distancing themselves from medical and psychiatric hostility to homosexuality, but criticized them for failing to conclude that searching for causes of homosexuality is misconceived. He believed that the media had wrongly interpreted their study as showing that homosexuality has a biological

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noted that failure to identify with the father might encourage effeminacy, but that it was also possible that boys who were effeminate for other reasons might find it difficult to identify with their fathers. Pre-adult homosexual behavior was more important among men who were not effeminate. Bell

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noted, however, that childhood gender nonconformity did not seem to have been important in the way proposed by psychoanalytic theory, in that it was not a crucial link between family influences and their respondents' sense of womanhood, and nor was it explained by relationships within the family.

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Few female respondents reported engaging in sex play with their siblings, and it seemed to have no role in the development of sexual preference. Homosexual women were less likely to report having enjoyed typical girls' activities, but more likely to report having enjoyed typical boys' activities,

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had "modest total effects". Boys who felt sexually different were more likely to become homosexual as adults, whether they began to feel that way during childhood or adolescence. While homosexual men were more likely to have been labeled sexually different or homosexual before the age of 19, this

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and to see themselves as having been very masculine while growing up, but more likely to report having enjoyed stereotypical girls' activities. Three variables (dislike of typical boys' activities, enjoying typical girls' activities, and feelings of masculinity or femininity) were combined into a

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for its authors' challenge to established views about the causes of homosexuality, and it eventually came to be considered a classic work. It is one of the most frequently cited retrospective studies relating to sexual orientation, credited by psychologists with disproving psychoanalytic theories

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attempted to test explanations of sexual orientation put forward by psychoanalysts and social scientists. They found that while homosexual men were more likely than heterosexual men to have felt especially close to their mothers, this had almost no effect on the development of male homosexuality.

1512:′s conclusion that Freudian explanations of homosexuality confuse the direction of cause and effect and that the cold and distant relationships gay men report having with their fathers are a result of parental reactions to effeminate or sensitive sons. However, he noted that the accuracy of Bell 314:

may be subject to influence by social and sexual learning, the development of heterosexuality and homosexuality may have a biological basis, possibly influenced by hormonal factors. They hoped that demonstrating a biological basis to homosexuality would have beneficial effects such as increasing

1360:′s conclusion that there is a powerful link between gender nonconformity and the development of homosexuality depended on the memories of their respondents, who were likely to have been influenced by social expectations about how homosexuals should conform to gender roles. He observed that Bell 619:

The study's data were derived from interviews conducted in 1969 and 1970 with "979 homosexual and 477 heterosexual men and women living in the San Francisco Bay Area." Homosexuals were recruited from a variety of locations while heterosexuals were obtained through random sampling. The interview

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wrote that the study had received media attention for its findings that sexual orientation is not determined by parenting and may have a biological basis. It described it as "the major report on homosexuality in 1981", and noted that for budgetary reasons it was likely to be the last report on

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The results for black men were in general the same as those for white men, except that while the "Identification with Father" variable had some significance for white men, it had none for black men, and whereas for white men pre-adult sexual feelings were important in the development of adult

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recruited heterosexuals and homosexuals through non-comparable methods, and that while it is unknown how this and the retrospective nature of their data affected their findings, "they may have exaggerated the extent of true differences between heterosexual and homosexual respondents." Peplau

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Futuym wrote that the book had received attention from the media because of its authors' suggestion that homosexuality may have biological causes. However, he believed that they failed to demonstrate this and that other aspects of the book were more important. He noted that it was subject to

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with disproving mistaken ideas about the causes of homosexuality and described it as a "massively impressive achievement". However, he criticized the authors for their use of the term "sexual preference" and for failing to define "homosexuality". He also believed that they should have stated

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would have been open to question. They observed that some gay rights activists might object to their study on principle, and suspect that they wanted to find a way to prevent homosexuality. However, they argued that ideas about the development of homosexuality contribute to prejudice against

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had employed, they did use "questions directed at the same concerns." He noted that their data regarding subjects′ negative feelings toward and relationships with their fathers were based on open-ended interview questions, adding that it would have been preferable had they employed the same

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Homosexual men tended to have had their first homosexual encounter at a younger age, and were more likely to have their first encounters with friends or acquaintances rather than strangers. The data did not support the idea that homosexual males are likely to have been seduced by older men.

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found that homosexual men were more likely than heterosexual men to have felt especially close to their mothers. Male respondents who were unusually close to their mothers were more likely to describe themselves as having been feminine children, but only a minority of boys with this kind of

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as one of the most detailed and frequently cited retrospective studies relating to sexual orientation. In his view, while the study has been criticized on various grounds, including that all of its subjects were living in San Francisco, arguably an atypical place with respect to the sexual

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with providing evidence that "childhood gender nonconformity is a good predictor of both male and female homosexuality". He also believed that they showed that boys are not more likely to become homosexual the more adult siblings they have, and provided evidence against the idea that adult

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maintained that since most of their heterosexual respondents were exclusively heterosexual, and most of their homosexual respondents predominantly or exclusively homosexual, the classification of respondents into heterosexuals and homosexuals represented "a natural division".

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began, did not appear to play a significant role in the development of sexual preference, while parental attitudes toward sex and failure to enjoy early heterosexual activity also seemed unimportant. Sexual feelings seemed important in the development of adult homosexuality.

1075:′s conclusion that childhood gender nonconformity and adult sexual orientation have a biological basis is a legitimate hypothesis, but one that it is not confirmed by their failure to find a direct connection between sexual orientation and parent-child interaction. 442:

such as football, and to describe themselves as having been very masculine while they were growing up. These and other variables were combined into a "Childhood Gender Nonconformity" measure, which proved to be the second strongest predictor of homosexuality. Bell

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and its statistical appendix. He also suspected that they had relied on dubious information from heterosexuals about the sexual orientation of their siblings, and considered their review of evidence on the possible biological basis of homosexuality inadequate.

930:. Criticisms made of the work included that its authors' conclusions were based on an unrepresentative or dubiously representative sample of homosexuals, and that their reliance on path analysis and adult recall of early childhood feeling was problematic. 364:

conflicts. In their view, theories about the origins of sexual orientation had usually not been rigorously tested prior to their study, partly because some of them, including those advanced by psychoanalysts, use concepts which are hard to "pin down and

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feelings toward their fathers, to dislike, hate, or fail to feel close to them, or to consider them hostile or detached. They were also more likely to feel more similar to their mothers than to their fathers, or to prefer to be like their mothers. Bell

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critics to dismiss their conclusions about such theories were unsuccessful. He based this conclusion partly on personal communication with Hammersmith, however, noting that they did not explain their procedures for verifying their findings well in

1508:′s findings about the parental backgrounds of heterosexuals and homosexuals were "slanted in the way a Freudian would expect", adding that many other studies have pointed to very similar conclusions. Ruse argued that there is much to support Bell 1185:

were mistaken to conclude that, because such theories are incorrect, sexual orientation must be innate. He accused them of being motivated by "a misguided compassion for homosexuals", arguing that such compassion is actually a form of arrogance.

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to homosexuality". He considered them mistaken to treat their variables as isolated items, rather than in combination with each other. He also found the studies they cited as evidence that homosexuality might have a hormonal basis unconvincing.

766:"seems destined for academic oblivion." Halgin wrote that the book would be considered a landmark publication in sexology, and was more scientifically rigorous than most research in the field, but that it was also likely to create controversy. 1496:

with showing that "almost all the alleged causes of adult sexual orientation are either nonexistent or highly exaggerated", but considered their claim that they had refuted psychoanalytic theories that attribute homosexuality to an unresolved

1297:"reduced many of the correlations and increased the likelihood that important antecedent variables would be erroneously eliminated during the recursive process of discarding the weaker correlates from successive iterations of the path model." 511:

Exclusively homosexual white men tended to report that they had not identified with their fathers, but there was no significant tendency for white bisexual men not to identify with their fathers. Only white homosexual men who had undergone

1692:′s conclusions about theories attributing sexual orientation to the effects of experience have been accepted and confirmed. He observed that many other studies have been conducted on childhood gender nonconformity partly because of Bell 846:′s path analysis suggested that various variables cause one another, this was "an illusion created by statistical manipulation", and concluded that their category of "Gender Nonconformity" was a construct created by the researchers. 1155: 360:′s objective was to test the explanations of how people become heterosexual or homosexual proposed by psychoanalysts and social scientists, including psychoanalytic theories attributing homosexuality to a failure to resolve 1516:′s findings is open to doubt for many reasons: their subjects could have been unwittingly giving them the answers they wanted to hear, failed to remember accurately, or suppressed painful childhood memories. The ethologist 1226:′s earlier study. He rejected their claim that their study supports a biological explanation of sexual orientation. He wrote that since their study, research into the "social causes of homosexuality" has become "moribund." 1707:′s data suggest that mothers have only a weak influence on the development of homosexuality their work is "sometimes thought of as the study that discredited the psychoanalytic theory." However, they observed that in Bell 596:. Bell wrote that in the study he had "borrowed heavily from the psychodynamic view of sexual development", while his sociologist co-authors had ensured that the study's data could be used to evaluate conditioning and 1034:. Bell wrote that he was astonished by his finding that "parent-child relationships" are less influential in the development of sexual orientation than has often been thought. He related his findings to the theme of 1491:

took into account whether their respondents had been exposed to books or articles about the etiology of homosexuality, and disregarded results when they could be explained by such exposure. Johnson credited Bell

1141:"excluded from their model variables that did not apply to everyone in their sample", which made it impossible to judge the effects of "idiosyncratic and unique sexual and nonsexual experiences". The philosopher 410:

Few male respondents had engaged in childhood sex play, and it did not seem to be important in the development of homosexuality. Homosexual men were less likely to report having enjoyed boys' activities such as

1247:", according to which children feel different from either their same-sex peers or opposite-sex peers and therefore eroticize them, leading to homosexuality and heterosexuality respectively. He referred to Bell 381:

homosexuals, and that so long as heterosexuals accepted largely untested theories that see homosexuality as the result of a bad upbringing, their negative attitudes toward homosexuals would never change.

1628:

deliberately minimized the "observed significant effects" shown by their study, though they noted that this was also in part an objective interpretation of weak effects. They wrote that prior to Bell

276: 1734:, abandoned Kinsey's understanding of human sexuality by focusing on homosexual people rather than homosexual behavior and rejecting the idea that categorizing people as homosexual was problematic. 3642:

Paul, William; Weinrich, James D. (1982). "Whom and What We Study: Definition and Scope of Sexual Orientation". In Paul, William; Weinrich, James D.; Gonsiorek, John C.; Hotvedt, Mary E. (eds.).

494:

Different kinds of homosexuals were compared. The "Identification with Father" variable appeared to be important in the development of homosexuality among effeminate white homosexual men. Bell

1616:

must be understood in the context of sexual politics. They suggested that because homosexuality had been delisted as a mental disorder for eight years by the time the book was published, Bell

1620:

faced a problem if their data "showed a departure from an ideal of optimal functioning in homosexual men". They argued that, because of their concern for homosexuals, and also influenced by

740:

to be a "superb" book that answered the question of how people become heterosexual or homosexual better than any previous study, disqualified most previous answers, and was comparable to

450:

Homosexual arousal in childhood appeared to predict adult homosexuality, while homosexual activities and arousal during adolescence had a very strong connection with adult homosexuality.

729:. The work was faulted for the questionable representativeness of its sample of homosexuals, but those who reviewed it positively praised it for the sophistication of its path analysis. 1723:, writing that while important, it was only one study, and as such did not support gay rights activist claims that "all evidence" shows that sexual orientation is fixed early in life. 1575:, maintain that "homosexual desire, identity, and persons exist as real in some form, in different cultures and historical eras". Gonsiorek and Douglas C. Haldeman both credited Bell 1563:′s data undermine the hypothesis that a person's sexual orientation is determined by the sex of the first person he or she has sex with. Gonsiorek and Weinrich maintained that Bell 1417:

then a biological explanation must exist, deeming the argument "a rhetorical device" that results in "an intellectual closure which obstructs further questioning." The sociologists

1608:′s study. They wrote that the psychoanalytic perspective that views homosexuality as a mental disorder and explains it in terms of family dynamics influenced the way in which Bell 1392:

was probably the most extensive study of homosexuality and maintained that it provided no support for Bieber's theory of homosexuality. Daniel Rancour-Laferriere credited Bell

258:, sometimes rejecting entirely the factors proposed as causes, and in other cases concluding that their importance had been exaggerated. Produced with the help of the American 504:

feelings for white bisexual men than it was for white homosexual men. They concluded that exclusive homosexuality tends to emerge from a "deep-seated predisposition" but that

474:

black respondents to act on their sexual inclinations at an earlier age than their white respondents. The findings for black women were very similar to those for white women.

4647:

Weinrich, James D. (1982). "Book Review: Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women and Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women. Statistical Appendix".

620:

schedule included approximately 200 questions. Most offered respondents a limited number of possible answers, though some allowed respondents to answer as they wished. Bell

3448:

Haldeman, Douglas C. (1991). "Sexual Orientation Conversion Therapy for Gay Men and Lesbians: A Scientific Examination". In Gonsiorek, John C.; Weinrich, James D. (eds.).

1636:

recognized that "the direction of effects" was a "problematic aspect of their research design". In their view, resolving the "direction-of-effects issue" raised by Bell

1524:′s conclusion that "pure homosexuals can scarcely be modified by their environment whereas bisexuals are accessible with social learning" as an example of this process. 4551:

Tripp, Clarence (1982b). "Tripp's Answer to Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith's Objections to his Review of their Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women".

1640:

through retrospective studies comparing homosexual with heterosexual men will be difficult, and that until then the issue will remain "a matter of theoretical taste."

1181:

had no independent theoretical basis because it was conceived as an attempt to disprove theories viewing homosexuality as a mental or social pathology, and that Bell

1632:′s study, researchers were aware that phenomena usually interpreted as parents influencing their children could be interpreted instead as the reverse, and that Bell 282: 1376:

collected their data in 1969, they may have missed "cultural developments in the gay younger generation of the late 1960s and early 1970s." The gynecologist

4825: 1567:′s view that sexual orientation is set by early childhood is also held by most other experts on the topic, including Green and Money. They described Bell 1318:

with disproving psychoanalytic theories about the development of homosexuality, along with the idea that childhood seduction causes homosexuality, in the

3354:

Gonsiorek, John C. (1991). "The Empirical Basis for the Demise of the Illness Model of Homosexuality". In Gonsiorek, John C.; Weinrich, James D. (eds.).

3884:

Yarhouse, Mark (2006). "How Spitzer's Study Gives a Voice to the Disenfranchised Within a Minority Group". In Drescher, Jack; Zucker, Kenneth (eds.).

4706: 4119: 1412:

had an "urge to fill a conceptual gap" stronger than their "adherence to theoretical consistency and political judgment". He wrote that while Bell

1715:

relied, adult recollection of childhood, had been criticized by Gagnon and Simon as long ago as 1973. He argued that gay rights organizations in

1368:

documented social diversity well and was the largest study conducted specifically on homosexuality, but that it was limited by the problems Bell

1468:

were "in basic agreement with regard to childhood gender identity / gender role abnormalities in pre-homosexual children." He considered Bell

407:

concluded that, "Unfavorable relationships with fathers" have a weak connection to "gender nonconformity and early homosexual experiences".

330:, disputed the representativeness of their sample of homosexuals, pointed out the difficulty and potential unreliability of adult recall of 250:

and Sue Kiefer Hammersmith, in which the authors reevaluate what were at the time of its publication widely held ideas about the origins of

3945: 1340: 1338:

as a "landmark study" that "seemingly disposed of the idea that homosexuality resulted from the quality of parent-child relationships" in

736:

might have misidentified gender nonconformity as a cause of homosexuality, rather than as one of its expressions, but nevertheless found

4932: 3717:

Rind, Bruce (2006). "Sexual Orientation Change and Informed Consent in Reparative Therapy". In Drescher, Jack; Zucker, Kenneth (eds.).

4803: 1821: 1244: 3786:

Stein, Edward (1992). "Conclusion: The Essentials of Constructionism and the Construction of Essentialism". In Stein, Edward (ed.).

4947: 4927: 1397:

have with their fathers could be as likely to result from "the homosexual predisposition" of the child as the father's behavior.

991:. He also accused them of citing low quality and unreplicated hormone studies, ignoring evidence relating homosexuality to early 3164:

Allen, Judith A.; Allinson, Hallimeda E.; Clark-Huckstep, Andrew; Hill, Brandon J.; Sanders, Stephanie A.; Zhou, Liana (2017).

1777: 3920: 3897: 3849: 3826: 3801: 3776: 3730: 3707: 3684: 3657: 3632: 3605: 3582: 3507: 3484: 3461: 3438: 3415: 3390: 3367: 3294: 3271: 3248: 3225: 3200: 834:

it received a note from the editor and mixed reviews from the biologist Doug Futuym and the social scientist Richard Wagner.

4597:

Van Wyk, Paul H.; Geist, Chrisann S. (1984). "Psychosocial Development of Heterosexual, Bisexual, and Homosexual Behavior".

4574:

van den Aardweg, Gerard J. M. (1984). "Parents of Homosexuals--Not Guilty? Interpretation of Childhood Psychological Data".

4917: 1784: 343:

about the development of homosexuality. It was the last study on homosexuality released by the Institute for Sex Research.

1237:

with providing the most important data concerning "experience-based theories" of the development of sexual orientation in

4907: 565: 259: 4758: 4323:

Hoult, Thomas Ford (1984). "Human Sexuality in Biological Perspective: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations".

3874: 3753: 3557: 3344: 3317: 3177: 1811: 1743: 1647:

as an important study of homosexuality, adding that despite its limitations and flaws, it, like the Kinsey Reports and

1520:

stated that modern medicine was rejecting psychoanalytic theories about the origins of homosexuality, pointing to Bell

125: 1750:

and other authors with discrediting theories claiming that sexual orientation is caused by family dynamics or trauma.

752:

with documenting the "intellectual poverty" of psychoanalytic hypotheses about homosexuality. He lamented that unlike

719:, which focused on the controversy surrounding the book. The following year, the book received a negative review from 4664: 4576: 3534: 1651:, should be considered a useful part of a scientific process of "measuring the adequacy of hypotheses and evidence". 1101: 715: 225: 4728: 4922: 4902: 4858: 4649: 898: 4912: 4084: 3526: 1806: 1720: 1551:

as a "pathbreaking study" which shows that parents are not "to blame for their 'sexually messed up' children".

878: 687:

attracted considerable media attention in 1981, receiving positive reviews from the historian Paul Robinson in

1284:′s data does not support Bem's hypothesis. Bem, in a defense of his hypothesis published in the same issue of 4833: 4449: 4310: 1791: 1306: 1161: 818: 4687: 4638: 4222: 1746:, in "Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation", a document released in 2009, credited Bell 1092: 830: 310:

concluded that psychoanalytic explanations of sexual orientation are inadequate. They suggested that while

4051:

Bem, Daryl (1998). "Is EBE Theory Supported by the Evidence? Is It Andocentric? A Reply to Peplau et al".

334:

feeling and the vague and general nature of the questions respondents were asked, and disagreed with Bell

326:′s reliance upon a statistical technique, originally developed for use in the biological sciences, called 4599: 4480: 4377:

Peplau, Letitia Anne (1998). "A Critique of Bem's "Exotic Becomes Erotic" Theory of Sexual Orientation".

3978: 3886:

Ex-Gay Research: Analyzing the Spitzer Study and Its Relation to Science, Religion, Politics, and Culture

3745: 3719:

Ex-Gay Research: Analyzing the Spitzer Study and Its Relation to Science, Religion, Politics, and Culture

3499: 1031: 824: 589: 581: 4233: 3866: 1433: 1052: 327: 1517: 797:

resulted from "the most ambitious study of male homosexuality ever attempted", and that together with

4937: 3624: 3597: 3430: 4942: 4499: 4325: 4293:

Hammersmith, Sue Kiefer; Bell, Alan P.; Weinberg, Martin S. (1982). "A Comment on Tripp's Review".

4158:

DeCecco, John P. (1987). "Homosexuality's brief recovery: From sickness to health and back again".

3699: 3676: 3263: 3169: 2401: 1067: 632: 537: 75: 4497:

Suppe, Frederick (1994). "Explaining Homosexuality: Philosophical Issues, and Who Cares Anyhow?".

4750: 4553: 4530: 4295: 4160: 4137: 3818: 1206: 908: 675:

and the reliability and validity of relying on recollections of childhood, and the psychoanalyst

564:(1978), both authored jointly by Bell and Weinberg. The study was supported by the United States 744:'s best work. He maintained that their study's empirical foundation and path analysis gave Bell 4781: 4776: 4418: 4082:

Davidson, J. Kenneth; Sr (1982). "Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women (Book)".

3862:

Male Homosexuality in Four Societies: Brazil, Guatemala, the Philippines, and the United States

1572: 950: 918: 725: 290: 1579:

with disproving psychoanalytic theories about the development of homosexuality. The economist

372:

Aware that some scholars might reject any view of the development of homosexuality resembling

4113: 3889: 3722: 3574: 3476: 3407: 3336: 1621: 971: 903: 469:

homosexuality, childhood and adolescent sexual activities were important for black men. Bell

373: 4379: 4231:

Gillespie, Cheryl L. (1983). "Sexual preference: Its development in men and women (Book)".

4053: 4030: 3240: 1239: 1126: 338:′s suggestion that sexual orientation is innate. Nevertheless, some reviewers complimented 4416:

Reiss, Ira L. (1982). "Book Review: Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women".

4028:

Bem, Daryl (1996). "Exotic Becomes Erotic: A Developmental Theory of Sexual Orientation".

1659:

was the most important book on sexuality published in the early 1980s. He wrote that Bell

1372:

encountered in trying to obtain a representative sample. They suggested that because Bell

8: 4356: 3860: 3643: 3568: 3401: 3309: 1460:

maintained that despite the differing perspectives of their authors, the studies by Bell

1457: 1418: 1381: 1084: 486:

rejected many accepted ideas about the development of homosexuality. They concluded that

4528:

Tripp, Clarence (1982a). "Review: Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women".

1408:

and others who have attempted to find a biological explanation for social behavior Bell

4850: 4808: 4733: 4711: 4624: 4466: 4435: 4404: 4250: 4101: 4003: 3812: 3669: 3617: 3549: 1404:

as "the Kinsey Institute's final publication on homosexuality". He suggested that like

668: 658: 605:"Respondents were asked to rate their sexual feelings and behaviors on the seven-point 569: 377: 366: 247: 239: 165: 146: 65: 46: 1125:

question a scientific consensus, established by researchers such as the psychologists

4842: 4616: 4516: 4470: 4396: 4342: 4208: 4191: 4070: 4007: 3995: 3964: 3916: 3893: 3870: 3845: 3822: 3797: 3787: 3772: 3749: 3726: 3703: 3680: 3653: 3628: 3601: 3578: 3553: 3530: 3519: 3503: 3480: 3457: 3434: 3411: 3386: 3363: 3340: 3329: 3313: 3290: 3267: 3244: 3221: 3211: 3196: 3173: 1480: 1385: 1331: 893: 888: 720: 220: 120: 4854: 4628: 4408: 3283: 2130: 1476:′s models differ from those accepted by "psychodynamically oriented investigators." 4608: 4562: 4539: 4508: 4458: 4427: 4388: 4334: 4242: 4200: 4169: 4146: 4093: 4062: 4039: 3987: 3954: 3123: 2190: 2058: 2022: 1027: 689: 577: 573: 289:

Using data derived from interviews conducted in 1969 and 1970 with subjects in the

263: 175: 4204: 1986: 1137:"is an average of subjective preference and overt behavior." They noted that Bell 322:

received considerable media attention, and mixed reviews. Critics questioned Bell

4272: 3768: 3649: 3453: 3382: 3359: 3217: 2478: 2476: 1816: 1498: 1377: 1330:

relies on retrospective memory recall, which can be unreliable. The psychologist

1190: 1019: 1015: 790: 695: 597: 361: 251: 4392: 4066: 4043: 3570:

After the Ball: How America Will Conquer its Fear and Hatred of Gays in the '90s

1962: 421:

apparently played no significant role in the development of sexual orientation.

4447:

Ruse, Michael (1986). "Grünbaum on psychoanalysis: Where do we go from here?".

4354:

Marecek, Jeanne (1984). "Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women".

3912: 3814:

The Mismeasure of Desire: The Science, Theory, and Ethics of Sexual Orientation

2070: 1938: 1592: 1580: 988: 883: 754: 533: 529: 487: 4566: 4543: 4462: 4173: 4150: 3976:

Bell, Alan P. (1975). "Research in Homosexuality: Back to the Drawing Board".

3909:

Gender Identity Disorder and Psychosexual Problems in Children and Adolescents

3789:

Forms of Desire: Sexual Orientation and the Social Constructionist Controversy

2473: 4896: 4135:

DeCecco, John P. (1982). "Reviews and Abstracts: Theories of Homosexuality".

3959: 3940: 1676: 1652: 1596: 1544: 1353: 1267:

wrote in a critique of Bem's "exotic becomes erotic" hypothesis published in

741: 676: 525: 513: 255: 3306:

Sexual Images of the Self: The Psychology of Erotic Sensations and Illusions

1950: 4884: 4846: 4212: 3968: 3192: 2955: 2046: 1926: 1664: 1405: 1142: 606: 593: 456: 243: 142: 42: 4620: 4520: 4512: 4400: 4346: 4338: 4074: 3999: 3546:

Homosexuality: The Use of Scientific Research in the Church's Moral Debate

2619: 2214: 2202: 2178: 2166: 2154: 2118: 2082: 2010: 1998: 1902: 949:′s "eclectic theoretical basis", which drew from the psychodynamic model, 2691: 2301: 1974: 1770: 1719:

over-relied upon the work in the debate that preceded the passage of the

1716: 1422: 1023: 700: 636: 585: 505: 426: 417: 311: 299: 4478:

Smith, George (1981). "Sexual Preference: Their statistics, our lives".

2289: 2267: 2265: 455:

Phenomena associated with physical maturation, such as the age at which

4612: 4439: 3991: 1536: 1130: 306:. Sexual abuse and labeling by others played no significant role. Bell 303: 4254: 4105: 3838:

Sexuality and Its Discontents: Meanings, Myths, and Modern Sexualities

3592:

Masters, William H.; Johnson, Virginia E.; Kolodny, Robert C. (1985).

2142: 2106: 2094: 2034: 1842: 1588:

homosexuality results from seduction or early homosexual experiences.

801:

it helped to "refuted a large number of previous studies" identifying

667:

condemned by both "radical gays" and psychoanalysts, the psychologist

3841: 3793: 2859: 2262: 1890: 1878: 1866: 1854: 1737: 1230: 1117:

The psychologists Paul H. Van Wyk and Chrisann S. Geist wrote in the

1035: 966: 913: 641:

Der Kinsey Institut Report über sexuelle Orientierung und Partnerwahl

331: 204: 104: 4431: 3258:

Bell, Alan P.; Weinberg, Martin S.; Hammersmith, Sue Kiefer (1981).

2991: 2847: 2277: 1914: 748:′s findings "unprecedented trustworthiness". Robinson credited Bell 28: 4246: 4097: 3099: 709: 412: 318:

Seen as likely to provoke controversy even before its publication,

3696:

Signs of the Flesh: An Essay on the Evolution of Hominid Sexuality

2679: 4661: 2907: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2407: 1258: 992: 802: 3039: 876:

received a positive review from J. Kenneth Davidson, Sr. in the

580:. Persons assisting the study included the gay rights activists 3163: 3129: 2919: 1699:

The psychologists Stanton L. Jones and Mark Yarhouse described

775: 614:

Alan P. Bell, Martin S. Weinberg, Sue Kiefer Hammersmith, 1981.

3027: 2943: 2883: 2538: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2361: 2359: 2346: 2344: 2342: 2340: 2313: 1201:. He wrote that it failed to duplicate the findings of Bieber 1168: 1149:

with avoiding the problems of earlier studies, such as Bieber

1041: 868: 508:

is "more subject to influence by social and sexual learning."

4804:"Alan P. Bell, 70, Researcher Of Influences on Homosexuality" 3473:

What Wild Ecstasy: The Rise and Fall of the Sexual Revolution

3427:

Worlds in Collision: The Gay Debate in New Zealand, 1960-1986

3403:

The "Sissy Boy Syndrome" and the Development of Homosexuality

3331:

Male Homosexuality: A Contemporary Psychoanalytic Perspective

3087: 2835: 3111: 2643: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2421: 2419: 3645:

Homosexuality: Social, Psychological, and Biological Issues

3063: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2521: 2356: 2337: 451: 4707:"Kinsey study finds homosexuals show early predisposition" 3521:

Strong Mothers, Weak Wives: The Search for Gender Equality

2931: 2667: 2511: 2509: 2496: 2494: 2448: 2446: 2238: 683:′s findings as inconsistent with his clinical experience. 4751:"Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation" 4015:

Bell, Alan P. (1982). "Sexual Preference: A Postscript".

3237:

Homosexualities: A Study of Diversity Among Men and Women

3051: 2751: 2631: 2594: 2592: 2555: 2463: 2461: 2416: 2376: 2374: 2226: 1446:

Homosexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study of Male Homosexuals

1156:

Homosexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study of Male Homosexuals

562:

Homosexualities: A Study of Diversity Among Men and Women

556:

was the concluding volume of a series of books including

283:

Homosexualities: A Study of Diversity Among Men and Women

4675: 4587: 4487: 4367: 4283: 4260: 4189:

DeLamater, John (1982). "Origins of Sexual Preference".

4179: 4125: 3135: 3003: 2967: 2871: 2811: 2727: 2572: 978:

for abandoning many of Kinsey's methods and conclusions.

4292: 4270:

Halgin, Richard P. (1981). "Sexual Preference (Book)".

3257: 3015: 2799: 2775: 2703: 2625: 2506: 2491: 2443: 2307: 2295: 2283: 2271: 2220: 2208: 2196: 2184: 2172: 2160: 2148: 2136: 2124: 2112: 2100: 2088: 2076: 2064: 2052: 2040: 2028: 2016: 2004: 1992: 1980: 1968: 1956: 1944: 1932: 1920: 1908: 1896: 1884: 1872: 1860: 1848: 3619:

Gay Science: The Ethics of Sexual Orientation Research

3450:

Homosexuality: Research Implications for Public Policy

3379:

Homosexuality: Research Implications for Public Policy

3356:

Homosexuality: Research Implications for Public Policy

2895: 2763: 2739: 2715: 2609: 2607: 2589: 2458: 2371: 3591: 2853: 2431: 2391: 2389: 1703:

as a famous study. They maintained that because Bell

543: 3075: 2979: 2823: 2655: 1217:

did not use the same specific questions that Bieber

22:

Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women

3260:

Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women

2787: 2604: 2250: 853:homosexuality from the Institute for Sex Research. 235:

Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women

3693: 3668: 3616: 3518: 3328: 3282: 2865: 2386: 1738:Position of the American Psychological Association 1670: 1559:The philosopher Edward Stein maintained that Bell 274:was the conclusion of a series of books including 3376: 2997: 2325: 1255:′s conclusion that sexual orientation is innate. 816:received a positive review from Robert Herron in 656:Prior to its publication, Jane E. Brody wrote in 4894: 4826:"The Development of Sexual Orientation in Women" 922:. The book was also discussed by DeCecco in the 4573: 3377:Gonsiorek, John C.; Weinrich, James D. (1991). 3280: 2949: 2685: 2319: 1554: 1451: 1347: 970:Sex researcher Alfred Kinsey. The psychologist 286:(1978), both co-authored by Bell and Weinberg. 3941:"Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science" 1726:Judith A. Allen and her co-authors wrote that 1571:as "essentialists", who, unlike supporters of 1429:for reporting mainly on their white subjects. 1322:. The psychologist Mark Yarhouse wrote in the 1259:Scientific and academic journals, 1997–present 3906: 3544:Jones, Stanton L.; Yarhouse, Mark A. (2000). 3543: 3166:The Kinsey Institute: The First Seventy Years 3105: 3045: 1531:as a high quality study. He argued that Bell 1501:only "half true", given the father findings. 1222:"structured-answer questions" used in Bieber 902:, and negative reviews from the psychologist 789:quoted the historian and gay rights activist 4684: 4596: 4118:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3946:Psychological Science in the Public Interest 3641: 3496:Sambia Sexual Culture: Essays from the Field 3234: 3209: 2841: 2697: 2482: 2244: 2232: 1643:The philosopher Timothy F. Murphy described 1440:as one of several studies, including Bieber 1341:Psychological Science in the Public Interest 639:published the book in German translation as 4636:Wagner, Richard (1982). "Kith and Kinsey". 3907:Zucker, Kenneth; Bradley, Susan J. (1995). 3859:Whitam, Frederick L.; Mathy, Robin (1986). 3858: 3594:Masters and Johnson on Sex and Human Loving 3235:Bell, Alan P.; Weinberg, Martin S. (1978). 3210:Bell, Alan P.; Weinberg, Martin S. (1972). 2889: 1169:Scientific and academic journals, 1987–1996 1042:Scientific and academic journals, 1983–1986 869:Scientific and academic journals, 1981–1982 3566: 2973: 1696:′s findings relating it to homosexuality. 1527:The psychologist Seymour Fisher described 432: 238:(1981) is a book about the development of 27: 4801: 4774: 4748: 4230: 4188: 3958: 3353: 3141: 3009: 2649: 2549: 2437: 2425: 1288:, wrote that in their path analysis Bell 699:, a negative review from the sociologist 4646: 4220:Futuym, Doug (1982). "Kith and Kinsey". 4081: 3883: 3739: 3470: 3447: 3326: 3213:Homosexuality: An Annotated Bibliography 3069: 3021: 2913: 2805: 2532: 2365: 2350: 1065:boring. Thomas Ford Hoult argued in the 965: 822:and a mixed review from George Smith in 762:(1953), which gained popular attention, 558:Homosexuality: An Annotated Bibliography 388: 351: 277:Homosexuality: An Annotated Bibliography 134:Sexual Preference: Statistical Appendix 4749:Glassgold, Judith M. (August 5, 2009). 4353: 4157: 4134: 3567:Kirk, Marshall; Madsen, Hunter (1989). 3516: 2925: 2721: 2673: 2598: 1099:′s interpretation of their data in the 1010:and Bell and Weinberg's previous study 548:Together with its separately published 4895: 4823: 4726: 4635: 4550: 4527: 4376: 4307: 4269: 4219: 3938: 3765:Homosexuality: A Philosophical Inquiry 3666: 3614: 3303: 3186: 3057: 3033: 2961: 2829: 2817: 2781: 2757: 2637: 2566: 2515: 2500: 2452: 2395: 2380: 1822:Sigmund Freud's views on homosexuality 1778:Homosexuality: A Philosophical Inquiry 671:questioned the "theoretical basis" of 176:Mitchell Beazley International Limited 4729:"Searching for the childhood of eros" 4704: 4496: 4477: 4415: 4322: 3835: 3810: 3785: 3493: 3399: 3093: 3081: 2985: 2964:, pp. 169–170, 172–173, 188–189. 2901: 2877: 2733: 2661: 2626:Hammersmith, Bell & Weinberg 1982 2583: 2467: 2331: 2308:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2296:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2284:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2272:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2221:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2209:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2197:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2185:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2173:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2161:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2149:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2137:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2125:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2113:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2101:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2089:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2077:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2065:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2053:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2041:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2029:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2017:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 2005:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1993:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1981:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1969:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1957:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1945:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1933:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1921:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1909:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1897:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1885:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1873:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1861:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1849:Bell, Weinberg & Hammersmith 1981 1688:orientation of its inhabitants, Bell 882:, mixed reviews from the sociologist 463: 262:, the study was a publication of the 4775:Ignatieff, Michael (March 4, 1982). 4446: 4014: 3975: 3762: 3716: 2937: 2793: 2709: 2613: 2256: 1785:Male Homosexuality in Four Societies 1758: 4308:Herron, Robert (1981). "Born Gay". 4050: 4027: 3742:Opera, Sex, and Other Vital Matters 3694:Rancour-Laferriere, Daniel (1985). 3424: 3117: 2854:Masters, Johnson & Kolodny 1985 2769: 2745: 760:Sexual Behavior in the Human Female 651: 566:National Institute of Mental Health 398:background became homosexual. Bell 260:National Institute of Mental Health 13: 4802:McCoubrey, Carmel (May 24, 2002). 4759:American Psychological Association 4727:Gagnon, John (December 13, 1981). 4705:Brody, Jane E. (August 23, 1981). 3698:. Bloomington & Indianapolis: 3241:The Macmillan Company of Australia 1812:Environment and sexual orientation 1744:American Psychological Association 1612:conducted their inquiry, and that 544:Background and publication history 14: 4959: 4933:Non-fiction books about sexuality 4878: 4665:The Chronicle of Higher Education 4577:American Journal of Psychotherapy 3281:Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus (1989). 2409:The Chronicle of Higher Education 1102:American Journal of Psychotherapy 755:Sexual Behavior in the Human Male 716:The Chronicle of Higher Education 3189:The Homosexualization of America 4948:Collaborative non-fiction books 4650:The Quarterly Review of Biology 3289:. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. 3151: 1671:Other evaluations, 1998–present 1197:as very important study in the 899:The Quarterly Review of Biology 631:was first published in 1981 by 4928:Indiana University Press books 4085:Journal of Marriage and Family 3527:University of California Press 1807:Biology and sexual orientation 1721:Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986 879:Journal of Marriage and Family 524:briefly reviewed the ideas of 477: 1: 4834:Annual Review of Sex Research 4824:Peplau, Letitia Anne (1999). 4450:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4205:10.1126/science.215.4537.1229 3327:Friedman, Richard C. (1988). 2998:Gonsiorek & Weinrich 1991 2700:, pp. 506, 532–533, 540. 2139:, pp. 184, 188, 190–192. 1835: 1792:Sexuality and Its Discontents 1334:and his co-authors described 1307:Annual Review of Sex Research 1162:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 732:Robinson suggested that Bell 4678:'s Academic Search Complete 4590:'s Academic Search Complete 4490:'s Academic Search Complete 4370:'s Academic Search Complete 4286:'s Academic Search Complete 4263:'s Academic Search Complete 4182:'s Academic Search Complete 4128:'s Academic Search Complete 3675:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: 2199:, pp. 212–214, 216–218. 2067:, pp. 149–151, 157–159. 2031:, pp. 124–125, 128–129. 1555:Other evaluations, 1990–1997 1547:and Hunter Madsen described 1452:Other evaluations, 1988–1989 1348:Other evaluations, 1981–1987 1093:Gerard J. M. van den Aardweg 808: 646: 7: 4918:Books by Martin S. Weinberg 4885:Clarence Tripp's review of 4600:Archives of Sexual Behavior 4393:10.1037/0033-295x.105.2.387 4067:10.1037/0033-295x.105.2.395 4044:10.1037/0033-295x.103.2.320 3979:Archives of Sexual Behavior 3939:Bailey, J. Michael (2016). 3746:University of Chicago Press 3615:Murphy, Timothy F. (1997). 3548:. Downers Grove, Illinois: 3517:Johnson, Miriam M. (1988). 3500:University of Chicago Press 3477:William Heinemann Australia 3310:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 1995:, pp. 99–102, 108–113. 1753: 1324:Archives of Sexual Behavior 1320:Archives of Sexual Behavior 1119:Archives of Sexual Behavior 582:Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon 10: 4964: 4908:American non-fiction books 1022:, the gay rights activist 574:Institute for Sex Research 346: 264:Institute for Sex Research 4567:10.1080/00224498209551163 4544:10.1080/00224498209551148 4463:10.1017/S0140525X00022561 4174:10.1080/00224498709551346 4151:10.1080/00224498209551153 3625:Columbia University Press 3598:Little, Brown and Company 3431:Victoria University Press 3308:. Hillsdale, New Jersey: 3106:Jones & Yarhouse 2000 3046:Zucker & Bradley 1995 2916:, pp. 39, 41, 68–69. 1971:, pp. 77, 80, 87–88. 1947:, pp. 54–55, 57, 62. 1046:Cheryl L. Gillespie gave 933:Davidson wrote that Bell 693:and Richard P. Halgin in 592:, and the anthropologist 315:tolerance of gay people. 219: 211: 199: 191: 181: 171: 161: 153: 138: 119: 111: 99: 91: 81: 71: 61: 53: 38: 26: 4500:Journal of Homosexuality 4326:Journal of Homosexuality 3960:10.1177/1529100616637616 3700:Indiana University Press 3677:Harvard University Press 3667:Posner, Richard (1992). 3335:. New Haven and London: 3304:Fisher, Seymour (1989). 3264:Indiana University Press 3170:Indiana University Press 3168:. Bloomington, Indiana: 3036:, pp. 102, 104–105. 2928:, pp. 145–147, 153. 2842:Paul & Weinrich 1982 2698:Van Wyk & Geist 1984 2245:Bell & Weinberg 1972 2233:Bell & Weinberg 1978 2079:, pp. 169, 175–180. 1504:Ruse observed that Bell 1352:The gay rights activist 1229:The social psychologist 1199:Journal of Homosexuality 1068:Journal of Homosexuality 1006:De Cecco dismissed both 941:DeLamater believed that 633:Indiana University Press 538:Richard von Krafft-Ebing 149:, Sue Kiefer Hammersmith 76:Indiana University Press 49:, Sue Kiefer Hammersmith 4680:(subscription required) 4592:(subscription required) 4554:Journal of Sex Research 4531:Journal of Sex Research 4492:(subscription required) 4372:(subscription required) 4296:Journal of Sex Research 4288:(subscription required) 4265:(subscription required) 4184:(subscription required) 4161:Journal of Sex Research 4138:Journal of Sex Research 4130:(subscription required) 3836:Weeks, Jeffrey (1993). 3819:Oxford University Press 3740:Robinson, Paul (2002). 3494:Herdt, Gilbert (1999). 3471:Heidenry, John (1997). 3400:Green, Richard (1987). 3187:Altman, Dennis (1982). 3120:, p. 156–157, 171. 3096:, p. 229, 235–237. 2890:Whitam & Mathy 1986 2866:Rancour-Laferriere 1985 1518:Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt 1207:symbolic interactionism 1175:Journal of Sex Research 924:Journal of Sex Research 909:Journal of Sex Research 892:and the sex researcher 536:, and the psychiatrist 433:Findings on white women 4923:English-language books 4903:1981 non-fiction books 4782:London Review of Books 4674: – via 4586: – via 4486: – via 4419:Contemporary Sociology 4366: – via 4282: – via 4259: – via 4178: – via 4124: – via 3811:Stein, Edward (1999). 3763:Ruse, Michael (1988). 2974:Kirk & Madsen 1989 2940:, pp. 33, 39, 40. 1573:social constructionism 1543:The neuropsychologist 1205:or the predictions of 1173:De Cecco wrote in the 1030:, and the sociologist 979: 951:social learning theory 919:Contemporary Sociology 726:London Review of Books 713:, and a discussion in 611: 291:San Francisco Bay Area 4913:Books by Alan P. Bell 4513:10.1300/j082v27n03_11 4339:10.1300/j082v09n02_09 3890:Harrington Park Press 3723:Harrington Park Press 3408:Yale University Press 3337:Yale University Press 2552:, pp. 1229–1230. 1959:, pp. 72, 75–76. 1935:, pp. 44–45, 50. 1665:masturbatory patterns 1622:political correctness 1595:and the psychiatrist 1245:Exotic becomes erotic 1082:a negative review in 1056:. She commended Bell 998:Reiss concluded that 969: 860:Wagner credited Bell 837:Herron credited Bell 805:as "social misfits". 603: 389:Findings on white men 374:psychoanalytic theory 352:Overview of the study 266:. Together with its 246:and the sociologists 4380:Psychological Review 4054:Psychological Review 4031:Psychological Review 3425:Guy, Laurie (2002). 3108:, p. 55–56, 59. 2950:Eibl-Eibesfeldt 1989 2686:van den Aardweg 1984 2320:Eibl-Eibesfeldt 1989 2055:, pp. 143, 147. 1911:, pp. 8, 20–22. 1286:Psychological Review 1269:Psychological Review 1263:Letitia Anne Peplau 1240:Psychological Review 1127:Heino Meyer-Bahlburg 1078:Jeanne Marecek gave 945:benefited from Bell 912:and the sociologist 550:Statistical Appendix 268:Statistical Appendix 242:by the psychologist 4199:(4537): 1229–1230. 3239:. South Melbourne: 3132:, pp. 115–118. 3072:, pp. 272–273. 3060:, pp. 60, 240. 3048:, pp. 240–242. 3000:, pp. 2, 9–10. 2892:, pp. 56, 107. 2880:, pp. 119–120. 2868:, pp. 351–353. 2772:, pp. 395–398. 2760:, pp. 387–394. 2748:, pp. 320–335. 2736:, pp. 223–268. 2712:, pp. 256–257. 2688:, pp. 180–189. 2676:, pp. 149–151. 2652:, pp. 155–156. 2628:, pp. 186–189. 2586:, pp. 455–456. 2569:, pp. 183–186. 2535:, pp. 814–815. 2368:, pp. 195–197. 2353:, pp. 362–364. 2223:, pp. 238–239. 2211:, pp. 218–220. 2187:, pp. 205–209. 2175:, pp. 201–203. 2163:, pp. 199–201. 2127:, pp. 183–184. 2091:, pp. 196–197. 2019:, pp. 121–122. 2007:, pp. 119–120. 1675:The anthropologist 1458:Richard C. Friedman 1419:Frederick L. Whitam 1382:Virginia E. Johnson 584:, the sociologists 135: 23: 4809:The New York Times 4734:The New York Times 4712:The New York Times 4613:10.1007/bf01542088 4311:Christopher Street 3992:10.1007/bf01541725 3550:InterVarsity Press 2820:, pp. 45–101. 2640:, p. 366–368. 2310:, pp. iii–iv. 1983:, pp. 88, 90. 1456:The psychoanalyst 1384:and the physician 1091:The psychoanalyst 1050:a mixed review in 980: 819:Christopher Street 787:The New York Times 769:Gagnon considered 705:The New York Times 669:John Paul De Cecco 659:The New York Times 570:Indiana University 464:Findings on blacks 378:longitudinal study 248:Martin S. Weinberg 240:sexual orientation 166:Sexual orientation 147:Martin S. Weinberg 133: 66:Sexual orientation 47:Martin S. Weinberg 21: 4887:Sexual Preference 4685:"Editor's note". 3922:978-0-89862-266-9 3899:978-1-56023-557-6 3851:978-0-415-04503-2 3828:978-0-19-514244-0 3803:978-0-415-90485-8 3778:978-0-631-15275-0 3732:978-1-56023-557-6 3709:978-0-253-20673-2 3686:978-0-674-80279-7 3659:978-0-8039-1825-2 3650:Sage Publications 3634:978-0-231-10849-2 3607:978-0-316-54998-1 3584:978-0-385-23906-6 3509:978-0-226-32752-5 3486:978-0-85561-689-2 3463:978-0-8039-3764-2 3454:Sage Publications 3440:978-0-86473-438-9 3417:978-0-300-03696-1 3392:978-0-8039-3764-2 3383:Sage Publications 3369:978-0-8039-3764-2 3360:Sage Publications 3296:978-0-202-02030-3 3273:978-0-253-16673-9 3250:978-0-333-25180-5 3227:978-0-06-014541-5 3202:978-0-8070-4143-7 3130:Allen et al. 2017 2904:, pp. 58–59. 2844:, pp. 26–27. 2784:, pp. 71–99. 2518:, pp. 65–66. 2503:, pp. 64–65. 2470:, pp. 29–30. 2455:, pp. 55–57. 2298:, pp. 10–15. 1832: 1831: 1728:Sexual Preference 1713:Sexual Preference 1701:Sexual Preference 1685:Sexual Preference 1681:Sexual Preference 1657:Sexual Preference 1645:Sexual Preference 1614:Sexual Preference 1601:Sexual Preference 1591:The psychologist 1549:Sexual Preference 1529:Sexual Preference 1481:Miriam M. Johnson 1438:Sexual Preference 1402:Sexual Preference 1390:Sexual Preference 1386:Robert C. Kolodny 1380:, the sexologist 1366:Sexual Preference 1336:Sexual Preference 1332:J. Michael Bailey 1328:Sexual Preference 1280:argued that Bell 1195:Sexual Preference 1179:Sexual Preference 1080:Sexual Preference 1063:Sexual Preference 1048:Sexual Preference 1026:, the sexologist 1008:Sexual Preference 1000:Sexual Preference 984:Sexual Preference 982:Tripp wrote that 960:Sexual Preference 943:Sexual Preference 894:James D. Weinrich 874:Sexual Preference 814:Sexual Preference 795:Sexual Preference 771:Sexual Preference 764:Sexual Preference 738:Sexual Preference 721:Michael Ignatieff 685:Sexual Preference 673:Sexual Preference 664:Sexual Preference 635:. The same year, 629:Sexual Preference 554:Sexual Preference 528:, the founder of 340:Sexual Preference 320:Sexual Preference 272:Sexual Preference 231: 230: 192:Publication place 131: 130: 92:Publication place 4955: 4938:Psychology books 4873: 4871: 4869: 4863: 4857:. 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Wellington: 3422: 3416: 3397: 3391: 3374: 3368: 3351: 3346:978-0300039634 3345: 3324: 3319:978-0805804393 3318: 3301: 3295: 3285:Human Ethology 3278: 3272: 3255: 3249: 3232: 3226: 3207: 3201: 3184: 3179:978-0253029768 3178: 3160: 3159: 3158: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3146: 3142:Glassgold 2009 3134: 3122: 3110: 3098: 3086: 3084:, p. 231. 3074: 3062: 3050: 3038: 3026: 3024:, p. 150. 3014: 3012:, p. 117. 3010:Gonsiorek 1991 3002: 2990: 2988:, p. 329. 2978: 2966: 2954: 2952:, p. 257. 2942: 2930: 2918: 2906: 2894: 2882: 2870: 2858: 2856:, p. 351. 2846: 2834: 2822: 2810: 2808:, p. 219. 2798: 2796:, p. 168. 2786: 2774: 2762: 2750: 2738: 2726: 2724:, p. 282. 2714: 2702: 2690: 2678: 2666: 2664:, p. 145. 2654: 2650:Gillespie 1983 2642: 2630: 2618: 2603: 2601:, p. 282. 2588: 2571: 2554: 2550:DeLamater 1982 2537: 2520: 2505: 2490: 2472: 2457: 2442: 2438:McCoubrey 2002 2430: 2426:Ignatieff 1982 2415: 2400: 2385: 2370: 2355: 2336: 2324: 2322:, p. 724. 2312: 2300: 2288: 2276: 2261: 2249: 2237: 2225: 2213: 2201: 2189: 2177: 2165: 2153: 2151:, p. 199. 2141: 2129: 2117: 2115:, p. 204. 2105: 2103:, p. 198. 2093: 2081: 2069: 2057: 2045: 2043:, p. 133. 2033: 2021: 2009: 1997: 1985: 1973: 1961: 1949: 1937: 1925: 1913: 1901: 1889: 1877: 1865: 1853: 1840: 1839: 1837: 1834: 1830: 1829: 1825: 1824: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1803: 1802: 1797: 1796: 1795: 1788: 1781: 1774: 1766: 1765: 1757: 1755: 1752: 1739: 1736: 1672: 1669: 1593:Kenneth Zucker 1583:credited Bell 1581:Richard Posner 1556: 1553: 1453: 1450: 1349: 1346: 1260: 1257: 1233:credited Bell 1170: 1167: 1145:credited Bell 1043: 1040: 972:Clarence Tripp 904:Clarence Tripp 884:John DeLamater 870: 867: 810: 807: 707:, a notice in 653: 650: 648: 645: 602: 545: 542: 534:Havelock Ellis 530:psychoanalysis 479: 476: 465: 462: 434: 431: 390: 387: 367:operationalize 353: 350: 348: 345: 229: 228: 223: 217: 216: 213: 209: 208: 201: 197: 196: 193: 189: 188: 185: 182: 179: 178: 173: 169: 168: 163: 159: 158: 155: 151: 150: 140: 129: 128: 126:978-0253166739 123: 117: 116: 113: 109: 108: 101: 97: 96: 93: 89: 88: 85: 82: 79: 78: 73: 69: 68: 63: 59: 58: 55: 51: 50: 40: 36: 35: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4960: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4900: 4898: 4889: 4888: 4883: 4882: 4864:on 2018-02-21 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4835: 4827: 4822: 4811: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4788: 4784: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4762: 4760: 4752: 4747: 4736: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4714: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4702: 4697: 4696: 4690: 4689: 4683: 4677: 4671: 4667: 4666: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4651: 4645: 4641: 4640: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4601: 4595: 4589: 4583: 4579: 4578: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4555: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4532: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4501: 4495: 4489: 4483: 4482: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4451: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4420: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4381: 4375: 4369: 4363: 4359: 4358: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4327: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4312: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4297: 4291: 4285: 4279: 4275: 4274: 4268: 4262: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4235: 4229: 4225: 4224: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4193: 4187: 4181: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4162: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4139: 4133: 4127: 4121: 4115: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4086: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4055: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4032: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4017:SIECUS Report 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3980: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3953:(2): 45–101. 3952: 3948: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3936: 3931: 3930: 3924: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3905: 3901: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3882: 3878: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3863: 3857: 3853: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3834: 3830: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3815: 3809: 3805: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3790: 3784: 3780: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3761: 3757: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3738: 3734: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3715: 3711: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3678: 3673: 3672: 3665: 3661: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3646: 3640: 3636: 3630: 3626: 3621: 3620: 3613: 3609: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3590: 3586: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3571: 3565: 3561: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3542: 3538: 3536:9780520061620 3532: 3528: 3523: 3522: 3515: 3511: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3492: 3488: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3465: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3423: 3419: 3413: 3409: 3406:. New Haven: 3405: 3404: 3398: 3394: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3352: 3348: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3332: 3325: 3321: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3302: 3298: 3292: 3287: 3286: 3279: 3275: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3256: 3252: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3233: 3229: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3214: 3208: 3204: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3181: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3162: 3161: 3156: 3155: 3144:, p. 73. 3143: 3138: 3131: 3126: 3119: 3114: 3107: 3102: 3095: 3090: 3083: 3078: 3071: 3070:Heidenry 1997 3066: 3059: 3054: 3047: 3042: 3035: 3030: 3023: 3022:Haldeman 1991 3018: 3011: 3006: 2999: 2994: 2987: 2982: 2976:, p. 39. 2975: 2970: 2963: 2958: 2951: 2946: 2939: 2934: 2927: 2922: 2915: 2914:Friedman 1988 2910: 2903: 2898: 2891: 2886: 2879: 2874: 2867: 2862: 2855: 2850: 2843: 2838: 2832:, p. 57. 2831: 2826: 2819: 2814: 2807: 2806:Yarhouse 2006 2802: 2795: 2790: 2783: 2778: 2771: 2766: 2759: 2754: 2747: 2742: 2735: 2730: 2723: 2718: 2711: 2706: 2699: 2694: 2687: 2682: 2675: 2670: 2663: 2658: 2651: 2646: 2639: 2634: 2627: 2622: 2615: 2610: 2608: 2600: 2595: 2593: 2585: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2568: 2563: 2561: 2559: 2551: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2534: 2533:Davidson 1982 2529: 2527: 2525: 2517: 2512: 2510: 2502: 2497: 2495: 2488:, p. 64. 2487: 2485: 2479: 2477: 2469: 2464: 2462: 2454: 2449: 2447: 2439: 2434: 2427: 2422: 2420: 2413:, p. 21. 2412: 2410: 2404: 2397: 2392: 2390: 2382: 2377: 2375: 2367: 2366:Robinson 2002 2362: 2360: 2352: 2351:Weinrich 1982 2347: 2345: 2343: 2341: 2333: 2328: 2321: 2316: 2309: 2304: 2297: 2292: 2285: 2280: 2274:, p. 32. 2273: 2268: 2266: 2258: 2253: 2247:, p. iv. 2246: 2241: 2234: 2229: 2222: 2217: 2210: 2205: 2198: 2193: 2186: 2181: 2174: 2169: 2162: 2157: 2150: 2145: 2138: 2133: 2126: 2121: 2114: 2109: 2102: 2097: 2090: 2085: 2078: 2073: 2066: 2061: 2054: 2049: 2042: 2037: 2030: 2025: 2018: 2013: 2006: 2001: 1994: 1989: 1982: 1977: 1970: 1965: 1958: 1953: 1946: 1941: 1934: 1929: 1923:, p. 22. 1922: 1917: 1910: 1905: 1898: 1893: 1886: 1881: 1874: 1869: 1862: 1857: 1850: 1845: 1841: 1828: 1823: 1820: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1810: 1808: 1805: 1804: 1800: 1799: 1798: 1794: 1793: 1789: 1787: 1786: 1782: 1780: 1779: 1775: 1773: 1772: 1768: 1767: 1763: 1762: 1761: 1760: 1751: 1749: 1745: 1735: 1733: 1729: 1724: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1697: 1695: 1691: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1677:Gilbert Herdt 1668: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1653:John Heidenry 1650: 1646: 1641: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1602: 1598: 1597:Susan Bradley 1594: 1589: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1552: 1550: 1546: 1545:Marshall Kirk 1541: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1525: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1502: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1434:Richard Green 1430: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1354:Dennis Altman 1345: 1343: 1342: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1308: 1304:wrote in the 1303: 1298: 1296: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1241: 1236: 1232: 1227: 1225: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1187: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1166: 1164: 1163: 1158: 1157: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1115: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1094: 1089: 1087: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1074: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1055: 1054: 1049: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1032:Jeffrey Weeks 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1004: 1001: 996: 994: 990: 985: 977: 973: 968: 964: 961: 956: 952: 948: 944: 939: 936: 931: 929: 928:Siecus Report 925: 921: 920: 915: 911: 910: 905: 901: 900: 895: 891: 890: 885: 881: 880: 875: 866: 863: 858: 854: 851: 847: 845: 840: 835: 833: 832: 827: 826: 821: 820: 815: 806: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 783: 781: 777: 772: 767: 765: 761: 757: 756: 751: 747: 743: 742:Alfred Kinsey 739: 735: 730: 728: 727: 722: 718: 717: 712: 711: 706: 702: 698: 697: 692: 691: 686: 682: 678: 677:Irving Bieber 674: 670: 665: 661: 660: 644: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 623: 616: 610: 608: 601: 599: 595: 591: 590:William Simon 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 541: 539: 535: 531: 527: 526:Sigmund Freud 523: 518: 515: 514:psychotherapy 509: 507: 502: 497: 492: 489: 488:psychodynamic 485: 475: 472: 461: 458: 453: 448: 445: 439: 430: 428: 422: 419: 414: 408: 406: 401: 396: 386: 382: 379: 375: 370: 368: 363: 359: 344: 341: 337: 333: 329: 328:path analysis 325: 321: 316: 313: 309: 305: 301: 296: 292: 287: 285: 284: 279: 278: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 256:homosexuality 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 236: 227: 226:0-253-16674-8 224: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 195:United States 194: 190: 186: 180: 177: 174: 170: 167: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 141: 137: 127: 124: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 95:United States 94: 90: 86: 80: 77: 74: 70: 67: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 41: 37: 30: 25: 19: 4886: 4866:. 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Bell 234: 233: 232: 143:Alan P. Bell 43:Alan P. Bell 18: 4868:23 February 4815:25 December 3744:. Chicago: 3498:. Chicago: 3058:Murphy 1997 3034:Posner 1992 2962:Fisher 1989 2830:Altman 1982 2818:Bailey 2016 2782:Peplau 1999 2758:Peplau 1998 2638:Tripp 1982b 2567:Tripp 1982a 2516:Wagner 1982 2501:Futuym 1982 2453:Herron 1981 2396:Gagnon 1981 2381:Halgin 1981 1771:Gay Science 1717:New Zealand 1464:and Bieber 1423:Robin Mathy 1159:(1962), in 1024:Mario Mieli 989:Frank Beach 828:, while in 758:(1948) and 701:John Gagnon 637:Bertelsmann 586:John Gagnon 560:(1972) and 506:bisexuality 478:Conclusions 427:ejaculation 418:adolescence 312:bisexuality 300:masculinity 280:(1972) and 4897:Categories 4718:16 October 4672:(3). 1981. 3840:. London: 3817:. Oxford: 3767:. Oxford: 3648:. London: 3596:. Boston: 3452:. London: 3381:. London: 3358:. London: 3191:. 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