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site, categorized as "minimal risk", the Kazakh government allots each resident a one time lump sum roughly equivalent to $ 50 USD. Although their health is negatively impacted by the radiation, residents see themselves as resilient. Many believe that they have genetically adapted to survive the radiation and report that they have come to rely upon it. One villager claimed that "Our organism is differentā¦ now accustomed to radiation. For many years we were exposed to radioactive fallout, and now we eat it. Slowly and quietly, our bodies got used to it. Why do you think people donāt die , but only get a little sick?... Most of us canāt live in clean airāwe need radiation to survive. Clean air is our death. We are not deformed, just a little sick." In the same manner, many within the village self-report that when they venture outside the area for supplies, they suffer symptoms such as headaches, dizziness, and stomach cramps, furthering the thought that they have come to rely on the radiation to live. Overall, residents have embraced the radiation as a sign of their own genetic adaptation.
500:
considered themselves to be a new breed of human. As they understand it, they are mutants who have grown and adapted to the radiation present in their home. According to unconfirmed sources, the residentsā opinion, the air and the food are toxic, and the people consume this and live. They believe they must be adapting to the radiation and that is why people only get a 'little sick'. They even have begun to believe that they are so used to radiation that their bodies require it. This belief has stemmed from the fact that many individuals who left in favour of opportunities in cities have died soon after. Although the evidence villagers cite is anecdotal, and most of the deaths were as a result of alcoholism, overdose, and other challenges that arose after a failure to adapt to a new way of life, to some left behind, it seems that the lack of radiation killed them. This has further cemented their belief that they are 'radioactive mutants'.
649:
life-threatening deformitiesā that are portrayed, in media and by doctors, to be prevalent in people exposed to long-term and low-dose radiation. Examples of the mutations that could be found in
Koyaners included āa man born with webbed feet, a woman with one slightly short thumb, and several people living with vitiligoā The nature of these mutations, coupled with the fact that villagers experienced aggravated symptoms upon leaving Koyan, Koyaners insist that they have biologically adapted to and subsequently rely on the radiation. To Koyaners, the prevalence of maladapted animals emphasized their resilience and further proved the success of their own adaptations. As one Koyaner said, "the raditation exposure made everyone 'a little sick,' ā¦ but they have survived and live long lives".
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The operation to address the problem involved, in part, pouring special concrete into test holes, to bind the waste plutonium. In other cases, horizontal mine test holes were sealed and the entrances covered over. In
October 2012, Kazakh, Russian, and American nuclear scientists and engineers celebrated the completion of a secret 17-year, $ 150 million operation to secure the plutonium in the tunnels of the mountains.
468:
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exercise. Citizens of a nearby village witnessed this but were neither informed of the 'exercise' nor the reason for the outsiders' presence. As such the citizens perceived strangers having to wear protective gear to enter the area around their community while they, the residents, had no need. This further cemented their belief that they must be radioactive mutants.
631:
A recently declassified CIA report provides a first-hand witness account of the immediate impacts of a nuclear test near
Semipalatinsk in 1955. In this report, a source who was in the vicinity of a Soviet thermonuclear test in November 1955 describes experiencing loss of hearing, "the air...crackling
598:
A longitudinal study conducted over a 40-year span found a correlation between radiation fallout exposure and prevalence of solid tumors. The most frequent sites for solid tumors were the esophagus, stomach, lungs, breasts, and liver. These sites were found to have statistically significant increases
491:
After some of the tests, radioactive material remained on the now abandoned area, including significant amounts of plutonium. The risk that material might fall into the hands of scavengers or terrorists was considered one of the largest nuclear security threats since the collapse of the Soviet Union.
317:
The
Semipalatinsk Test Site saw the detonation of the first Soviet atom bomb, and the first air-tested hydrogen bomb. Over the course of 40 years, a quarter of all nuclear tests in history took place here. Since its closure on 29 August 1991, the Semipalatinsk Test Site has become the best-researched
639:
Although there are clear biological impacts of the radiation exposure, the surrounding communities rarely have a sense of nuclear victimization. The nation of
Kazakhstan recognizes more than a million of their citizens as victims of Soviet-era radiation exposure. In one village adjacent to the test
618:
The full impact of radiation exposure was hidden for many years by Soviet authorities. The general consensus of health studies conducted at the site since it was closed is that radioactive fallout from nuclear testing had a direct impact on the health of about 200,000 local residents. Specifically,
440:
This smaller research station, known to the
Department of Defense as PNUTS (Possible Nuclear Underground Test Site) and to the CIA as URDF-3 (Unidentified Research and Development Facility-3) was of great interest to American intelligence agencies. After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, it was
302:
conducted 456 nuclear tests at
Semipalatinsk from 1949 until 1989 with little regard for their effect on the local people or environment. The full impact of radiation exposure was hidden for many years by Soviet authorities and has only come to light since the test site closed in 1991. According to
635:
Ethnographic data from anthropological study detail some of the unique perspectives of those populations that are affected and still live within the area of radiation exposure that allow those populations to understand their circumstances and the biological subjectivity of concepts like safety and
503:
The locals also believe that their status is backed by science. The basis of this was a training exercise performed by the
Comprehensive Test-Ban-Treaty Organization (CTBTO). The exercise was based around a hypothetical nuclear explosion, so CTBTO participants wore full protective gear during the
499:
Residents of the test site's surrounding area in the Kazakh Steppe have been affected by the radiation and have suffered from radiation caused illnesses just as other surrounding areas have. However, unlike other communities, some
Kazakhs have formed an identity around this fact. Some have even
648:
According to fieldwork in Koyan, with a population of 50, Koyaners have high rates of "anemia, cancer, hypertension, headaches, skin rashes, and bone pain" along with self-reported hair loss, nosebleeds, and cataracts. While unhealthy, Stawkowski noted that there was an absence of āserious and
412:
Between 1949 and the cessation of atomic testing in 1989, 456 explosions were conducted at the STS, including 340 underground borehole and tunnel shots and 116 atmospheric, either air-drop or tower shots. The lab complex, still the administrative and scientific centre of the STS, was renamed
1283:
Bauer, Susanne; Gusev, Boris I.; Pivina, Ludmila M.; Apsalikov, Kazbek N.; Grosche, Bernd (2005-01-01). "Radiation
Exposure Due to Local Fallout from Soviet Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Testing in Kazakhstan: Solid Cancer Mortality in the Semipalatinsk Historical Cohort, 1960-1999".
404:
mountain complex in the south, which is riddled with boreholes and drifts for both subcritical and supercritical tests. After the closure of the Semipalatinsk labour camp, construction duties were performed by the 217th Separate Engineering and Mining Battalion, who later built the
421:, leader of the initial Soviet nuclear programme. The location of Kurchatov city has been typically shown on various maps as "Konechnaya", the name of the train station, now Degelen, or "Moldary", the name of the village that was later incorporated into the city.
543:, Nevada-Semipalatinsk played a positive role in promoting public understanding of "the necessity to fight against nuclear threats". The movement gained global support and became "a real historical factor in finding solutions to global ecological problems".
487:
in 1991, the site was neglected. Fissile material was left behind in mountain tunnels and bore holes, virtually unguarded and vulnerable to scavengers, rogue states, or potential terrorists. The secret cleanup of Semipalatinsk was made public in the 2010s.
495:
Large parts of the STS have opened up since 2014, and economic activity has resumed: mostly mining, but also agriculture and tourism. As with other areas affected by radioactivity, the lack of human interference has made the STS a haven for wildlife.
1459:
Dubrova, Yuri E.; Bersimbaev, Rakhmet I.; Djansugurova, Leila B.; Tankimanova, Maira K.; Mamyrbaeva, Zaure Zh.; Mustonen, Riitta; Lindholm, Carita; HultƩn, Maj; Salomaa, Sisko (2002-01-01). "Nuclear Weapons Tests and Human Germline Mutation Rate".
571:
that were directly exposed at high levels to fallout from the Soviet bomb tests. These studies concluded that individuals who had been exposed to the fallout between 1949 and 1956 had an approximate 80% increase of mutations in the
615:. The study's data suggests that there is a link between exposure length, and amount, to overall and cancer mortality. Nonetheless the relationship between the level of radiation exposure and effect is still up for discussion.
623:
programme claimed in 2010 that in the worst affected locations one in twenty children born were with genetic defects. British film-maker Antony Butts documented some of the genetic health impacts in his 2010 film
619:
scientists have linked higher rates of different types of cancer to post-irradiation effects. Likewise, several studies have explored the correlation between radiation exposure and thyroid abnormalities. A
424:
The Semipalatinsk Complex was of acute interest to foreign governments during its operation, particularly during the phase when explosions were carried out above ground at the experimental field. Several
369:
labour was employed to build the primitive test facilities, including the laboratory complex in the northeast corner on the southern bank of the Irtysh River. The first Soviet bomb test,
377:
on nearby villages. The same area, "the experimental field", a region 64 km (40 mi) west of Kurchatov city, was used for more than 100 subsequent above-ground weapons tests.
1684:
1394:
Grosche, Bernd; Lackland, Daniel T.; Land, Charles E.; Simon, Steven L.; Apsalikov, Kazbek N.; Pivina, Ludmilla M.; Bauer, Susanne; Gusev, Boris I. (2011-01-01).
1759:
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728:
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mean for the individuals' health, but there is increasing evidence these mutations may increase genetic predisposition to certain diseases such as
1670:
1558:
1079:
1163:""I am a radioactive mutant": Emergent biological subjectivities at Kazakhstan's Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site: "I am a radioactive mutant""
1769:
1605:
1396:"Mortality from Cardiovascular Diseases in the Semipalatinsk Historical Cohort, 1960-1999, and its Relationship to Radiation Exposure"
1106:
1774:
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793:
580:. The children of these individuals had 50% more mutations in their mini-satellite regions compared to their control counterparts.
1784:
811:
1253:
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1511:
310:
From 1996 to 2012, a secret joint operation of Kazakh, Russian, and American nuclear scientists and engineers secured the waste
678:
1234:
965:
1633:
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88:
708:
513:
1035:
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is a fictionalized account of the first Soviet nuclear test from the perspective of some of the local inhabitants.
599:
in prevalence when compared to a control group. However some bodily sites had no significant difference in number:
429:
overflights examined preparations and weapons effects, before being replaced with satellite reconnaissance. The US
1789:
1615:
484:
291:. Most of the nuclear tests taking place at various sites further to the west and the south, some as far as into
1207:
279:. The scientific buildings for the test site were located around 150 km (93 mi) west of the town of
743:
591:. There has also been evidence that increased levels of DNA mutation rates are correlated with prolonged
567:
Studies conducted at Cambridge took blood samples from forty different families who lived in a district of
528:
and attracted thousands of people to its protests and campaigns which eventually led to the closure of the
1779:
430:
362:
1254:"Kazakhstan ā Audiovisual documents of the International antinuclear movement 'Nevada-Semipalatinsk'"
1083:
836:"Russia Covered Up a Nuclear Fallout Worse Than Chernobyl, Confidential Report Reveals" 27 March 2017
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370:
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334:
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nuclear testing site in the world, and the only one in the world open to the public year-round.
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588:
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55:
29:
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899:
Plutonium Mountain: Inside the 17-Year Mission to Secure a Legacy of Soviet Nuclear Testing
860:
652:
560:
456:
392:. Once atmospheric tests were banned, testing was transferred to underground locations at
8:
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on 8 September 2006, also commemorating the 15th anniversary of the test site's closing.
406:
260:
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342:
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1423:
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1376:
1360:
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592:
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The Dead Lake by Hamid Ismailov explores the effects of the nuclear tests on Kazakhs.
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1191:
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529:
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75:
54:
The 18,000 km expanse of the Semipalatinsk Test Site (indicated in red), attached to
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1469:
1431:
1415:
1352:
1301:
1174:
902:
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who were spying on Soviet Union, believed that the Soviets established an enormous
292:
220:
1497:
1356:
987:
381:
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358:
304:
288:
256:
228:
199:
123:
1009:
516:, named Nevada-Semipalatinsk, was formed in 1989 and was one of the first major
373:, was conducted in 1949 from a tower at the Semipalatinsk Test Site, scattering
873:
848:
483:
The Soviet government conducted its last tests in 1989. After the Soviet Union
475:
418:
350:
346:
1192:
World: Asia-Pacific: Kazakh anti-nuclear movement celebrates tenth anniversary
1748:
1648:
1635:
1051:
Norris, Robert S. (JanuaryāFebruary 1992). "The Soviet Nuclear Archipelago".
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59:
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1223:
Krech III, Shepard; Merchant, Carolyn; McNeill, John Robert, eds. (2004).
927:"Semipalatinsk Test Site: How to Visit, History and Future | Caravanistan"
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up with pressure" as if the "air was tearing up," and the ground shaking.
1707:
434:
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in the southeast of the Semipalatinsk Polygon, including the site of the
264:
188:
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Site of the signing of the Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone treaty
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276:
268:
40:
35:
1419:
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311:
67:
1343:
Stone, Richard (2002). "DNA Mutations Linked to Soviet Bomb Tests".
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discovered that the mysterious URDF-3 was tasked with researching a
1727:
768:
612:
437:
station at a small research station located on the testing site.
365:. Beria claimed the vast 18,000 kmĀ² steppe was "uninhabited".
49:
326:
303:
estimates from Kazakh experts, 1.5 million people were exposed to
1733:
1712:
1621:
Short documentary series "My home: nuclear base Semipalatinsk-21"
401:
397:
330:
The various facilities grouped inside the Semipalatinsk Test Site
608:
604:
600:
551:
540:
71:
1010:"Satellite photo of suspected Soviet beam weapon installation"
467:
16:
Nuclear test site for the Soviet Union in northeast Kazakhstan
1616:
Documentary about the tests and their effects on the populace
446:
366:
280:
63:
849:"The nuclear sins of the Soviet Union live on in Kazakhstan"
1717:
1542:
636:
their survival within an area still affected by radiation.
1692:
1282:
620:
577:
559:
aircraft for shipment to Semipalatinsk in support of the
1393:
1222:
643:
1611:
nuclearweaponarchive.org/ on the Soviet nuclear program
1600:
1080:"The lasting toll of Semipalatinsk's nuclear testing"
794:"The lasting toll of Semipalatinsk's nuclear testing"
555:
A 55-ton Cardwell drill rig being loaded onto a USAF
380:
Later tests were moved to the Balapan complex by the
729:
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
242:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1109:. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from
1082:. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from
907:
Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs
583:Some health scientists are still not sure what the
471:
Drilling tower in the Semipalatinsk test site, 2003
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1132:
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1128:
921:
919:
812:"Slow Death In Kazakhstan's Land Of Nuclear Tests"
1559:"CIA Debriefed Soviet H-Bomb Eye-Witness in 1957"
1208:Inside the nuclear underworld: Deformity and fear
791:
724:List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union
454:President of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic
1746:
1107:"Into Thin Air: The Story of Plutonium Mountain"
1606:The Nuclear Threat Initiative's page on the STS
1229:. Vol. 1: AāE. Routledge. pp. 70ā71.
1125:
916:
1678:
1601:National Nuclear Center of Kazakhstan website
1278:
1276:
1274:
1626:Panoramic photos and videos of the test site
1760:Nuclear weapons program of the Soviet Union
1226:Encyclopedia of World Environmental History
787:
785:
1685:
1671:
1271:
1161:Stawkowski, Magdalena E. (February 2016).
1160:
1104:
1077:
283:, later renamed Semey, near the border of
1435:
1025:
913:, 15 August 2013, accessed 21 August 2013
872:
251:", was the primary testing venue for the
205:456 (340 underground and 116 aboveground)
949:
894:
892:
782:
550:
507:
474:
466:
341:
333:
325:
1795:1949 establishments in the Soviet Union
1185:
792:Togzhan Kassenova (28 September 2009).
275:. The test site was part of the former
1747:
1693:Military testing centers in Kazakhstan
1200:
1078:Duff-Brown, Beth (28 September 2009).
1050:
980:
679:Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone
134:18,000 km (6,950 sq mi)
1666:
1535:
1342:
1248:
1246:
1216:
983:"The world's worst radiation hotspot"
889:
684:
644:Perception of Adaptation to Radiation
479:Console from the old Soviet test site
1770:Science and technology in Kazakhstan
1556:
1014:Aviation Week & Space Technology
981:Taylor, Jerome (10 September 2009).
1105:Duff-Brown, Beth (20 August 2013).
1059:(1). Arms Control Association: 27.
846:
709:Anti-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan
514:anti-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan
13:
1243:
14:
1811:
1594:
798:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
546:
357:The site was selected in 1947 by
314:in the tunnels of the mountains.
1775:Nuclear technology in Kazakhstan
1765:Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic
1755:Nuclear test sites in Kazakhstan
657:Semipalatinsk was the site that
148:
48:
34:
1785:Environmental disasters in Asia
1573:"The National Security Archive"
1565:
1550:
1529:
1504:
1452:
1387:
1336:
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1044:
1019:
1557:Burr, William (6 April 2018).
1003:
974:
943:
840:
829:
804:
1:
1536:Butts, Antony (13 May 2011).
1357:10.1126/science.295.5557.946a
775:
677:chose for the signing of the
561:Joint Verification Experiment
271:, south of the valley of the
74:. The site comprised an area
1512:"Life after nuclear testing"
1026:Richelson, Jefferey (2002).
816:RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty
744:Nuclear energy in Kazakhstan
353:, found at the old test site
7:
1030:. Boulder: Westview Press.
701:
452:The site was closed by the
431:Defense Intelligence Agency
349:'s radio and a portrait of
243:
10:
1816:
874:10.1038/d41586-019-01034-8
363:Soviet atomic bomb project
338:Crater from a nuclear test
321:
1698:
847:Yan, Wudan (2019-04-03).
759:Totskoye nuclear exercise
462:
371:Operation First Lightning
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161:
143:
138:
130:
119:
82:
47:
26:
21:
764:Ulba Metallurgical Plant
714:List of nuclear reactors
524:. It was led by author
400:in the west, and at the
361:, political head of the
1474:10.1126/science.1068102
950:Brummell, Paul (2008).
739:Novaya Zemlya Test Site
589:cardiovascular diseases
213:Semipalatinsk Test Site
1790:East Kazakhstan Region
1538:"After the Apocalypse"
1028:The Wizards of Langley
689:The 2014 Russian film
564:
518:anti-nuclear movements
480:
472:
443:nuclear thermal rocket
354:
339:
331:
285:East Kazakhstan Region
1730:(Baikonur cosmodrome)
901:, Eben Harrell &
719:List of nuclear tests
554:
508:Anti-nuclear movement
478:
470:
345:
337:
329:
1197:, February 28, 1999.
1167:American Ethnologist
626:After the Apocalypse
457:Nursultan Nazarbayev
445:similar to the US's
1645: /
1412:2011RadR..176..660G
1298:2005RadR..164..409B
1113:on 14 February 2017
865:2019Natur.568...22Y
459:on 29 August 1991.
407:Baikonur Cosmodrome
261:Zhanasemey District
259:. It is located in
100: /
1780:Nuclear test sites
1577:Nsarchive2.gwu.edu
1400:Radiation Research
1286:Radiation Research
1213:, August 31, 2007.
1179:10.1111/amet.12269
1053:Arms Control Today
911:Harvard University
749:Operation Plumbbob
685:In popular culture
593:radiation exposure
585:germline mutations
565:
481:
473:
355:
340:
332:
247:), also known as "
1742:
1741:
1649:50.383Ā°N 77.783Ā°E
1516:BBC World Service
1258:Portal.unesco.org
1236:978-0-415-93733-7
1086:on 7 October 2016
967:978-1-84162-234-7
956:. Bradt. p.
769:Aral Sea disaster
576:regions of their
530:nuclear test site
526:Olzhas Suleimenov
241:
209:
208:
178:1949 – 1991
104:50.117Ā°N 78.717Ā°E
76:the size of Wales
1807:
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1420:10.1667/rr2211.1
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1306:10.1667/rr3423.1
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1206:Matthew Chance.
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903:David E. Hoffman
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754:Struan Stevenson
734:Nevada Test Site
307:over the years.
293:Karagandy Region
246:
236:
234:
226:
225:Š”ŠµŠ¼ŠøŠæŠ°Š»Š°ŃŠøŠ½ŃŠŗ-21
217:Semipalatinsk-21
183:Test information
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139:Site information
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22:Semipalatinsk-21
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988:The Independent
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859:(7750): 22ā24.
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931:Caravanistan
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382:Chagan River
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297:
273:Irtysh River
253:Soviet Union
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216:
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170:Site history
155:Soviet Union
124:Nuclear test
62:), and near
60:Irtysh river
1708:Sary Shagan
1652: /
1521:19 February
435:beam weapon
417:City after
390:Chagan Lake
386:Chagan test
265:Abai Region
249:The Polygon
189:Subcritical
175:In use
107: /
83:Coordinates
58:(along the
1749:Categories
1117:August 20,
953:Kazakhstan
936:2018-02-01
822:2015-08-31
776:References
675:Uzbekistan
667:Tajikistan
663:Kyrgyzstan
659:Kazakhstan
569:Kazakhstan
557:C-5 Galaxy
277:Kazakh SSR
269:Kazakhstan
41:Kazakhstan
1016:(via PBS)
536:in 1991.
485:collapsed
415:Kurchatov
312:plutonium
238:romanized
194:not known
157:(1949ā89)
68:Karagandy
56:Kurchatov
30:Kurchatov
1582:18 March
1490:11834827
1446:21787182
1428:41318233
1381:26534394
1373:11834788
1330:32679081
1322:16187743
1263:18 March
1195:BBC News
1090:March 6,
1065:23624674
991:. London
883:30944496
702:See also
613:pancreas
394:Saryozen
244:Semei-21
233:Š”ŠµŠ¼ŠµŠ¹-21
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1462:Science
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1408:Bibcode
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1345:Science
1314:3581526
1294:Bibcode
1211:CNN.com
995:21 July
861:Bibcode
563:, 1988
402:Degelen
398:Murzhik
375:fallout
322:History
305:fallout
240::
221:Russian
200:Nuclear
95:78Ā°43ā²E
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611:, and
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463:Legacy
229:Kazakh
162:Status
72:Astana
70:, and
1723:GLITs
1494:S2CID
1478:JSTOR
1424:JSTOR
1377:S2CID
1361:JSTOR
1326:S2CID
1310:JSTOR
1061:JSTOR
447:NERVA
367:Gulag
202:tests
191:tests
64:Semey
28:Near
1718:Emba
1584:2019
1543:IMDb
1523:2017
1486:PMID
1442:PMID
1369:PMID
1318:PMID
1265:2019
1231:ISBN
1119:2013
1092:2016
1032:ISBN
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879:PMID
692:Test
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