Masculinity - Knowledge

763:, which guarantees the dominant position of men and the subordination of women". Connell (1987) placed emphasis on heterosexuality and its influence on the construction of gender. From this perspective, there is a dominant (hegemonic) and idealized form of masculinity in every social system and an apotheosized form of femininity that is considered proper for men and women. This idealized form of masculinity (hegemonic masculinity) legitimates and normalizes certain performances of men, and pathologizes, marginalizes, and subordinates any other expressions of masculinities or femininities (masculine and feminine subject positions). Alongside hegemonic masculinity, Connell postulated that there are other forms of masculinities (marginalized and subordinated), which, according to a plethora of studies, are constructed in oppressive ways (Thorne 1993). This is symptomatic of the fact that hegemonic masculinity is relational, which means that it is constructed in relation to and against an Other (emphasized femininity, marginalized and subordinated masculinities). In addition to describing forceful articulations of violent masculine identities, hegemonic masculinity has also been used to describe implicit, indirect, or coercive forms of gendered socialization, enacted through video games, fashion, humor, and so on. 883: 992:

framework used by historians to enhance their cultural explorations instead of a specialty in its own right. This draws attention from reality to representation and meaning, not only in the realm of masculinity; culture was becoming "the bottom line, the real historical reality". Tosh critiques Martin Francis' work in this light because popular culture, rather than the experience of family life, is the basis for Francis' argument. Francis uses contemporary literature and film to demonstrate that masculinity was restless, shying away from domesticity and commitment, during the late 1940s and 1950s. Francis wrote that this flight from commitment was "most likely to take place at the level of fantasy (individual and collective)". In focusing on culture, it is difficult to gauge the degree to which films such as

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framework can partially be attributed to British colonial rule because it altered the gender division of labor. There was an increase in wage labor which led to a demand for more skilled workers in an environment where there were primarily unskilled workers. Eventually, there was a shift to growing cash crops and the emphasis was put on men to be the breadwinner. A man's social value is traditionally connected to his ability to provide so when he can no longer do that, it negatively impacts his ego. Masculinity is seen as an entity to be protected, and when a man feels disempowered, he finds other ways to reaffirm their masculinity. Research that examines the struggles among men and look into their personal experiences can help to understand the social structures of masculinity.

71: 501:. Others have suggested that although masculinity may be influenced by biology, it is also a cultural construct. Many aspects of masculinity assumed to be natural are linguistically and culturally driven. Males were more likely to be depicted in a less humorous way in the evening as opposed to the daytime, whereas females were more likely to be rated in a less humorous way in the daytime as opposed to the evening. Reeser argues that although the military has a vested interest in constructing and promoting a specific form of masculinity, it does not create it. Facial hair is linked to masculinity through language, in stories about boys becoming men when they begin to shave. 1014:

initial aims of gender history, which sought to use history to enlighten and change the present. Tosh appeals to historians to live up to the "social expectation" of their work, which would also require a greater focus on subjectivity and masculinity. This view is contrary to Dudink's; the latter called for an "outflanking movement" towards the history of masculinity, in response to the errors he perceived in the study. This would do the opposite of what Tosh called for, deconstructing masculinity by not placing it at the center of historical exploration and using discourse and culture as indirect avenues towards a more-representational approach. In a study of the

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definition of masculinity: produced by society and culture, and reproduced in daily life. A flurry of work in women's history led to a call for study of the male role (initially influenced by psychoanalysis) in society and emotional and interpersonal life. Connell wrote that these initial works were marked by a "high level of generality" in "broad surveys of cultural norms". The scholarship was aware of contemporary societal changes aiming to understand and evolve (or liberate) the male role in response to feminism.John Tosh calls for a return to this aim for the history of masculinity to be useful, academically and in the public sphere.

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were seen as significantly more feminine and less masculine than those of heterosexual men Furthermore, a 2017 study utilized neural networks to see whether artificial intelligence would be able to differentiate accurately between more than 35,000 images of gay and straight faces. The results showed that the "classifier could correctly distinguish between gay and heterosexual men in 81% of cases, and in 71% of cases for women." Supporting the idea that men's faces are perceived as more feminine, analysis suggests that gay men have more "gender-atypical facial morphology, expression and grooming styles".

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construction of masculinity most valued in the latter part of the 20th century and the early 21st century is one that is independent, sexually assertive, and athletic, among other normative markers of manhood. There is some evidence of this construction developing slightly however. A 2008 study showed that men frequently rank good health, a harmonious family life and a good relationship with their spouse or partner as more important to their quality of life than physical attractiveness and success with women. The advent of

1418:, many societies still follow very patriarchal norms. Through media depictions and real-life scenarios, men are seen as being the head of the family — those that provide financially, have decision making power, and really are in charge. The image of the nuclear family being the societal norm is also ever-present in many places. When men are not able to fulfill that traditionally masculine, fatherly role, they may have a difficult time proving themselves as being worthy enough to have relationships with their children. In 1018:, Dudink proposes moving beyond the history of masculinity by embedding analysis into the exploration of nation and nationalism (making masculinity a lens through which to view conflict and nation-building). Martin Francis' work on domesticity through a cultural lens moves beyond the history of masculinity because "men constantly travelled back and forward across the frontier of domesticity, if only in the realm of the imagination"; normative codes of behavior do not fully encompass the male experience. 395: 736: 984:

household, domesticity and family life. Although women's historical role was negated, despite the writing of history by (and primarily about) men, a significant portion of the male experience was missing. This void was questioned during the late 1970s, when women's history began to analyze gender and women. Joan Scott's seminal article, calling for gender studies as an analytical concept to explore society, power and discourse, laid the foundation for this field.

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Feelings of guilt and overall loss of control are also experienced." Research also suggests that men feel social pressure to endorse traditional masculine male models in advertising. Brett Martin and Juergen Gnoth (2009) found that although feminine men privately preferred feminine models, they expressed a preference for traditional masculine models in public; according to the authors, this reflected social pressure on men to endorse traditional masculine norms.

9441: 1075: 1265: 785: 1153:. British sociologist John MacInnes wrote that "masculinity has always been in one crisis or another", suggesting that the crises arise from the "fundamental incompatibility between the core principle of modernity that all human beings are essentially equal (regardless of their sex) and the core tenet of patriarchy that men are naturally superior to women and thus destined to rule over them". 1379:

Chinese male consumers' choices. Men interested in wearing luxury fashion brands were often more concerned with making sure their choices were visually representative of a more professional and refined person, as opposed to someone that simply looked tough or strong. This kind of focus on visual portrayals can also appear in media depictions. In the Japanese film

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exploitative" and "socially oppressive": "The form of oppression varies from patriarchal controls over women's bodies and reproductive rights, through ideologies of domesticity, femininity and compulsory heterosexuality, to social definitions of the value of work, the nature of skill and the differential remuneration of 'productive' and 'reproductive' labor."

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softer masculinity in familial contexts. Masculinities vary by social class as well. Studies suggest working class constructions of masculinity to be more normative than are those from middle class men and boys. As these contexts and comparisons illustrate, theorists suggest a multiplicity of masculinities, not simply one single construction of masculinity.

273:"It stands on record that armies already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by the women, pleading heroically with their men, thrusting forward their bared bosoms, and making them realize the imminent prospect of enslavement - a fate which the Germans fear more desperately for their women than for themselves." -Tacitus (Germania) 1466:

and their attitudes surrounding gender equality. If men were raised seeing more equal division of household labor tasks, older female relatives working in non-traditional occupations, less violence toward females, etc., those behaviors and attitudes had a tendency to carry over into their adult lives, according to the survey.

441:(both during development and in adulthood). Scholars suggest that innate differences between the sexes are compounded or exaggerated by the influences of social factors. However, others have pointed to the fact that personality differences between the sexes are seen to increase with increased levels of egalitarianism. 1250:

During Margrethe Silberschmidt's research of urban and rural men in East Africa, she concludes that men experience disempowerment when they cannot fulfill their role as breadwinner and feel inferior to women when they cannot provide for their family. The changes in East Africa's cultural and economic

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A theory of masculinity in crisis has emerged; Australian archeologist Peter McAllister said, "I have a strong feeling that masculinity is in crisis. Men are really searching for a role in modern society; the things we used to do aren't in much demand anymore". Others see the changing labor market as

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Research in the United Kingdom found, "Younger men and women who read fitness and fashion magazines could be psychologically harmed by the images of perfect female and male physiques." Young women and men exercise excessively in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively-fit and muscular

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According to Scott, gender should be used in two ways: productive and produced. Productive gender examined its role in creating power relationships, and produced gender explored the use and change of gender throughout history. This has influenced the field of masculinity, as seen in Pierre Bourdieu's

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Researchers have argued that the "precariousness" of manhood contributes to traditionally-masculine behavior. "Precarious" means that manhood is not inborn, but must be achieved. In many cultures, boys endure painful initiation rituals to become men. Manhood may also be lost, as when a man is derided

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Masculine performance varies over the life course, but also from one context to another. For instance, the sports world may elicit more traditionally normative masculinities in participants than would other settings. Men who exhibit a tough and aggressive masculinity on the sports field may display a

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According to Tosh, the culture of masculinity has outlived its usefulness because it cannot fulfill the initial aim of this history (to discover how manhood was conditioned and experienced) and he urged "questions of behaviour and agency". His work on Victorian masculinity uses individual experience

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The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300. This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with concepts from other fields, such as

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Some want to shift the focus from specifically viewing females as the ones deserving of stronger rights to everyone deserving the opportunity to be viewed as an equal; however, this can create the potential for men to fall back into the mindset of "male victimhood", as opposed to focusing on female

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found significant differences in shape among the faces of 66 heterosexual and gay men, with gay men having more "stereotypically masculine" features ("undermin stereotypical notions of gay men as more feminine looking.") However, other studies with larger sample sizes have found that homosexual men

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men are sometimes advised to get in touch with their "inner feminine." Maybe gay men need to get in touch with their "inner masculine" instead. Identifying those aspects of being a man we most value and then cultivate those parts of our selves can lead to a healthier and less distorted sense of our

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The International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) has also been developed and the results from countries in the Global South studied more in recent years. Although the survey indicated areas for further improvement, a significant recent finding comes in regard to men's childhood upbringing

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with the expansion of availability of transnational men's magazines. While there is some evidence of Western and specifically, North American, influence in advertisements found in Chinese and Taiwanese men's magazines as well, it seems that more often than not, those countries' magazines have just

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According to John Beynon, masculinity and men are often conflated and it is unclear whether masculinity, men or both are in crisis. He writes that the "crisis" is not a recent phenomenon, illustrating several periods of masculine crisis throughout history (some predating the women's movement and

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Tosh's overall assessment is that a shift is needed in conceptualizing the topic back to the history of masculinity as a speciality aiming to reach a broader audience, rather than as an analytical tool of cultural and social history. The importance he places on public history hearkens back to the

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represented the era's masculine fantasies. Michael Roper's call to focus on the subjectivity of masculinity addresses this cultural bias, because broad understanding is set aside for an examination "of what the relationship of the codes of masculinity is to actual men, to existential matters, to

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Two concerns over the study of the history of masculinity are that it would stabilize the historical process (rather than change it) and that a cultural overemphasis on the approach to masculinity lacks the reality of actual experience. According to John Tosh, masculinity has become a conceptual

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In 2004, Arran Stibbe published an analysis of a well-known men's-health magazine in 2000. According to Stibbe, although the magazine ostensibly focused on health it also promoted traditional masculine behaviors such as excessive consumption of convenience foods and meat, alcohol consumption and

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Evidence points to the negative impact of hegemonic masculinity on men's health-related behavior, with American men making 134.5 million fewer physician visits per year than women. Twenty-five percent of men aged 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician, increasing their risk of death from

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Some social scientists conceptualize masculinity (and femininity) as a performance. Gender performances may not necessarily be intentional and people may not even be aware of the extent to which they are performing gender, as one outcome of lifelong gender socialization is the feeling that one's

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Drydakis, Nick & Sidiropoulou, Katerina & Patnaik, Swetketu & Selmanovic, Sandra & Bozani, Vasiliki, 2017. "Masculine vs Feminine Personality Traits and Women's Employment Outcomes in Britain: A Field Experiment," GLO Discussion Paper Series 152, Global Labor Organization (GLO).

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men must remain vigilant in making sure that their consumption decisions are representative of the socially accepted masculine norms — particularly in regard to their fashion choices. Additionally, advertising in fashion branding choices and its effectiveness has been examined in the context of

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fashion designers and interior decorators? How could the NHS cope with no gay nurses, or the education system with no gay teachers? Society should thank its lucky stars that not all men turn out straight, macho and insensitive. The different hetero and homo modes of maleness are not, of course,

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Because of social norms and pressures associated with masculinity, men with spinal-cord injuries must adapt their self-identity to the losses associated with such injuries; this may "lead to feelings of decreased physical and sexual prowess with lowered self-esteem and a loss of male identity.

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Media images of boys and young men may lead to the persistence of harmful concepts of masculinity. According to men's-rights activists, the media does not address men's-rights issues and men are often portrayed negatively in advertising. Peter Jackson called hegemonic masculinity "economically

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Women face a similar paradox in the business world, as corporate leadership roles are widely associated with stereotypically masculine characteristics. Women who adopt these characteristics may be more successful, but also more disliked due to not conforming with expected feminine stereotypes.

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are also present in Western and Chinese male clients' attitudes and behaviors toward female sex workers in China's commercial sex industry. While many male clients frequently exhibited physical violence toward the female workers, in order to more overtly display their manliness, some men also

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Writing in 1974, R. Gould asserted that the provider role was central to adult men's identities, as masculinity is often measured by the size of a man's economic contribution to the family. Masculinity is also associated with denying characteristics associated with women. Overwhelmingly, the

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Gender feminists also consider traditional feminine traits (gentleness, modesty, humility, sacrifice, supportiveness, empathy, compassion, tenderness, nurturance, intuitiveness, sensitivity, unselfishness) morally superior to the traditional masculine traits (courage, strong will, ambition,

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Study of the history of masculinity emerged during the 1980s, aided by the fields of women's and (later) gender history. Before women's history was examined, there was a "strict gendering of the public/private divide"; regarding masculinity, this meant little study of how men related to the

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in the home, often working together to raise children and/or taking care of elderly family members. The roles were often divided quite sharply between providing resources (considered masculine) and maintenance and redistribution of resources (considered feminine). Despite women's increasing

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for not "being a man". Researchers have found that men respond to threats to their manhood by engaging in stereotypically-masculine behaviors and beliefs, such as supporting hierarchy, espousing homophobic beliefs, supporting aggression and choosing physical tasks over intellectual ones.

834:, women who participate in sports are still expected to conform to strictly feminine gender norms. This is known as the "female athlete paradox". Although traditional gender norms are gradually changing, female athletes, especially those that participate in male-dominated sports such as 1183:

characterizes them as men 1) having gentle nature, 2) not bound by manliness, 3) not aggressive when it comes to romance, 4) viewing women as equals, and 5) hating emotional pain. Herbivore men are severely criticized by men who love masculinity. Some contemporary Japanese writers like

1454:, the tide is also turning, and men's involvement in opposing violence against women is generally seen as being very positive, a good thing for all. However, there are some who still very much see conflict and violence against women as simply going hand in hand with those cultures. 955:

yielded results relevant to a study of masculinity. In beer commercials, masculine behavior (especially risk-taking) is encouraged. Commercials often focus on situations in which a man overcomes an obstacle in a group, working or playing hard (construction workers, farm workers or

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of women in society, there has just been an increase in the objectification of both sexes. And you can see that in the media today." Men and women restrict food intake in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively-thin body; in extreme cases, this leads to

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Sports media outlets have not necessarily promoted a completely "Westernized" version of masculinity, and white, male sports icons may have had an impact when presented alongside those players of other races, such as Asians or black people. A 2019 study found that in

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of homosexual and heterosexual males: "Our society uses the male heterosexual-homosexual dichotomy as a central symbol for all the rankings of masculinity, for the division on any grounds between males who are "real men" and have power, and males who are not".

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films. Turkish young people can also fall prey to such negative media influence, According to Özlem Akkaya. In a 2018 study, young males often thought that the violent behavior displayed by the main character, "Behzat", in the Turkish television crime series,

1422:, for example, females often take on more of a culturally masculine role in providing for the household, due to the high percentage of absent fathers in some communities. Fathers' decision to desert the mother and their biological child is fairly common in 376:

In an important sense there is only one complete unblushing male in America: a young, married, white, urban, northern, heterosexual Protestant father of college education, fully employed, of good complexion, weight and height, and a recent record in

815:. Zachary A. Kramer argues that the discussion of masculinity should be opened up "to include constructions of masculinity that uniquely affect women." Masculine women are often subject to social stigma and harassment, although the influence of the 549:

Contrary to the well-intentioned claim that gays are "just the same" as straights, there is a difference. What is more, the distinctive style of gay masculinity is of great social benefit. Wouldn't life be dull without the flair and imagination of

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Sand, Michael S.; Fisher, William; Rosen, Raymond; Heiman, Julia; Eardley, Ian (March 2008). "Erectile dysfunction and constructs of masculinity and quality of life in the multinational Men's Attitudes to Life Events and Sexuality (MALES) study".

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describes a European "medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric," which included concepts like courage, respect for women of all classes and generosity. According to David Rosen, the traditional view of scholars (such as

1161:), suggesting that due to masculinity's fluid nature "crisis is constitutive of masculinity itself". Film scholar Leon Hunt also writes: "Whenever masculinity's 'crisis' actually started, it certainly seems to have been in place by the 1970s". 1426:, particularly with regard to those fathers who are younger and come from lower income families. They are often trying to provide for their own nuclear families and cannot also fulfill the cultural obligations commonly attached to fatherhood. 8084:

Galdas, Paul M.; Cheater, Francine M. (2010). "Indian and Pakistani men's accounts of seeking medical help for cardiac chest pain in the United Kingdom: constructions of marginalised masculinity or another version of hegemonic masculinity?".

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because of their reluctance to see a doctor. Reasons cited for not seeing a physician include fear, denial, embarrassment, a dislike of situations out of their control and the belief that visiting a doctor is not worth the time or cost.

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the theorist might classify a person as "masculine" if the person thought that person to have any or all of the following P-traits - GROUP Y TRAITS: strength of will, ambition, courage, independence, assertiveness, aggressiveness,

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Boxing was professionalized in America and Europe in the 19th century; it emphasized the physical and confrontational aspects of masculinity. Bare-knuckle boxing without gloves represented "the manly art" in 19th-century America.

1122:) limits their ability to function as emotionally-healthy adults. According to Kindlon and Thompson, boys lack the ability to understand and express emotions productively because of the stress imposed by masculine gender roles. 1383:, one of the main characters is made to appear like more of an outsider than the other male characters because of his unique style choices being seen as less traditionally masculine than the cultural expectation is, in 1462:. Although gender equality is becoming a more acknowledged topic in South Africa, for instance, fathers would often rather still hold on to the more traditional gender roles – and pass those ideas down to their sons. 4946: 1469:

A 2012 study found some evidence that youth have perhaps, inadvertently, made contributions toward greater acceptance of gender equality. Popular culture consumed by youth and those of lesser social status in East

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In 2014, Winegard and Geary wrote that the precariousness of manhood involves social status (prestige or dominance), and manhood may be more (or less) precarious due to the avenues men have for achieving status.

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Across cultures, characteristics of masculinity are similar in essence but varying in detail, another shared pattern is that non-typical behavior of one's sex or gender may be viewed as a social problem. In

1059:. Although the stereotypes may have remained constant, the value attached to masculine stereotypes has changed; Todd Reeser has argued that masculinity is an unstable phenomenon, never ultimately achieved. 3765: 759:, encouraged in men and discouraged in women: "Hegemonic masculinity can be defined as the configuration of gender practice which embodies the currently accepted answer to the problem of the legitimacy of 368:

participation in the paid labor force and contributions to family income, men's identities remained centered on their working lives and specifically their economic contributions. In 1963, social theorist

866:, women with stereotypically masculine personality traits are more likely to gain access to high-paying occupations than women with feminine personality traits. According to another study conducted in 172:. When women's labor participation increased, there were men who felt less comfortable in their masculinity because it was increasingly difficult for them to reconfirm their status as the breadwinner. 1446:, India, males are more frequently becoming involved in this work, while also trying to remain mindful of how their privileged status as men affects the public perception of what they are doing. In 3778:

Their results found that homosexual men were rated as more stereotypically 'masculine' than heterosexual men, which they said undermined stereotypical notions of gay men as more feminine looking.

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films. Additionally, there is some indication that Westernized views of masculinity have been pushed onto a global audience through print media advertisements, as well. This has been observed in

6069: 622:(according to Ballew, "a funny way of defusing hate directed toward us "); however, such humor "can cause us to become confused in relation to how we feel about being men". He further stated: 2805:

Pappas, Nick T.; McKenry, Patrick C.; Skilken Catlett, Beth (2004). "Athlete Aggression on the Rink and off the Ice Athlete Violence and Aggression in Hockey and Interpersonal Relationships".

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Although often ignored in discussions of masculinity, women can also express masculine traits and behaviors. In Western culture, female masculinity has been codified into identities such as "

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Women who participate in sports, especially male-dominated sports, are sometimes derided as being masculine. Even though most sports emphasize stereotypically masculine qualities, such as

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Schwartz, Jonathan P.; Tylka, Tracy L. (April 2008). "Exploring entitlement as a moderator and mediator of the relationship between masculine gender role conflict and men's body esteem".

964:. There is usually an element of danger and a focus on movement and speed (watching fast cars or driving fast). The bar is a setting for the measurement of masculinity in skills such as 4213: 3296:

Furnham, Adrian, and Virginia Voli. "Gender Stereotypes in Italian Television Advertisements." Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, vol. 33, no. 2, Spring 1989, pp. 175-185.

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Martin, Brett A.S.; Gnoth, Juergen (December 2009). "Is the Marlboro man the only alternative? The role of gender identity and self-construal salience in evaluations of male models".

3517: 1485:, stricter governmental policies are being put into place regarding abuse and violence. Additionally, initiatives like the "One Man Can" program were formed, which aim to provide 1179:

In 2008, the word "herbivore men" became popular in Japan and was reported worldwide. Herbivore men refers to young Japanese men who naturally detach themselves from masculinity.

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Ancient literature dates back to about 3000 BC, with explicit expectations for men in the form of laws and implied masculine ideals in myths of gods and heroes. According to the

2247: 1351:, for example, Korean players and their respective accomplishments tend to be pushed to the side when compared with white, male players in print media and online news outlets. 335:

wrote in 1831: "The old ideal of Manhood has grown obsolete, and the new is still invisible to us, and we grope after it in darkness, one clutching this phantom, another that;

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Winegard, Bo M.; Winegard, Ben; Geary, David C. (March 2014). "Eastwood's brawn and Einstein's brain: an evolutionary account of dominance, prestige, and precarious manhood".

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Rule 3: "If any one bring an accusation of any crime before the elders, and does not prove what he has charged, he shall, if it be a capital offense charged, be put to death."

4909: 1737: 1641: 1478:, singing competitions, bands, and more are starting to showcase more modernized males that combine some stereotypically masculine and feminine aspects in their behaviors. 1092:

In 1987, Eisler and Skidmore studied masculinity, creating the idea of "masculine stress" and finding three elements of masculinity which often result in emotional stress:

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overlooks the similarities between Beowulf and the monster Grendel. The masculinity exemplified by Beowulf "cut men off from women, other men, passion and the household".

2607: 2231: 572:"You're so gay" indicates a lack of masculinity, rather than homosexual orientation. According to Pleck, to avoid male oppression of women, themselves and other men, 254:

of 1000 BC, when King David of Israel drew near to death, he told his son Solomon: "I go the way of all the earth: be thou strong therefore, and shew thyself a man".

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Robinson, L. (21 October 2005). "Not just boys being boys: Brutal hazings are a product of a culture of masculinity defined by violence, aggression and domination".

1406:, was relatable to what they already experienced in their own day to day lives (and therefore, saw violence as a seemingly reasonable thing to occur in the series). 148:

Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures, subcultures, ethnic groups and historical periods. Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in

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earlier after being labeled gay by their peers. More likely to face bullying and harassment throughout their lives, they are taunted by derogatory words (such as "

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felt uncomfortable about their femininity (despite being comfortable with their sexuality), and feminine gay men may be derided by stereotypically-masculine gays.

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Arrindell, Willem A.; et al. (September–December 2003). "Masculine gender role stress: a potential predictor of phobic and obsessive-compulsive behaviour".

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works to unpack Judith Butler's study of masculinity. Cover goes over issues such as sexual assault and how it can be partially explained by hypermasculinity.

8942:, a comprehensive bibliography of writing on men, masculinities, gender and sexualities, listing over 16,700 works. (mainly from a constructionist perspective) 4716:

Kawakami, Christine; White, Judith B.; Langer, Ellen J. (January 2000). "Mindful and Masculine: Freeing Women Leaders From the Constraints of Gender Roles".

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are due to socialization versus biological factors. Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development. Studies of

8701: 2499: 1082:, teaching boys to suppress vulnerable emotions, as in the saying "big boys don't cry", is a significant part of gender socialization in Western society. 960:). Those involving play have central themes of mastery (of nature or each other), risk and adventure: fishing, camping, playing sports or socializing in 6149: 3928: 2118: 125:, as anyone can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. It is sometimes contrasted to 6079: 1489:

prevention and an anti-violence program to men in the country. The 'We Can End Violence against Women' campaign is another anti-violence initiative in

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Historian Kate Cooper wrote: "Wherever a woman is mentioned a man's character is being judged – and along with it what he stands for." Scholars cite

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Francis, Martin (April 2007). "A flight from commitment? Domesticity, adventure and the masculine imaginary in Britain after the Second World War".

968:, strength, and drinking ability. Men engage in positive health practices, such as reducing fat intake and alcohol, to conform to masculine ideals. 9277: 7189:

Akkaya, Özlem (2018). ""The Crisis of Masculinity" on the Screen: Conflicted Masculinities in Behzat Ç. Bir Ankara Polisiyesi and Poyraz Karayel".

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Kindlon, Dan; Thompson, Michael (2000), "The road not taken: turning boys away from their inner life", in Kindlon, Dan; Thompson, Michael (eds.),

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Adharsh Raj and Manash Pratim Goswami write that in India, young people often copy negative behaviors seen as being traditionally masculine in

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as a masculine hero in his account of ancient Germany whose already violent nature was further heightened by the abduction of his beloved wife

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has not been achieved, changes are happening in regard to these commonly believed gender roles, particularly with gender justice work in the

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have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined. Other possible biological influences include

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The concept of masculinity varies historically and culturally. Since what constitutes masculinity has varied by time and place, according to

7976:; Oates, Thomas P. (2004). "The mismeasure of masculinity: the male body, 'race' and power in the enumerative discourses of the NFL Draft". 6578: 1149:

The crisis has also been attributed to the questioning of male dominance and rights granted to men solely on the basis of sex following the

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Alewell, Dorothea (7 October 2013). "Be successful – be male and masculine? On the influence of gender roles on objective career success".

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and Michael Thompson wrote that although all boys are born loving and empathic, exposure to gender socialization (the tough male ideal and

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Vandello, Joseph A.; Bosson, Jennifer K.; Cohen, Dov; Burnaford, Rochelle M.; Weaver, Jonathan R. (December 2008). "Precarious manhood".

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transmission was one of the significant reasons for the development of masculinities research. Risky actions commonly representative of

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longer while engaged in masculine activities such as sports. Some did not see themselves as effeminate, and felt little connection to

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Cover, Rob (2014). "Sexual ethics, masculinity and mutual vulnerability: Judith Butler's contribution to an ethics of non-violence".

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Creighton, Genevieve; Oliffe, John L (2010). "Theorising masculinities and men's health: A brief history with a view to practice".

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from people who think they are not masculine enough. Gender policing can increase the risk of alcoholism, anxiety, and depression.

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Lupton, Ben (March 2006). "Explaining men's entry into female-concentrated occupations: issues of masculinity and social class".

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Galdas, Paul M.; Cheater, Francine M.; Marshall, Paul (March 2005). "Men and health help-seeking behaviour: Literature review".

3200: 9257: 6892:"Depictions and reflections: photographing visualizations of masculinities in Afghanistan and Democratic Republic of the Congo" 5144:

New Dimensions in Communications, Proceedings of the 47th Annual New York State Speech Communication Association Conference III

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Masculinities in contemporary American culture: an intersectional approach to the complexities and challenges of male identity

3400:

Morris, Edward W (2008). "Rednecks," "Rutters," and 'Rithmetic: Social Class, Masculinity, and Schooling in a Rural Context".

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factors and biological factors. To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is

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is a form of masculinity that emphasizes power and is often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility.

5199: 4601: 3335: 2599: 2326: 1595: 948:

admitted to being more sexually aggressive at times and purposefully having unprotected sex without the worker's knowledge.

9267: 8299: 5998: 5687: 5309:"Gender Policing During Childhood and the Psychological Well-Being of Young Adult Sexual Minority Men in the United States" 4834: 4747: 359:

At the beginning of the 20th century, most families in the western world consisted of a father working outside the home as

7213:""In My Dream She Finds Me...And She Wants Me Just the Way I Am": Fatherhood Experiences of Unmarried Men in South Africa" 6553: 6537: 1006:

Stefan Dudink believes that the methodological approach (trying to categorize masculinity as a phenomenon) undermined its

2629:

Richards, Jeffrey (1999). "From Christianity to Paganism: The New Middle Ages and the Values of 'Medieval' Masculinity".

1242:'straight male cancer') are used as pejoratives referring to men exhibiting misogyny, dominance, and homophobia. 811:, female masculinity is often characterized as a type of gender performance which challenges traditional masculinity and 6609: 1784: 1497:

group in South Asia. In 2019, the program garnered much voluntary male participation in its gender equality work out of

7782: 6365: 6186: 5956: 5906: 4700: 3827: 3668: 1063: 1031: 891: 372:'s seminal work on stigma management presented a list of traits prescribed as categorically masculine for American men: 1844: 1402: 587:) were asked about their views of masculinity. Masculine traits were generally seen as an advantage in and out of the 9227: 8918: 8899: 8873: 8837: 8814: 8793: 8771: 8748: 8595: 8576: 8557: 8534: 8514: 8492: 8473: 8429: 8374: 8334: 8261: 8185: 8130: 8021: 7892: 7801: 7760: 7538:"Pathways to Gender-equitable Men: Findings from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey in Eight Countries" 6301: 5804: 5731: 5585: 5548: 5502: 5381: 5256: 5219: 5080: 4892: 4644: 4570: 4548: 4471: 4436: 4290: 4159: 4128: 4058: 4013: 3981: 3468: 3042: 3013: 2724: 2679: 2320: 2181: 2151: 2105: 2019: 1985: 1944: 1909: 1683: 1589: 1335:

adopted a globally uniform perception of masculinity. This theme also presents itself in visual depictions of men in

1304: 1010:

development. Abigail Solomou-Godeau's work on post-revolutionary French art addresses a strong, constant patriarchy.

1003:

in letters and sketches to illustrate broader cultural and social customs, such as birthing or Christmas traditions.

6102: 4306:

Bosson, Jennifer K.; Vandello, Joseph A. (April 2011). "Precarious manhood and its links to action and aggression".

2540: 7081: 3688: 2840:

Grazian, David (2007). "The Girl Hunt: Urban Nightlife and the Performance of Masculinity as Collective Activity".

2352: 2093: 1340: 1279: 191:

People regardless of biological sex may exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and

4175:

George, Annie (July 2006). "Reinventing honorable masculinity: discourses from a working-class Indian community".

702:. Men's rights activists worked to stop second-wave feminists from influencing the gay-rights movement, promoting 9475: 8065: 7903: 6204:"Heroic masculinity following spinal cord injury: Implications for therapeutic recreation practice and research" 5139: 1973:

Encyclopedia of women and gender: sex similarities and differences and the impact of society on gender, Volume 1

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Help add sources such as review articles, monographs, or textbooks. Please also establish the relevance for any

8033:"Health, Illness, Men and Masculinities (HIMM): a theoretical framework for understanding men and their health" 7363: 5450: 3263: 2898: 931:

are complex and varied, gender roles and social expectations have a strong influence encouraging men to drink.

858:, are still often viewed as deviating from the boundaries of femininity and may suffer negative repercussions. 422: 5119: 4518: 2491: 9376: 9234: 8386: 3914: 3486: 1550: 994: 418: 110: 70: 8945: 8630:"Meta-analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes" 6273: 1146:

by technology have allowed more women to enter the labor force, reducing its emphasis on physical strength.

9217: 9074: 9023: 8304: 7911: 7536:

Levtov, Ruti Galia; Barker, Gary; Contreras-Urbina, Manuel; Heilman, Brian; Verma, Ravi (6 November 2014).

6841:"Race and Masculinity: A Comparison of Asian and Western Models in Men's Lifestyle Magazine Advertisements" 4872: 4390: 3952: 3923: 3205: 2372: 927:

often do so in order to fulfill certain social expectations of manliness. While the causes of drinking and

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are widely accepted as distinct concepts. When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice (as in early

336: 6658:"Disempowerment of Men in Rural and Urban East Africa: Implications for Male Identity and Sexual Behavior" 3724: 1047:

cited a recent Canadian study indicating that as many as one in six people with eating disorders are men.

713:

culture, although lesbians vary widely in the degree to which they express masculinity and femininity. In

246:

Rule 128: "If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife to him."

34: 9249: 8709: 7491:"Man Talk: Exploring Sexual Communication Between Fathers and Sons in a Minority South African Community" 7272:"Man Talk: Exploring Sexual Communication Between Fathers and Sons in a Minority South African Community" 6759:"'Is Macho the In-thing?' Effects of the Representation of Masculinity in Bollywood Cinema on Youngsters" 6319: 4793: 5445: 3902:... gay men and women tended to have gender-atypical facial morphology, expression, and grooming styles. 682:

paid greater attention to issues of sexuality, particularly the relationship between homosexual men and

137: 9347: 5932: 3968:

Bearness's beautiful big blank: tracing the genome of ursomasculinity. An interview with Jack Fritscher

3854:"Deep neural networks are more accurate than humans at detecting sexual orientation from facial images" 2535: 740: 497:

Some believe that masculinity is linked to the male body; in this view, masculinity is associated with

118: 62: 9125: 7849: 7128: 6657: 6174:

Encyclopedia of Women and Gender: Sex Similarities and Differences and the Impact of Society on Gender

4214:"Snow White in Hellenic primary classrooms: Children's responses to non-traditional gender discourses" 1362:, for example, bring some Western influence to the gender roles portrayed in their respective novels. 9010: 8979: 7904:"Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: a theory of gender and health" 7444:"Men and anti-violence initiatives: transnational feminist reflections from Afghanistan and Pakistan" 6421: 6386: 6178: 6172: 2778:

Gould, R. 1974. Measuring masculinity by the size of a paycheck. In: J. Pleck & J. Sawyer (Eds.)

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can depict stereotypical gender roles in various ways. In India, such roles have been pushed through

618:" gay men sometimes use what John R. Ballew called "camp humor", such as referring to one another by 30: 8217: 7925: 6251: 5197:

One part alcohol, one part sport, one part dirt, stir gently: beer commercials and television sports

2912: 9222: 9130: 8483:

Shuttleworth, Russell (2004), "Disabled masculinity", in Smith, Bonnie G.; Hutchison, Beth (eds.),

6989: 5685:

Dudink, Stefan (September 1998). "The trouble with men: Problems in the history of 'masculinity'".

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Gay men have been presented in the media as feminine and open to ridicule, although films such as

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Jackson, Peter (April 1991). "The cultural politics of masculinity: towards a social geography".

5645:

Roper, Michael (March 2005). "Slipping out of view: subjectivity and emotion in gender history".

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has been associated with the ability to form emotional and supportive relationships with others.

6021: 3484:

Bassi, Karen (January 2001). "Acting like men: gender, drama, and nostalgia in Ancient Greece".

2563: 537:

are considered by some to be "effeminate and deviate from the masculine norm" and are sometimes

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Hamber, Brandon (December 2007). "Masculinity and transitional justice: an exploratory essay".

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The end of masculinity: the confusion of sexual genesis and sexual difference in modern society

6246: 5540: 5534: 4151: 4145: 3853: 3110:"Relationship of gender differences in preferences to economic development and gender equality" 2907: 1354:

Novels may be affected by Westernized perceptions. Amjad Alsyouf argues that African novelists

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warns that conforming to traditional standards of masculinity can cause harm to mental health.

912: 695: 8804: 8317: 6051: 5521: 5397:

Davis, Natalie Z. (Spring–Summer 1976). ""Women's history" in transition: the European case".

4973:"Vehicle for Southern African Knowledge? Men and Masculinities and Research from South Africa" 4120: 4114: 4101: 4050: 4029: 3236: 3178: 3030: 2001: 1967: 1936: 1930: 1893: 1887: 1883: 1803: 1370:

Masculinity is also an important concept in advertisement branding in the Islamic culture. In

219: 199:, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. 9470: 9302: 9104: 9033: 8736: 7973: 6498: 5878: 5571: 5062: 4921: 4623: 4538: 4493: 4453: 4269: 4177: 3967: 3454: 3448: 2656: 1348: 756: 730: 683: 661:

of gay men celebrating rugged masculinity and "secondary sexual characteristics of the male:

412: 328: 113:, and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both 7704: 7537: 7389: 6938: 6840: 5307:

Bauermeister, José A.; Connochie, Daniel; Jadwin-Cakmak, Laura; Meanley, Steven (May 2017).

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Wharton, Amy S. 2012. The Sociology of Gender, second edition. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

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Traditional avenues for men to gain honor were providing for their families and exercising

676: 538: 5014:"Real Men Get the Best Bar Girls: Performing Masculinities in China's Global Sex Industry" 2947:"Masculinity, Social Connectedness, and Mental Health: Men's Diverse Patterns of Practice" 1231: 8: 9381: 9038: 8277: 7857: 5610: 5110:. Falls Church, Virginia: American Automobile Association Foundation for Traffic Safety. 3640: 1520: 1174: 1143: 1139: 961: 808: 541:

as "gentle and refined", even by other gay men. According to gay human-rights campaigner

8743:. Routledge Studies in Rhetoric and Communication. New York: Routledge. pp. 65–79. 8673: 7319:"Richter, Linda & Morell, Robert (eds.). — Baba. Men and Fatherhood in South Africa" 7129:"Gentle masculinity in East Asia: 'Herbivore Men' and interlocutor constructed language" 6448:

Beynon, John (2002), "Masculinities and the notion of 'crisis'", in Beynon, John (ed.),

5835: 5749:"Multipurpose masculinities: gender and power in low countries histories of masculinity" 3840:... homosexual men were rated as more feminine and less masculine than heterosexual men. 739:

Contests of physical skill and strength appear in some form in many cultures. Here, two

78:

was the god of war, an activity associated with masculinity. His female counterpart was

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are countering the stereotype. A recent development is the portrayal of gay men in the

645: 592: 569: 479: 211:, it is more appropriate to discuss "masculinities" than a single overarching concept. 8958: 8741:

Communicating marginalized masculinities: identity politics in TV, film, and new media

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What About Boys?: A Literature Review on the Health and Development of Adolescent Boys

7934: 7589:"Popular Culture and Masculinity Ideals in East Asia, with Special Reference to China" 6673: 4662:"The Female/Athlete Paradox: Managing Traditional Views of Masculinity and Femininity" 2432: 9212: 9043: 8914: 8895: 8869: 8833: 8810: 8789: 8767: 8760: 8744: 8652: 8616: 8591: 8572: 8553: 8547: 8530: 8510: 8488: 8469: 8425: 8407: 8399: 8370: 8351: 8330: 8257: 8207: 8181: 8163: 8126: 8119: 8106: 8017: 8010: 7997: 7938: 7888: 7882: 7797: 7778: 7756: 7739: 7709: 7677: 7659: 7620: 7561: 7522: 7510: 7475: 7463: 7413: 7340: 7303: 7291: 7271: 7244: 7232: 7160: 7148: 7113: 7101: 7062: 7011: 6962: 6923: 6911: 6864: 6813: 6801: 6758: 6736: 6728: 6677: 6625: 6504: 6477: 6453: 6390: 6361: 6340: 6297: 6268: 6182: 6129: 6108: 5859: 5800: 5727: 5708: 5668: 5631: 5623: 5581: 5544: 5498: 5479: 5421: 5377: 5346: 5328: 5293: 5252: 5215: 5209: 5111: 5076: 5072: 5045: 5033: 4998: 4942: 4888: 4853: 4848: 4829: 4810: 4806: 4696: 4640: 4566: 4544: 4514: 4467: 4432: 4411: 4362: 4286: 4198: 4155: 4124: 4054: 4043: 4009: 4002: 3977: 3873: 3823: 3811: 3586: 3464: 3421: 3373: 3214: 3141: 3038: 3009: 2984: 2966: 2925: 2921: 2826: 2741:

Fight Sports and American Masculinity: Salvation in Violence from 1607 to the Present

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Psychologist Joseph Pleck argues that a hierarchy of masculinity exists largely as a

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McKenzie, Sarah K.; Collings, Sunny; Jenkin, Gabrielle; River, Jo (September 2018).

2867: 9099: 8732: 8644: 8419: 8415: 8395: 8313: 8286: 8151: 8094: 8055: 8047: 7985: 7930: 7866: 7827: 7811: 7731: 7667: 7651: 7610: 7600: 7549: 7502: 7455: 7401: 7335: 7330: 7318: 7283: 7224: 7140: 7093: 7054: 7006: 7001: 6950: 6903: 6852: 6793: 6720: 6669: 6328: 6256: 6141: 5927: 5915: 5839: 5772: 5762: 5696: 5656: 5619: 5580:. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 17–34. 5459: 5416: 5408: 5399: 5336: 5320: 5281: 5025: 4984: 4930: 4843: 4802: 4773: 4725: 4502: 4399: 4374: 4354: 4317: 4228: 4186: 3885: 3865: 3803: 3495: 3409: 3361: 3210: 3131: 3121: 2974: 2958: 2917: 2849: 2814: 2638: 2402: 2221: 2213: 2052: 1897: 1180: 1119: 916: 899: 703: 313: 308: 75: 55: 8888: 8826: 7638:

Dworkin, Shari L.; Hatcher, Abigail M.; Colvin, Chris; Peacock, Dean (June 2013).

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What is masculinity?: historical dynamics from antiquity to the contemporary world

5029: 4232: 3067: 9371: 9322: 9192: 9187: 9084: 9018: 8883: 8848: 8441: 8345: 8249: 8229: 8114: 6557: 6416: 6355: 6332: 6280: 5939: 5528: 5367: 5244: 5203: 5196: 4751: 4630: 4276: 4108: 4036: 3997: 3792:"Detection of sexual orientation ("gaydar") by homosexual and heterosexual women" 3760: 3339: 3330: 3074: 2702: 2669: 2663: 2310: 2275: 2251: 2141: 2125: 1926: 1579: 1435: 1044: 1040: 1035: 972: 924: 819:

has led to greater acceptance of women expressing masculinity in recent decades.

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Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia: Volume 1

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Reinventing the Sexes: The Biomedical Construction of Femininity and Masculinity

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Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1

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Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1

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structures, institutions and discourse must be eliminated from Western society.

9317: 9307: 9089: 9064: 9028: 8781: 8452: 8273:"The construction of 'tough' masculinity: Negotiation, alignment and rejection" 8245: 8051: 7850:"Ideologies of masculinity in women's magazines: a critical stylistic approach" 7770: 7390:"Of Mindsets and Men: Tackling Masculinity, Patriarchy, and Privilege in Delhi" 7097: 6550: 6525: 6145: 5792: 5700: 5285: 5240: 4876: 4777: 3578: 3513: 3326: 3310: 2306: 2171: 2040: 1932:"Femininity", "masculinity", and "androgyny": a modern philosophical discussion 1007: 863: 847: 839: 807:, expressing masculinity is not necessarily related to a woman's sexuality. In 752: 691: 650: 565: 542: 529: 369: 332: 301: 269:

fought aggressively in battle to protect their women from capture by the enemy.

208: 8098: 7605: 7588: 7506: 7287: 7058: 6260: 3807: 2642: 2101: 2056: 1788: 9459: 9422: 9332: 9172: 9069: 8620: 8607: 8005: 7831: 7663: 7655: 7624: 7553: 7514: 7467: 7405: 7344: 7295: 7236: 7228: 7152: 7105: 7066: 7043:"Negotiating Muslim masculinity: androgynous spaces within feminized fashion" 7015: 6954: 6915: 6856: 6805: 6797: 6782:"Looking westwards: Men in transnational men's magazine advertising in India" 6732: 6681: 5919: 5332: 5324: 5107:

Myths, men, and beer: an analysis of beer commercials on broadcast television

5037: 4989: 4972: 4934: 4506: 4321: 4190: 3413: 3305: 2970: 2962: 2853: 2818: 2217: 2167: 2137: 2064: 1359: 1170: 1015: 908: 619: 471: 463: 344: 181: 169: 149: 8206:(౩rd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 198–210. 7870: 7796:. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. 7490: 7042: 6939:"Major League Baseball and Racialized Masculinities in Korean Digital Media" 6601: 5767: 5748: 5463: 5115: 4729: 3791: 3590: 3126: 3109: 2027:

independence, assertiveness, initiative, rationality and emotional control).

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A question of manhood: a reader in U.S. Black men's history and masculinity

8656: 7942: 7743: 7681: 7144: 6740: 5350: 5167: 5135: 5101: 4814: 4366: 3877: 3815: 3756:"Gay and straight men may have different facial shapes, new study suggests" 3518:"What straight men could learn from gay men - a queer kind of masculinity?" 3145: 2988: 2929: 1525: 1482: 1439: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1323: 952: 936: 679: 615: 596: 383: 251: 185: 161: 8290: 8155: 5192:

Paper presented at the Advances in Consumer Research Conference, New York.

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cited. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed.

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underwent a transformation from traditional heroism. Scottish philosopher

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A man's place: masculinity and the middle-class home in Victorian England

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unsafe sex. Masculinity and sexual health is also a complex issue in the

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Jiang, Jiani; Huhmann, Bruce A.; Hyman, Michael R. (20 November 2019).

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Masculinities as depicted in the media of countries categorized as the

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movements developing, in part, because masculinity was understood as a

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In the article "Sexual Ethics, Masculinity and Mutual Vulnerability",

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Masculinity and self perception of men identified as informal leaders

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Studies of men in North America and Europe show that men who consume

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Mars and Venus, Or, Planet Earth?: Women and Men in a New Millenium

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of a society. Non-standard behavior may be considered indicative of

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Women and Sport: Continuing a Journey of Liberation and Celebration

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The emphasis on prevailing in situations requiring body and fitness

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Grossberg, Lawrence; Nelson, Cary; Treichler, Paula, eds. (1992).

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persons and to their psychic make-up" (Tosh's human experience).

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Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence

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The virgin and the bride: idealized womanhood in late antiquity

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Puberty, Sexuality, and the Self: Boys and Girls at Adolescence

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The Sociology of Gender: An Introduction to Theory and Research

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have made the nature of masculinity a focus of their fiction.

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Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and

289:. In his rage Arminius demanded war against the Roman empire. 6571:"Ao Omae confronts identities and alienation of modern youth" 1494: 1475: 1384: 1331: 902:

are both traditionally masculine activities in many cultures.

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Ed. by H. Crowley and S. Himmelweit. Polity/Open University.

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The need for adequacy in sexual matters and financial status

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In Chinese and Taiwanese popular culture, phrases such as "

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Laurie, Ross (1999), "Masculinity", in Boyd, Kelly (ed.),

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The New Politics of Masculinity: Men, Power and Resistance

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Hutchinson, Susan L.; Kleiber, Douglas A. (January 2000).

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Dandies and desert saints: styles of Victorian masculinity

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Men, boys and people who were assigned male at birth face

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(1999). 5325:10.1177/1557988316680938 4990:10.1177/1097184X18805548 4935:10.1177/1097184X03257441 4718:Journal of Social Issues 4507:10.1177/1097184X08328448 4322:10.1177/0963721411402669 4270:Masculinity and ridicule 4191:10.1177/1097184X04270379 3581:; Lewis, Summer (2004). 3461:Harvard University Press 3414:10.1177/0891243208325163 2963:10.1177/1557988318772732 2854:10.1525/si.2007.30.2.221 2819:10.1177/1097184x03257433 2520:Tacitus, The Annals 1.59 2274:Reeser, Todd W. (2010). 2250:24 December 2022 at the 2218:10.1108/QRJ-03-2014-0011 2197:Laurie, Timothy (2014). 1966:Carli, Linda L. (2001). 1889:Theorizing Masculinities 1720:Wharton, Amy S. (2005). 1053:body dysmorphic disorder 1051:body, which may lead to 539:benevolently stereotyped 402:of a construction worker 363:and a mother as working 31:latest accepted revision 9348:International Men's Day 9240:Men Going Their Own Way 9060:Marriage of convenience 8868:. New York: Routledge. 8847:Pozzo, Barbara (2013). 8567:Tozer, Malcolm (2015). 8365:Levine, Martin (1998). 8327:A new psychology of men 8298:Lawson, Robert (2020). 8271:Lawson, Robert (2013). 8180:. New York: Routledge. 8040:Journal of Men's Health 7871:10.1558/genl.v9i3.17360 6608:(in Chinese (Taiwan)). 6556:25 October 2017 at the 6472:MacInnes, John (1998). 6279:24 October 2021 at the 6171:Worell, Judith (2001). 5938:1 December 2017 at the 5768:10.18352/bmgn-lchr.1562 5274:Health Sociology Review 5150:: 92–95. Archived from 5061:Strate, Lance (1992), " 4730:10.1111/0022-4537.00151 4666:Applied Psychology Opus 4563:Gender as Soft Assembly 3434:Martin, Karin A. 1996. 3390:. Boston: Beacon Press. 3127:10.1126/science.aas9899 3073:8 November 2020 at the 2765:Goffman, Erving. 1963. 2437:sourcebooks.fordham.edu 1159:post-industrial society 1142:and the replacement of 583:, gay men (one of them 355:20th century to present 9476:Social constructionism 9392:Conflict tactics scale 9183:Masculine beauty ideal 9152:Testosterone poisoning 8940:The Men's Bibliography 8586:Walsh, Fintan (2010). 8525:Simpson, Mark (1993). 8501:Simpson, Mark (1994). 8228:Kang, John M. (2013). 8197:"Why Guys Throw Bombs" 7751:Ashe, Fidelma (2006). 7145:10.1075/japc.00012.kro 4425:Keith, Thomas (2017). 3966:Suresha, Ron (2009), " 3447:Cooper, Kate (1996), " 3438:. New York: Routledge. 3338:2 October 2023 at the 2791:Pascoe, C. J. (2012). 2655:Rosen, David (1993), " 1804:"'Female masculinity'" 1083: 1080:social learning theory 1026:Psychological research 995:Scott of the Antarctic 913:cardiovascular disease 903: 792: 744: 629: 557: 524:Gay and lesbian people 403: 379: 320:is a tale of medieval 305: 275: 230: 145: 83: 61:. For other uses, see 9223:Men's rights movement 9105:Tender years doctrine 9034:Hegemonic masculinity 9011:Gender discrimination 8864:Taylor, Gary (2002). 8291:10.1558/genl.v7i3.369 7978:Patterns of Prejudice 7644:Men and Masculinities 7542:Men and Masculinities 7394:Men and Masculinities 7217:Men and Masculinities 6360:. St Martin's Press. 5879:Ohio State University 5464:10.1086/ahr/91.5.1053 5214:. New York: Longman. 4977:Men and Masculinities 4922:Men and Masculinities 4750:30 March 2018 at the 4537:Pascoe, C.J. (2011). 4494:Men and Masculinities 4178:Men and Masculinities 3790:Lyons, Minna (2014). 2807:Men and Masculinities 2604:www.perseus.tufts.edu 2571:University of Vermont 2354:The Code of Hammurabi 2002:Feminist perspectives 1902:10.4135/9781452243627 1349:Major League Baseball 1246:East African cultures 1208:'big man'), " 1144:smokestack industries 1133:Masculinity in crisis 1077: 1062:In January 2019, the 885: 787: 757:hegemonic masculinity 738: 731:Hegemonic masculinity 725:Hegemonic masculinity 684:hegemonic masculinity 669:, proportional size, 624: 547: 413:Nature versus nurture 407:Nature versus nurture 397: 374: 347:, each has its day". 300: 285:by the Roman general 271: 222: 140: 73: 9147:Human male sexuality 8485:Gendering disability 8468:. New York: Putnam. 7974:Durham, Meenakshi G. 7329:(209–210): 488–492. 5611:Gender & History 5570:Tosh, John (2011), " 5527:5 April 2023 at the 5495:Masculine domination 5366:Tosh, John (1999), " 5202:4 April 2023 at the 4629:5 April 2023 at the 4275:4 April 2023 at the 4221:Gender and Education 4144:Boyd, Helen (2003). 4107:5 April 2023 at the 4035:5 April 2023 at the 3693:The Good Men Project 3528:on 11 September 2016 3402:Gender & Society 3354:Gender & Society 3262:Mills, Sara (2003). 2842:Symbolic Interaction 2701:4 April 2023 at the 2662:4 April 2023 at the 2124:4 March 2021 at the 2119:View online preview. 1791:on 8 September 2014. 1138:a source of stress. 111:socially constructed 74:In Roman mythology, 9382:Forced circumcision 9039:Occupational sexism 8529:. London: Cassell. 8523:Also available as: 8462:Shapiro, Stephen A. 8278:Gender and Language 8223:on 3 November 2006. 8156:10.1093/ijtj/ijm037 7960:on 19 February 2018 7858:Gender and Language 6497:Hunt, Leon (1998). 6022:"Muscle dysmorphia" 5836:1991TrIBG..16..199J 4672:on 16 February 2019 4082:on 10 February 2014 3870:10.1037/pspa0000098 3641:The Huffington Post 3615:on 18 November 2017 3487:Classical Philology 3217:on 11 December 2008 2780:Men and masculinity 2492:"Tacitus' Germania" 1521:Christian manliness 1493:, developed by the 1255:In the Global South 1175:Straight man cancer 1165:East Asian cultures 1140:Deindustrialization 809:feminist philosophy 579:In the documentary 555:biologically fixed. 304:fighting the dragon 123:biological male sex 21:Page version status 8853:Nevada Law Journal 8649:10.1037/cou0000176 8456:. Ottawa, Ontario. 8234:Nevada Law Journal 8121:Female masculinity 8071:on 8 February 2016 6082:on 12 January 2019 5962:The New York Times 5661:10.1093/hwj/dbi006 5154:on 1 December 2017 4877:Kimmel, Michael S. 4594:Nevada Law Journal 4459:Female Masculinity 4212:Kostas, M (2018). 4074:Wickens, Kathryn. 4045:Female masculinity 3731:. John R. Ballew. 3579:Kimmel, Michael S. 3120:(6412): eaas9899. 3031:"Gender and Power" 2874:. 26 August 2008. 2872:Indiana University 2564:"Who is Arminius?" 2562:Torres, Danielle. 1084: 1070:Gender-role stress 904: 793: 767:Precarious manhood 745: 646:Brokeback Mountain 593:sexual orientation 480:sexual orientation 460:gender assumptions 404: 306: 231: 146: 84: 27: 9453: 9452: 9431: 9430: 9286: 9285: 9201: 9200: 9044:Sexual harassment 8820:, Historiography. 8733:Buchbinder, David 8712:on 29 August 2021 8702:"Survival skills" 8416:Mansfield, Harvey 8357:978-1-43-382690-0 8213:978-0-52-024011-7 7919:(10): 1385–1401. 7812:Buchbinder, David 7710:Psychiatric Times 7454:(10): 1369–1385. 6725:10.1080/741922357 6662:World Development 6510:978-0-415-15182-5 6483:978-0-335-19659-3 6459:978-0-335-19988-4 6396:978-0-231-50036-4 6239:Marketing Letters 6114:978-1-31-734808-5 4660:Paloian, Andrea. 3852:Y., Wang (2018). 2870:(Press release). 2752:Elliott J. Gorn, 2379:. Bible Gateway. 2287:978-1-4051-6859-5 1856:978-1-57-607774-0 1817:978-1-57-607774-0 1770:978-0-8400-3204-1 1733:978-1-40-514343-1 1637:978-0-8166-2444-7 1381:Sooshokukeidanshi 1315: 1314: 1307: 1274:needs additional 1240: 1226: 1206: 1151:feminist movement 1088:Toxic masculinity 1057:muscle dysmorphia 945:toxic masculinity 890:after his return 844:American football 817:feminist movement 239:(about 1750 BC): 236:Code of Hammurabi 18: 9483: 9443: 9442: 9360: 9359: 9342:Remembrance days 9246: 9245: 9100:Stay-at-home dad 9007: 9006: 8989: 8982: 8975: 8966: 8965: 8924: 8905: 8893: 8884:Theweleit, Klaus 8879: 8860: 8843: 8831: 8828:The American man 8819: 8799: 8777: 8765: 8754: 8721: 8719: 8717: 8696: 8690: 8682: 8680: 8668: 8634: 8624: 8601: 8582: 8563: 8540: 8520: 8508: 8497: 8479: 8457: 8446: 8435: 8411: 8380: 8361: 8340: 8321: 8294: 8267: 8250:Messner, Michael 8241: 8224: 8222: 8216:. Archived from 8201: 8191: 8167: 8136: 8124: 8115:Halberstam, Jack 8110: 8080: 8078: 8076: 8070: 8064:. 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R. R. Tolkien 309:Jeffrey Richards 39:9 September 2024 9491: 9490: 9486: 9485: 9484: 9482: 9481: 9480: 9456: 9455: 9454: 9449: 9427: 9406: 9372:Dating violence 9351: 9337: 9323:Michael Messner 9282: 9244: 9197: 9193:Human sex ratio 9161: 9135: 9114: 9085:Paternity fraud 9048: 9019:Gender equality 8998: 8993: 8946:Boyhood Studies 8931: 8921: 8902: 8876: 8840: 8817: 8796: 8782:Kimmel, Michael 8774: 8751: 8728: 8715: 8713: 8684: 8683: 8678: 8632: 8598: 8579: 8560: 8537: 8517: 8495: 8476: 8442:Wiley-Blackwell 8432: 8377: 8358: 8337: 8264: 8252:, eds. (2001). 8246:Kimmel, Michael 8220: 8214: 8199: 8188: 8133: 8074: 8072: 8068: 8035: 8024: 7963: 7961: 7957: 7926:10.1.1.462.4452 7906: 7895: 7852: 7804: 7785: 7771:Biddulph, Steve 7763: 7699: 7694: 7692:Further reading 7689: 7636: 7632: 7585: 7581: 7571: 7569: 7534: 7530: 7487: 7483: 7440: 7433: 7423: 7421: 7386: 7379: 7369: 7367: 7356: 7352: 7315: 7311: 7268: 7264: 7254: 7252: 7209: 7202: 7187: 7180: 7170: 7168: 7125: 7121: 7078: 7074: 7039: 7035: 7025: 7023: 6986: 6982: 6972: 6970: 6935: 6931: 6888: 6884: 6874: 6872: 6837: 6833: 6823: 6821: 6778: 6774: 6755: 6748: 6705: 6701: 6691: 6689: 6654: 6639: 6623: 6622: 6615: 6613: 6598: 6594: 6584: 6582: 6575:The Japan Times 6567: 6563: 6558:Wayback Machine 6543: 6541: 6522: 6518: 6511: 6495: 6491: 6484: 6470: 6466: 6460: 6446: 6437: 6427: 6425: 6424:on 12 July 2012 6408: 6404: 6397: 6379: 6375: 6368: 6352: 6348: 6327:(82): 435–451. 6315: 6311: 6304: 6290: 6286: 6281:Wayback Machine 6252:10.1.1.477.5034 6235: 6231: 6221: 6219: 6200: 6196: 6189: 6169: 6165: 6155: 6153: 6126: 6122: 6115: 6099: 6095: 6085: 6083: 6068: 6067: 6063: 6056:livescience.com 6050: 6049: 6045: 6035: 6033: 6018: 6014: 6004: 6002: 5997:. 28 May 2008. 5987: 5986: 5982: 5972: 5970: 5953: 5949: 5940:Wayback Machine 5888: 5886: 5885:on 18 June 2008 5871: 5867: 5818: 5814: 5807: 5793:Farrell, Warren 5790: 5786: 5745: 5741: 5734: 5720: 5716: 5683: 5676: 5643: 5639: 5606: 5595: 5588: 5569: 5558: 5551: 5529:Wayback Machine 5519: 5512: 5505: 5491: 5487: 5442: 5438: 5413:10.2307/3177729 5407:(3–4): 83–103. 5395: 5391: 5384: 5365: 5358: 5305: 5301: 5270: 5266: 5259: 5241:Kimmel, Michael 5237: 5233: 5222: 5204:Wayback Machine 5185: 5183: 5157: 5155: 5125: 5123: 5083: 5060: 5053: 5010: 5006: 4969: 4965: 4955: 4953: 4949: 4916: 4906: 4902: 4895: 4869: 4865: 4826: 4822: 4789: 4785: 4762: 4758: 4752:Wayback Machine 4741: 4737: 4714: 4710: 4703: 4689: 4685: 4675: 4673: 4658: 4654: 4647: 4631:Wayback Machine 4621: 4617: 4607: 4605: 4586: 4582: 4573: 4551: 4524: 4522: 4485: 4481: 4474: 4450: 4446: 4439: 4423: 4419: 4386: 4382: 4341: 4337: 4304: 4300: 4293: 4277:Wayback Machine 4267: 4263: 4253: 4251: 4247: 4216: 4210: 4206: 4173: 4169: 4162: 4142: 4138: 4131: 4109:Wayback Machine 4102:Gender warriors 4099: 4095: 4085: 4083: 4072: 4068: 4061: 4037:Wayback Machine 4027: 4023: 4016: 3995: 3991: 3984: 3965: 3961: 3948: 3944: 3934: 3932: 3919:Invented Bears" 3913: 3912: 3908: 3895: 3893: 3850: 3846: 3833: 3831: 3788: 3784: 3771: 3769: 3761:The Independent 3752: 3748: 3738: 3736: 3721: 3712: 3702: 3700: 3684: 3677: 3675: 3665: 3661: 3651: 3649: 3632: 3628: 3618: 3616: 3605: 3598: 3576: 3572: 3562: 3560: 3545: 3541: 3531: 3529: 3514:Tatchell, Peter 3511: 3507: 3482: 3478: 3471: 3446: 3442: 3433: 3429: 3398: 3394: 3385: 3381: 3350: 3346: 3340:Wayback Machine 3325: 3318: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3291: 3281: 3279: 3260: 3256: 3246: 3244: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3220: 3218: 3199: 3198: 3194: 3184: 3182: 3166: 3165: 3161: 3106: 3102: 3093: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3075:Wayback Machine 3063: 3059: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3027: 3023: 3016: 3000: 2996: 2943: 2939: 2913:10.1.1.183.9867 2881: 2879: 2866: 2865: 2861: 2838: 2834: 2803: 2799: 2790: 2786: 2777: 2773: 2764: 2760: 2751: 2747: 2738: 2734: 2727: 2703:Wayback Machine 2693: 2689: 2682: 2664:Wayback Machine 2654: 2650: 2631:Cultural Values 2627: 2623: 2613: 2611: 2598: 2597: 2593: 2583: 2581: 2577: 2566: 2560: 2556: 2546: 2544: 2529: 2528: 2524: 2519: 2515: 2505: 2503: 2490: 2489: 2485: 2475: 2473: 2460: 2456: 2446: 2444: 2431: 2430: 2426: 2416: 2414: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2386: 2384: 2371: 2370: 2366: 2361:on 14 May 2011. 2346: 2342: 2332: 2330: 2323: 2304: 2295: 2288: 2272: 2257: 2252:Wayback Machine 2237: 2235: 2201: 2195: 2191: 2184: 2165: 2161: 2154: 2135: 2131: 2126:Wayback Machine 2111: 2109: 2084: 2080: 2037: 2033: 2022: 2014:. p. 248. 1999: 1995: 1988: 1968:"Assertiveness" 1964: 1960: 1947: 1923: 1919: 1912: 1880: 1876: 1866: 1864: 1857: 1841: 1837: 1827: 1825: 1818: 1800: 1796: 1783: 1782: 1778: 1771: 1757: 1753: 1743: 1741: 1734: 1718: 1705: 1695: 1693: 1686: 1670: 1657: 1647: 1645: 1638: 1622: 1611: 1601: 1599: 1592: 1576: 1569: 1565: 1560: 1541:Men's World Day 1511: 1436:gender equality 1432: 1412: 1393: 1368: 1320: 1311: 1300: 1294: 1291: 1284: 1268: 1264: 1257: 1248: 1177: 1169:Main articles: 1167: 1135: 1090: 1072: 1045:Thomas Holbrook 1043:. Psychiatrist 1036:objectification 1028: 1008:historiographic 981: 973:gender policing 880: 782: 769: 733: 727: 700:men's movements 620:female pronouns 532: 526: 476:gender identity 462:and is part of 447: 415: 409: 392: 357: 295: 267:Germanic tribes 217: 205: 150:Western society 135: 66: 52: 47: 46: 45: 44: 43: 42: 26: 12: 11: 5: 9489: 9479: 9478: 9473: 9468: 9451: 9450: 9448: 9447: 9436: 9433: 9432: 9429: 9428: 9426: 9425: 9420: 9414: 9412: 9408: 9407: 9405: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9389: 9384: 9379: 9374: 9368: 9366: 9357: 9353: 9352: 9350: 9345: 9343: 9339: 9338: 9336: 9335: 9330: 9325: 9320: 9318:Michael Kimmel 9315: 9310: 9308:Warren Farrell 9305: 9300: 9294: 9292: 9288: 9287: 9284: 9283: 9281: 9280: 9275: 9273:United Kingdom 9270: 9265: 9260: 9254: 9252: 9243: 9242: 9237: 9232: 9231: 9230: 9220: 9215: 9213:Men's movement 9209: 9207: 9203: 9202: 9199: 9198: 9196: 9195: 9190: 9185: 9180: 9175: 9169: 9167: 9163: 9162: 9160: 9159: 9154: 9149: 9143: 9141: 9137: 9136: 9134: 9133: 9128: 9122: 9120: 9116: 9115: 9113: 9112: 9107: 9102: 9097: 9092: 9090:Patrilineality 9087: 9082: 9077: 9072: 9067: 9065:Paper abortion 9062: 9056: 9054: 9050: 9049: 9047: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9029:Gender pay gap 9026: 9021: 9015: 9013: 9004: 9000: 8999: 8992: 8991: 8984: 8977: 8969: 8963: 8962: 8959:Men in America 8950: 8949: 8943: 8930: 8929:External links 8927: 8926: 8925: 8919: 8906: 8900: 8890:Male fantasies 8880: 8874: 8861: 8844: 8838: 8821: 8815: 8800: 8794: 8778: 8772: 8755: 8749: 8727: 8724: 8723: 8722: 8697: 8669: 8625: 8602: 8596: 8583: 8577: 8564: 8558: 8543: 8542: 8541: 8535: 8515: 8498: 8493: 8480: 8474: 8458: 8453:Ottawa Citizen 8447: 8436: 8430: 8412: 8394:(2): 103–128. 8381: 8375: 8362: 8356: 8341: 8335: 8322: 8312:(1): 409–432. 8295: 8285:(3): 369–395. 8268: 8262: 8242: 8225: 8212: 8192: 8186: 8168: 8150:(3): 375–390. 8137: 8131: 8111: 8093:(2): 122–139. 8081: 8028: 8022: 8006:Eldredge, John 8002: 7984:(3): 301–320. 7970: 7899: 7893: 7875: 7865:(3): 337–364. 7845: 7836: 7808: 7802: 7789: 7784:978-1876451882 7783: 7767: 7761: 7748: 7719: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7687: 7650:(2): 181–202. 7630: 7599:(4): 929–943. 7579: 7548:(5): 467–501. 7528: 7501:(3): 173–191. 7481: 7431: 7400:(2): 266–287. 7377: 7350: 7309: 7262: 7223:(5): 503–523. 7200: 7197:(17): 128–173. 7178: 7139:(2): 251–280. 7119: 7092:(3): 721–745. 7072: 7033: 7000:(2): 169–179. 6980: 6949:(2): 168–187. 6929: 6902:(4): 530–536. 6882: 6851:(1): 118–138. 6831: 6792:(3): 249–266. 6772: 6746: 6699: 6668:(4): 657–671. 6637: 6592: 6561: 6516: 6509: 6489: 6482: 6464: 6458: 6435: 6402: 6395: 6373: 6367:978-0333593226 6366: 6346: 6309: 6302: 6284: 6245:(4): 353–367. 6229: 6194: 6188:978-0122272455 6187: 6163: 6140:(3): 259–265. 6120: 6113: 6093: 6061: 6043: 6012: 5980: 5947: 5945: 5944: 5943: 5942: 5865: 5844:10.2307/622614 5830:(2): 199–213. 5812: 5805: 5784: 5739: 5732: 5714: 5695:(3): 419–431. 5674: 5637: 5618:(1): 163–185. 5593: 5586: 5556: 5549: 5510: 5503: 5485: 5436: 5389: 5382: 5356: 5319:(3): 693–701. 5299: 5264: 5257: 5231: 5229: 5228: 5227: 5226: 5220: 5193: 5164: 5132: 5094: 5093: 5081: 5051: 5024:(5): 559–573. 5004: 4963: 4900: 4893: 4863: 4820: 4801:(6): 616–623. 4783: 4772:(2): 147–168. 4756: 4735: 4708: 4702:978-1450417594 4701: 4683: 4652: 4645: 4615: 4580: 4578: 4577: 4571: 4555: 4549: 4501:(5): 622–633. 4479: 4472: 4444: 4437: 4417: 4380: 4335: 4298: 4291: 4261: 4227:(4): 530–548. 4204: 4167: 4160: 4136: 4129: 4093: 4066: 4059: 4021: 4014: 3989: 3982: 3959: 3942: 3906: 3864:(2): 246–257. 3844: 3802:(2): 345–352. 3782: 3746: 3710: 3659: 3626: 3596: 3570: 3539: 3505: 3500:10.1086/449528 3476: 3469: 3463:. p. 19. 3440: 3427: 3408:(6): 728–751. 3392: 3379: 3360:(2): 125–151. 3344: 3316: 3306:Butler, Judith 3298: 3289: 3254: 3228: 3209:. Here Press. 3192: 3159: 3100: 3087: 3078: 3057: 3043: 3021: 3014: 2994: 2937: 2935: 2934: 2906:(3): 583–594. 2859: 2848:(2): 221–243. 2832: 2797: 2784: 2771: 2758: 2745: 2732: 2725: 2687: 2680: 2648: 2637:(2): 213–234. 2621: 2591: 2554: 2522: 2513: 2483: 2454: 2424: 2394: 2364: 2340: 2321: 2293: 2286: 2255: 2189: 2182: 2168:Butler, Judith 2159: 2152: 2138:Flood, Michael 2129: 2092:(PhD thesis). 2078: 2051:(2): 219–237. 2031: 2020: 1993: 1986: 1958: 1945: 1927:"Introduction" 1917: 1910: 1874: 1855: 1835: 1816: 1794: 1776: 1769: 1751: 1732: 1703: 1684: 1655: 1636: 1609: 1590: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1512: 1510: 1507: 1431: 1428: 1411: 1408: 1392: 1389: 1367: 1364: 1319: 1316: 1313: 1312: 1271: 1269: 1262: 1256: 1253: 1247: 1244: 1166: 1163: 1134: 1131: 1110:In their book 1104: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1071: 1068: 1027: 1024: 980: 977: 894:. Fighting in 879: 876: 840:weight lifting 813:male dominance 781: 778: 768: 765: 753:Raewyn Connell 729:Main article: 726: 723: 692:gay liberation 651:LGBT community 568:adds that the 566:Michael Kimmel 543:Peter Tatchell 525: 522: 499:male genitalia 446: 443: 411:Main article: 408: 405: 391: 388: 370:Erving Goffman 356: 353: 333:Thomas Carlyle 294: 291: 248: 247: 244: 226:, hero of the 216: 213: 209:Raewyn Connell 204: 201: 134: 131: 50: 28: 22: 19: 17: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9488: 9477: 9474: 9472: 9469: 9467: 9464: 9463: 9461: 9446: 9438: 9437: 9434: 9424: 9423:Androcentrism 9421: 9419: 9416: 9415: 9413: 9409: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9390: 9388: 9385: 9383: 9380: 9378: 9375: 9373: 9370: 9369: 9367: 9365: 9361: 9358: 9354: 9349: 9346: 9344: 9340: 9334: 9333:Bettina Arndt 9331: 9329: 9326: 9324: 9321: 9319: 9316: 9314: 9311: 9309: 9306: 9304: 9301: 9299: 9296: 9295: 9293: 9289: 9279: 9278:United States 9276: 9274: 9271: 9269: 9266: 9264: 9261: 9259: 9256: 9255: 9253: 9251: 9247: 9241: 9238: 9236: 9233: 9229: 9226: 9225: 9224: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9210: 9208: 9204: 9194: 9191: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9173:Herbivore men 9171: 9170: 9168: 9164: 9158: 9155: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9144: 9142: 9138: 9132: 9129: 9127: 9126:Men's shelter 9124: 9123: 9121: 9117: 9111: 9108: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9070:Paternal bond 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9057: 9055: 9051: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9016: 9014: 9012: 9008: 9005: 9001: 8997: 8990: 8985: 8983: 8978: 8976: 8971: 8970: 8967: 8960: 8957: 8956: 8955: 8954: 8947: 8944: 8941: 8938: 8937: 8936: 8935: 8934:Bibliographic 8922: 8920:9780841912816 8916: 8912: 8907: 8903: 8901:9780816614516 8897: 8892: 8891: 8885: 8881: 8877: 8875:9780415938815 8871: 8867: 8862: 8858: 8854: 8850: 8845: 8841: 8839:9780130281425 8835: 8830: 8829: 8822: 8818: 8816:9781884964336 8812: 8808: 8807: 8801: 8797: 8795:9780199781553 8791: 8787: 8783: 8779: 8775: 8773:9780253213433 8769: 8764: 8763: 8756: 8752: 8750:9780415623070 8746: 8742: 8738: 8734: 8730: 8729: 8711: 8707: 8703: 8698: 8694: 8688: 8677: 8676: 8670: 8666: 8662: 8658: 8654: 8650: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8631: 8626: 8622: 8618: 8615:(48): 24–27. 8614: 8610: 8609: 8608:Nursing Times 8603: 8599: 8597:9781349368242 8593: 8589: 8584: 8580: 8578:9781329542730 8574: 8570: 8565: 8561: 8559:9780060950989 8555: 8551: 8550: 8544: 8538: 8536:9780304328086 8532: 8528: 8522: 8521: 8518: 8516:9780415909914 8512: 8507: 8506: 8499: 8496: 8494:9780813533735 8490: 8486: 8481: 8477: 8475:9780399129926 8471: 8467: 8463: 8459: 8455: 8454: 8448: 8445:. Malden, MA. 8444: 8443: 8437: 8433: 8431:9780300106640 8427: 8423: 8422: 8417: 8413: 8409: 8405: 8401: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8388: 8382: 8378: 8376:9780814746943 8372: 8368: 8363: 8359: 8353: 8349: 8348: 8342: 8338: 8336:9780465039166 8332: 8328: 8323: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8292: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8265: 8263:9780205321056 8259: 8255: 8251: 8247: 8243: 8239: 8235: 8231: 8226: 8219: 8215: 8209: 8205: 8198: 8193: 8189: 8187:9780415969277 8183: 8179: 8178: 8173: 8169: 8165: 8161: 8157: 8153: 8149: 8145: 8144: 8138: 8134: 8132:9780822322436 8128: 8123: 8122: 8116: 8112: 8108: 8104: 8100: 8096: 8092: 8088: 8082: 8067: 8062: 8057: 8053: 8049: 8045: 8041: 8034: 8029: 8025: 8023:9780785218951 8019: 8014: 8013: 8007: 8003: 7999: 7995: 7991: 7987: 7983: 7979: 7975: 7971: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7944: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7913: 7905: 7900: 7896: 7894:9780877736035 7890: 7886: 7885: 7880: 7876: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7860: 7859: 7851: 7846: 7842: 7837: 7833: 7829: 7825: 7821: 7817: 7816:Modern Family 7813: 7809: 7805: 7803:9780470516560 7799: 7795: 7790: 7786: 7780: 7776: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7762:9781281062505 7758: 7754: 7749: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7720: 7716: 7712: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7700: 7683: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7634: 7626: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7598: 7594: 7590: 7583: 7567: 7563: 7559: 7555: 7551: 7547: 7543: 7539: 7532: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7512: 7508: 7504: 7500: 7496: 7492: 7485: 7477: 7473: 7469: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7438: 7436: 7419: 7415: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7391: 7384: 7382: 7365: 7361: 7354: 7346: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7320: 7313: 7305: 7301: 7297: 7293: 7289: 7285: 7281: 7277: 7273: 7266: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7214: 7207: 7205: 7196: 7192: 7185: 7183: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7154: 7150: 7146: 7142: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7123: 7115: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7083: 7076: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7056: 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Ask Men. 5778:2066/116820 5761:(1): 5–18. 5249:Men's lives 5186:20 November 5158:20 November 5126:20 November 4956:21 December 4914:" magazine" 4608:10 December 4254:19 February 2813:: 291–312. 2227:10453/44221 2112:18 November 1536:Gender role 1499:Afghanistan 1452:Afghanistan 1356:Tayeb Salih 1337:Afghanistan 1116:Dan Kindlon 872:gender role 828:competition 677:Second-wave 663:facial hair 597:gay culture 585:transgender 574:patriarchal 435:epigenetics 390:Development 361:breadwinner 329:masculinity 197:androgynous 188:theories). 87:Masculinity 9460:Categories 9418:Androcracy 9298:Robert Bly 9258:By country 9178:Manosphere 8726:Historical 8061:1903/24529 7841:Herald Sun 7572:24 October 7424:24 October 7370:23 October 7255:24 October 7171:24 October 7026:24 October 6973:24 October 6875:24 October 6824:24 October 6769:(1): 1–24. 6086:13 January 6026:askmen.com 6020:Lee, Ian. 5280:(4): 413. 4534:Review of: 4086:11 October 3685:See also: 3563:11 January 2614:4 November 2584:4 November 2547:4 November 2531:"Arminius" 2506:4 November 2476:4 November 2447:4 November 2417:4 November 2102:1004500685 1867:17 January 1602:26 October 1563:References 1531:Femininity 1460:oppression 1410:Fatherhood 1086:See also: 929:alcoholism 856:motorsport 852:ice hockey 832:aggression 805:lesbianism 761:patriarchy 749:leadership 659:subculture 528:See also: 488:effeminacy 345:Brummelism 287:Germanicus 166:leadership 142:Lewis Hine 127:femininity 9397:Male rape 9263:Australia 9206:Movements 8996:Masculism 8784:(2012) . 8687:cite book 8621:937998604 8421:Manliness 8408:145124069 8164:145584255 8107:143576618 7998:146256628 7921:CiteSeerX 7717:(11): 31. 7664:1097-184X 7625:0021-9118 7562:145452643 7523:149873689 7515:1573-2762 7495:Sex Roles 7476:150074837 7468:0966-369X 7414:149213138 7345:0008-0055 7304:149873689 7296:0360-0025 7276:Sex Roles 7245:142050341 7237:1097-184X 7161:149917168 7153:0957-6851 7114:212780718 7106:1355-5855 7067:1361-2026 7016:2502-3837 6994:Informasi 6963:150733468 6924:148885845 6916:1461-6742 6865:145119356 6814:149389725 6806:1742-7665 6733:1355-2074 6682:0305-750X 6341:143116739 6269:143193100 6247:CiteSeerX 5860:147461986 5709:145772531 5669:144245717 5632:144767677 5480:162012479 5333:1557-9883 5294:143771206 5178:. 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