452:. According to a news account, their clothes were doused in oil. The mob offered the two a chance to pray; only McGeisey did, in his own language. One of the members of the mob, which consisted of more than two hundred people, then lit the wood on fire. Both McGeisey and Sampson were burned alive. McGeisey's muscle and skin dripped and slid off the right side of his body as he was burned. Unlike Sampson—who struggled against the heat and kicked pieces of burning wood away from his body—McGeisey did not wrangle his body away from the flames. A member of the mob took one of their bodies and impaled a skull with a stick, causing the still-boiling brains to be released.
212:
465:
501:
610:. John Washington and George Harjo, who were both abducted and tortured prior to the lynchings, but not killed, also received compensation. John Washington was paid $ 500 for personal injury and $ 35 for loss of property. George Harjo was awarded $ 300 for personal injuries, as was William Thlloco. Four members of Seminole Lighthorse Police who were wrongfully detained, but not harmed, received $ 50 each. Another 13 Seminoles who were wrongfully detained received $ 25 each.
325:
342:, in early 1898 in a Seminole delegation. He owned the land on which the Leards built their home. McGeisey had four siblings through his father: Martha, Nora, William, and James. They lived in a large, multistory house—uncharacteristic for most members of the Seminole Nation, who at the time lived in single room houses made of logs and mud—about 3.5 mi (5.6 km) west of Maud.
401:
Leard's son never said he looked like his mother's killer. They arrested
Thlocco again and threatened to murder him; he was released. Two other men, never identified by Leard's son as the killer, were also chained up and released. Around this time, they shot at a group of several Native American men; the men were not struck and were never arrested.
572:
prosecution of lynching in the
Southwestern United States. Jones was seen as one of the most culpable members of the mob, having recommended that the victims be tortured, made no attempt to notify his superiors about the mob, and gave directions to the mob. Mathis was found to have set fire to the brush that was heaped around the victims.
660:, an examination of the lynching. Historian Michael J. Pfeifer called it a "magisterial case study" which "richly mined" the historical evidence of the lynching and its aftermath, and said Brundage's typology of lynch mobs was a "clear influence" on Littlefield's writing. He called for more examinations of the
179:
and—in some cases—mock lynched several men over a few days, before they settled on two teenagers they thought were guilty of the crime: Lincoln McGeisey and Palmer
Sampson. McGeisey and Sampson were chosen despite there being no evidence for a second killer, and the mob accused them of raping, murdering, and
295:: For black people accused of crimes, they were frequently lynched; for Native Americans accused, they were sometimes lynched, depending on the accusation; and for white people accused, they were only infrequently lynched. In one case in Pottawatomie County in 1897, a mob attempted to lynch a man named
427:
Stoically, the
Indians went to their death. One of them, it is true, when the pain was unbearable, leaned forward and sucked the flames into his lungs. But the other, like the braves among his ancestors who had silently borne the worst tortures enemies could devise, stood erect until the flames ended
400:
The mob combed through the area and arrested men who did not fit the physical description of Leard's murderer. On
January 1, 1898, they arrested, tortured, and held in bondage a 19-year-old man named Billy (whose last name was either Harjo or Thlocco), attempting to extract a confession from him, but
178:
On
December 30, 1897, a woman named Mary Leard was murdered in her home by a Native American man. When her body was discovered by her husband and Maud townspeople the next day, a white mob began to form, and they combed the area to find the person guilty. They cornered, detained, kidnapped, tortured,
404:
They arrested
Lincoln McGeisey twice, but Leard's son testified that he did not kill Leard. They interrogated him—asking where he was on the night of the murder, to which he responded he was with family—stripped him down, and continued asking whether he murdered Leard. They strung a noose around his
571:
guilty. In total, six members of the mob were sentenced to prison: Deputy U.S. Marshal Nelson Jones (21 years), Andrew J. Mathis (10 years), Mont
Ballard (10 years), Sam Pryor (pleaded guilty, 3 years), Bird Ivanhoe (pleaded guilty, 3 years), and H. Clay Roper (3 years). It was the first successful
527:
of the
Oklahoma Territory offered a $ 1,000 reward for anyone who could secure a conviction against mob members for their role in "acts of lawlessness and barbarism". In February and March, several warrants were executed by federal investigators, but it remained difficult to find all of the members
444:
In the still-dark morning hours of
January 8, 1898, a mob carried McGeisey and Sampson to a makeshift prayer site filled with dry brush, just south of the post office in Maud—a "tabernacle" in the local parlance. Leard had previously confessed her sins to the community at this location, and the mob
367:
The general public acts in such cases on the theory that it is infinitely safer to summarily execute such criminals than run the risk of seeing them turned loose upon the community for the want of prosecution. If speedy justice is not had in the courts of the country, there is a surer and swifter
601:
appropriated over $ 35,000 ($ 1,281,840 in 2023) in relation to the lynching. $ 5,000 was allotted to each family of the victims, $ 25,000 for the prosecutions for the lynchings, and $ 82.50 to Sampson's family and $ 1,113.25 to McGeisey's family for property damage. The legislation was written by
416:
The mob intended to lynch Washington and McGeisey, even though Leard's husband thought McGeisey was innocent of the crime. They decided to release Washington in exchange for Palmer Sampson, a boy who also did not meet the description of the killer. McGeisey and Sampson were chained together at the
307:
On the evening of December 30, 1897, Mary Leard (also rendered as Mary Laird or Julia Laird) was at her home alone with her three children as her husband stayed at a friend's house. A Native American man with a distinctive scar on his cheek approached the house and left, only to return later that
387:
Though close acquaintances of the Leard family initially congregated and planned out their violence, this tight inner circle soon expanded, and many of its members were strangers to the Leards; they had no personal stake in the crime, and many traveled a great distance for the express purpose of
202:
led the prosecutions of the men involved in the lynching. Ultimately, six of them were convicted and imprisoned. It was the first successful prosecution of lynching in the Southwestern United States, though one man was released early from prison and returned home to a celebration proclaiming his
186:
The mob chained the two together by the neck and brought them to a makeshift prayer site. They were surrounded by dry brush and wooden poles, and after a member of the mob lit the pile on fire, they burned alive. McGeisey's flesh sloughed off his body, and Sampson tried to struggle against the
408:
They continued combing through the area in an attempt to find the killer, arresting and threatening several men. They invaded the home of John Washington, kidnapped him at gunpoint, and mock lynched him by stringing a noose around his neck and hanging him from a tree until he
580:
on parole in November 1910. On June 24, 1916, Mont Ballard, 53, was murdered by a friend, W.L. Harding, in a personal dispute. Harding was found guilty of murder for killing Ballard and sentenced to life in prison. On January 14, 1927, Andrew Mathis, now 60, was murdered in
315:
Mary Leard's children left her dead body outside, and it was partially eaten by roaming pigs during the night. The next morning, the Leard children sought help, and Maud townspeople and their father returned to find her dead. Cora died from her injuries a few months later.
417:
neck while held in custody. Sampson allegedly admitted to the murder through a translator, even though neither Sampson nor McGeisey are likely to have committed the crime. On January 7, the plans to lynch Sampson and McGeisey were finalized with 64 accomplices present.
516:. There were complications in the investigation, however, as many witnesses, both white and Seminole, were reluctant to provide testimony, many of the Seminole witnesses did not speak English, and at least one witness was intimidated by a mob and forced to destroy his
551:
against dozens of men—45 on charges of kidnapping, which carried up to 21 years in prison and 49 on charges of arson, which carried up to 20 years in prison, albeit many of them successfully evaded capture for a time, and some found comfort in the territory of the
575:
Though Mont Ballard was sentenced to 10 years, albeit he served 7, and returned home to a celebration of hundreds in Maud who proclaimed his innocence. Nelson Jones, the last man serving prison time for his role in the lynchings, was released from
260:, which divided their land claims in the western and central parts of Oklahoma and opened it to settlement from other tribes. The Seminole people underwent social changes during this time of removal and resettlement, and transitioned into a mostly
472:
The white public of Oklahoma Territory largely supported those who lynched McGeisey and Sampson. Soon after the men were murdered, newspapers started claiming that members of the Seminole Nation were planning to target white Oklahomans in a
337:
Lincoln McGeisey was the 18-year-old son of Seney and Thomas McGeisey. Thomas was a Seminole farmer, landowner, and public official who served as the superintendent of the Seminole Nation's public schools, and he was selected to visit
455:
According to a newspaper report, their arms and legs burned away, leaving behind only unrecognizable "trunks" joined by padlocked chains. Still chained together, they were eventually recovered and buried on Seminole land.
483:
claimed on January 15, 1898—through a special bulletin—that in response to "the excesses of the armed bands of whites", Native American revenge was "imminent". This was a falsehood crafted by a communications employee in
405:
neck and threatened to immediately lynch him if he did not confess, but he continued to deny, so they attacked him, strung a noose around his neck again, and brought him back to the home.
2172:
296:
2249:
2150:
479:
345:
Palmer Sampson was the uneducated 17-year-old son of Sukey Natuksie and Sampson Walker; he had a sister named Rhoda. He was involved in crime, having earlier pleaded guilty to
388:
lynching. The mob distorted the truth of the underlying crime: in their imagination, two men raped Leard, murdered her, assaulted Cora, left the scene, and then returned to
384:
After finding Leard's dead body, her husband and his friends looked for a man that met the description of the murderer: a Native American man with a distinctive cheek scar.
2216:
2106:
1940:
642:
2128:
1966:
448:
They were shackled together by their necks to opposite sides of a tree, facing northwards, as the mob surrounded them with dry wooden poles from the site's
428:
his life, a dreadful punishment at the best made still more dreadful by the thought that the victims might have been innocent of the crime laid on them.
626:
was the reason the murder and the lynching occurred. His great-grandchild, Kirsten Dyck, wrote in 2016 that the lynching was an instance of the ongoing
2139:
656:
2238:
2227:
1917:
Dyck, Kirsten (2016). "Confronting genocide denial in US history textbooks". In Bentrovato, Denise; Korostelina, Karina V.; Schulze, Martina (eds.).
375:
1860:
2334:
2047:
52:
2329:
647:
392:. Most members of the final mob did not understand the circumstances of the murder, including the fact that Leard had not been raped.
489:
2309:
697:
His sister's last name is either Natuksie or Fixico. Sukey's last name is rendered variously as Natuksie, Sampson, and Cobuxey.
2324:
2289:
292:
2319:
2304:
2299:
664:, since there is extensive documentary evidence of their existence, and it is underrepresented in historical analyses.
2314:
2294:
2076:
1995:
1956:
1930:
2068:
706:
The impaler screamed in response to the brains oozing out of the skull, and members of the mob ran away in disgust.
679:
Variously rendered as Lincoln McGeezy, Lincoln McGeesey, Lincoln McGeizy, J. Markus McGeisey, and Lincoln McGresey.
1948:
291:
altogether. In territorial history, most of those murdered in bouts of extrajudicial mob violence were black or
627:
308:
night. He chased Leard out of the house and tried to shoot her twice, but the gun failed. He murdered her by
288:
281:
152:
127:
1974:
661:
45:
183:
of Mary Leard. Although Sampson allegedly admitted guilt in the crime, both of them were likely innocent.
2339:
160:
1906:
Annual reports of the Department of the Interior for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1898: Indian Affairs
1909:
513:
211:
2039:
1586:
1461:
1922:
589:. Dugan was convicted of first degree murder, sentenced to death, and executed on February 21, 1930.
350:
309:
2205:
2194:
524:
349:(whether he was sentenced for this crime is unknown), and he had only recently returned from the
257:
598:
1561:
509:
368:
way, and there is no section on the American continent where the remedy will not be applied.
253:
312:, threw her infant daughter Cora on the floor, asked the children for money, and then fled.
2065:
Contested territory: Whites, Native Americans, and African Americans in Oklahoma, 1865–1907
528:
of the mob; out of around 90 people who were due to be arrested, only 67 had been located.
449:
187:
flames; both died. They were buried on Seminole land, their bodies still chained together.
8:
485:
1831:
Baker, David V. (December 1, 2007). "American Indian executions in historical context".
2026:
1892:
1884:
1848:
913:
540:
273:
216:
2072:
2030:
1991:
1952:
1926:
1896:
1852:
269:
101:
2093:
Warrick, Sherryl (May 29, 1977). "Tragedy stalked the cold winter". Orbit Magazine.
2161:
2117:
2018:
1876:
1840:
631:
553:
517:
464:
339:
265:
245:
220:
156:
131:
2183:
1987:
956:
577:
435:
410:
329:
2268:
Violence on the Oklahoma Territory–Seminole Nation border: The Mont Ballard case
500:
2272:
Referred to as the "first attempt to write a detailed history of the event" by
623:
618:
One of the participants in the tortures and lynching—James Edwards Nix—wrote a
597:
On July 1, 1898, after McGeisey and Sampson were exonerated of the murder, the
560:
512:, but could not investigate it as murder since there was no applicable federal
277:
233:
195:
172:
37:
2022:
1844:
1430:
508:
In January 1898, the federal government began investigating the lynching as a
2283:
2095:
67:
54:
648:
1984:
Nations remembered: An oral history of the Five Civilized Tribes, 1865–1907
1537:
634:: individual "atrocities over large geographical areas" that contribute to
607:
603:
536:
199:
324:
1498:
622:
for his family in 1942, recounting his participation and suggesting that
389:
346:
261:
180:
1319:
870:
564:
548:
544:
191:
1888:
563:, Speed successfully prosecuted several men, some of whom requested a
586:
474:
333:
drawing of Thomas McGeisey (here rendered as Thomas McGeesie) in 1899
276:. On the Oklahoma side of its boundary with the Indian Territory sat
1919:
History can bite: History education in divided and postwar societies
1418:
1880:
1229:
1227:
635:
568:
249:
237:
106:
2181:"Men who lynched Indians by burning must pay the law's penalty".
1343:
582:
354:
241:
1781:
1779:
1479:
1224:
1184:
1023:
728:
630:
in the United States, and that the lynching was tantamount to a
1208:
688:
Sometimes spelled Palmer Samson in news accounts from the time.
619:
299:: He was hanged alive three times, but he ultimately survived.
2214:"A brutal Indian murders a white woman in a shocking manner".
2202:
1406:
1382:
1283:
944:
901:
287:
In 1896, the Oklahoma and Indian Territories had at least ten
2246:
2147:
2009:
and the historiography of the lynching of Native Americans".
1809:
1785:
1776:
1148:
803:
1973:. The civilization of the American Indian (first ed.).
1372:
1370:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1256:
1254:
1239:
1196:
1124:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1035:
934:
932:
891:
889:
860:
858:
856:
854:
839:
827:
767:
745:
743:
445:
wanted to "mingle their blood with her departed spirit".
232:
Throughout the nineteenth century, the American government
1903:
1865:
Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880–1930
1525:
1442:
1394:
1325:
2192:"Indians massacred twenty-five men, women and children".
2005:
Pfeifer, Michael J. (2021). "Daniel F. Littlefield Jr.'s
1367:
1355:
1331:
1307:
1295:
1266:
1251:
1172:
1160:
1136:
1112:
1100:
1088:
1076:
1064:
1047:
1001:
999:
984:
972:
929:
886:
851:
815:
791:
2213:
1670:
1633:
1631:
1011:
755:
740:
468:
The trial of some of the members of the lynch mob (1899)
2103:
1706:
1616:
2169:
1730:
996:
492:
were unable to find any evidence of any insurrection.
1643:
1628:
779:
2125:
1718:
1604:
2281:
2235:
2224:
2158:
2136:
2114:
1758:
1746:
1742:
1694:
1682:
248:, a region that now lies in the eastern part of
2191:
2180:
1797:
1770:
2011:Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era
1945:Seminole burning: A story of racial vengeance
504:Special prosecutor Horace Speed in the 1890s
495:
413:, then brought him down and brutalized him.
357:. He could not understand or speak English.
2273:
1939:
1531:
1485:
1448:
1436:
1424:
1412:
1400:
1388:
1376:
1361:
1349:
1337:
1313:
1301:
1289:
1277:
1260:
1245:
1233:
1202:
1190:
1178:
1166:
1154:
1142:
1130:
1118:
1106:
1094:
1082:
1070:
1058:
1041:
1029:
1017:
978:
962:
950:
938:
919:
907:
895:
876:
864:
845:
833:
821:
809:
773:
761:
749:
734:
543:in April 1898. He successfully persuaded a
194:in relation to the case. In front of judge
1965:
1543:
990:
966:
923:
272:, and in 1890, it became organized as the
531:
499:
463:
323:
210:
2092:
2062:
2037:
2004:
1859:
1649:
1637:
1547:
1218:
1005:
880:
797:
785:
256:(including the Seminole) underwent the
227:
2335:Police misconduct in the United States
2282:
1981:
1591:www.seminolenation-indianterritory.org
1466:www.seminolenation-indianterritory.org
459:
310:hitting her over the head with his gun
2265:
1830:
1214:
16:1898 lynching near Maud, Oklahoma, US
1916:
1622:
1610:
2276:, p. vii; thesis on microfilm.
2203:"Seminole lynching case in court".
1986:. Contributions in ethnic studies.
1904:Department of the Interior (1898).
1439:, pp. 3, 5, 157–158, 164, 166.
117:Lincoln McGeisey and Palmer Sampson
13:
2330:Anti-Indigenous racism in Oklahoma
2259:
1810:Grand Island Daily Republican 1899
1786:Weekly Oklahoma State Capital 1898
1559:
613:
14:
2351:
2050:from the original on July 5, 2007
2044:Seminole Nation, Indian Territory
2069:Louisiana State University Press
1824:
2242:. February 10, 1898. p. 3.
2121:. February 10, 1899. p. 2.
2104:"Innocent men were convicted".
2086:
1949:University Press of Mississippi
1863:(1995). "W. Fitzhugh Brundage,
1818:
1803:
1791:
1764:
1752:
1736:
1724:
1712:
1700:
1688:
1676:
1579:
1553:
1516:
1491:
1454:
1326:Department of the Interior 1898
700:
691:
682:
673:
592:
2253:. January 15, 1898. p. 3.
2231:. January 13, 1898. p. 2.
2206:St. Louis Daily Globe-Democrat
2198:. January 12, 1898. p. 1.
2187:. June 18, 1899. sec. 6, p. 9.
2176:. January 15, 1898. p. 6.
2165:. January 13, 1898. p. 4.
2132:. January 10, 1898. p. 1.
1664:
722:
628:genocide of indigenous peoples
270:opened to settlement by whites
1:
2310:Lynching in the United States
2270:(MA). University of Oklahoma.
2250:Weekly Oklahoma State Capital
2220:. January 6, 1898. p. 6.
2154:. August 17, 1899. p. 3.
2151:Grand Island Daily Republican
1671:Steubenville Herald-Star 1898
1658:
712:
480:Weekly Oklahoma State Capital
206:
181:having sex with the dead body
96:
2325:Torture in the United States
2290:19th-century American trials
1975:University of Oklahoma Press
1707:Carlisle Evening Herald 1898
717:
662:lynching of Native Americans
390:have sex with Leard's corpse
7:
2320:Seminole Nation of Oklahoma
2305:Lynching deaths in Oklahoma
2110:. March 1, 1898. p. 2.
2063:Wickett, Murray R. (2000).
1731:Nebraska State Capital 1898
585:by his former housekeeper,
420:
395:
10:
2356:
2300:1898 in Oklahoma Territory
2143:. May 26, 1899. p. 6.
1923:Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht
1910:Government Printing Office
490:Department of the Interior
319:
2266:Smith, Geraldine (1957).
2209:. May 7, 1899. p. 7.
2137:"He burned Indian boys".
2023:10.1017/S1537781420000493
1845:10.1080/14786010701758138
1427:, pp. 142, 149, 157.
496:Investigation and arrests
488:, and officials from the
351:Kansas State Penitentiary
302:
137:
121:
113:
83:
44:
32:
28:
23:
2315:Native American genocide
2295:1898 in Indian Territory
2217:Steubenville Herald-Star
2170:"Seminoles up in arms".
1833:Criminal Justice Studies
1719:Daily News-Democrat 1898
1522:Ancestry Library Edition
667:
523:Independently, Governor
266:parts of this ceded land
87:8 January 1898
2107:Carlisle Evening Herald
1587:"The Seminole Burnings"
1562:"The Seminole Burnings"
1462:"The Seminole Burnings"
922:, pp. 24, 31, 47;
525:Cassius McDonald Barnes
258:Reconstruction Treaties
175:, on January 8, 1898.
2173:Nebraska State Capital
2115:"Dead Indians value".
1982:Perdue, Theda (1980).
1941:Littlefield, Daniel F.
1869:Law and History Review
1352:, pp. 93, 95, 99.
965:, pp. 72, 75–76;
737:, pp. 10, 18, 45.
599:United States Congress
532:Indictments and trials
505:
469:
430:
370:
360:
334:
224:
2236:"In the U.S. court".
2148:"Lynchers on trial".
1759:Weekly Chieftan 1898a
1747:Weekly Chieftan 1898b
1743:Daily Ardmoreite 1899
1695:Muskogee Phoenix 1898
1683:Weekly Chieftan 1898b
1488:, pp. 3, 5, 158.
1236:, pp. 81–82, 88.
1193:, pp. 61, 73–74.
1032:, pp. 7, 66, 92.
643:Daniel F. Littlefield
503:
467:
425:
365:
327:
254:Five Civilized Tribes
214:
198:, special prosecutor
68:35.13194°N 96.77750°W
2126:"An awful revenge".
2038:Sampson, L. (2002).
1967:McReynolds, Edwin C.
1798:Pittsburgh Post 1898
1771:New York Herald 1898
1546:, pp. 340–341;
926:, pp. 272, 339.
297:Israel C. McGlothlin
264:lifestyle. In 1889,
228:Political background
223:(right) in the 1890s
2129:Daily News-Democrat
1625:, pp. 192–193.
1415:, pp. 135–137.
1391:, pp. 99, 110.
1292:, pp. 83, 171.
953:, pp. 24, 184.
910:, pp. 47, 184.
812:, pp. 104–105.
800:, pp. 155–156.
539:was appointed as a
510:criminal conspiracy
486:Earlsboro, Oklahoma
460:Immediate aftermath
282:Pottawatomie County
190:Dozens of men were
73:35.13194; -96.77750
64: /
2340:Trials in Oklahoma
2247:"Indians roused".
2040:"Seminole burning"
1861:Belknap, Michal R.
1566:True West Magazine
1157:, pp. 62, 68.
776:, pp. 18, 29.
541:special prosecutor
506:
477:. Writers for the
470:
411:lost consciousness
335:
274:Oklahoma Territory
225:
217:Oklahoma Territory
1248:, pp. 81–82.
1205:, pp. 78–79.
1133:, pp. 49–52.
1044:, pp. 8, 41.
848:, pp. 33–34.
836:, pp. 34–35.
145:
144:
2347:
2274:Littlefield 1996
2271:
2254:
2243:
2232:
2221:
2210:
2199:
2188:
2177:
2166:
2162:Muskogee Phoenix
2155:
2144:
2140:Emporia Democrat
2133:
2122:
2118:Daily Ardmoreite
2111:
2100:
2082:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2034:
2007:Seminole Burning
2001:
1978:
1962:
1936:
1913:
1900:
1856:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1774:
1768:
1762:
1756:
1750:
1740:
1734:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1674:
1668:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1626:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1557:
1551:
1541:
1535:
1532:Littlefield 1996
1529:
1523:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1495:
1489:
1486:Littlefield 1996
1483:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1458:
1452:
1449:Littlefield 1996
1446:
1440:
1437:Littlefield 1996
1434:
1428:
1425:Littlefield 1996
1422:
1416:
1413:Littlefield 1996
1410:
1404:
1401:Littlefield 1996
1398:
1392:
1389:Littlefield 1996
1386:
1380:
1377:Littlefield 1996
1374:
1365:
1362:Littlefield 1996
1359:
1353:
1350:Littlefield 1996
1347:
1341:
1338:Littlefield 1996
1335:
1329:
1323:
1317:
1314:Littlefield 1996
1311:
1305:
1302:Littlefield 1996
1299:
1293:
1290:Littlefield 1996
1287:
1281:
1278:Littlefield 1996
1275:
1264:
1261:Littlefield 1996
1258:
1249:
1246:Littlefield 1996
1243:
1237:
1234:Littlefield 1996
1231:
1222:
1212:
1206:
1203:Littlefield 1996
1200:
1194:
1191:Littlefield 1996
1188:
1182:
1179:Littlefield 1996
1176:
1170:
1167:Littlefield 1996
1164:
1158:
1155:Littlefield 1996
1152:
1146:
1143:Littlefield 1996
1140:
1134:
1131:Littlefield 1996
1128:
1122:
1119:Littlefield 1996
1116:
1110:
1107:Littlefield 1996
1104:
1098:
1095:Littlefield 1996
1092:
1086:
1083:Littlefield 1996
1080:
1074:
1071:Littlefield 1996
1068:
1062:
1059:Littlefield 1996
1056:
1045:
1042:Littlefield 1996
1039:
1033:
1030:Littlefield 1996
1027:
1021:
1018:Littlefield 1996
1015:
1009:
1003:
994:
988:
982:
979:Littlefield 1996
976:
970:
963:Littlefield 1996
960:
954:
951:Littlefield 1996
948:
942:
939:Littlefield 1996
936:
927:
920:Littlefield 1996
917:
911:
908:Littlefield 1996
905:
899:
896:Littlefield 1996
893:
884:
877:Littlefield 1996
874:
868:
865:Littlefield 1996
862:
849:
846:Littlefield 1996
843:
837:
834:Littlefield 1996
831:
825:
822:Littlefield 1996
819:
813:
810:Littlefield 1996
807:
801:
795:
789:
783:
777:
774:Littlefield 1996
771:
765:
762:Littlefield 1996
759:
753:
750:Littlefield 1996
747:
738:
735:Littlefield 1996
732:
707:
704:
698:
695:
689:
686:
680:
677:
657:Seminole Burning
653:
650:
632:fractal massacre
554:Chickasaw Nation
440:
380:
340:Washington, D.C.
293:Native Americans
246:Indian Territory
221:Indian Territory
165:Lincoln McGeisey
149:Seminole burning
104:
98:
94:
92:
79:
78:
76:
75:
74:
69:
65:
62:
61:
60:
57:
24:Seminole burning
21:
20:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2344:
2280:
2279:
2262:
2260:Further reading
2257:
2239:Weekly Chieftan
2228:Weekly Chieftan
2195:Pittsburgh Post
2184:New York Herald
2096:Daily Oklahoman
2089:
2079:
2053:
2051:
1998:
1988:Greenwood Press
1959:
1933:
1827:
1821:
1816:
1808:
1804:
1796:
1792:
1784:
1777:
1773:, sec. 6, p. 9.
1769:
1765:
1757:
1753:
1741:
1737:
1729:
1725:
1717:
1713:
1705:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1681:
1677:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1656:
1648:
1644:
1636:
1629:
1621:
1617:
1609:
1605:
1595:
1593:
1585:
1584:
1580:
1570:
1568:
1560:Burton, Art T.
1558:
1554:
1544:McReynolds 1957
1542:
1538:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1517:
1507:
1505:
1497:
1496:
1492:
1484:
1480:
1470:
1468:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1447:
1443:
1435:
1431:
1423:
1419:
1411:
1407:
1399:
1395:
1387:
1383:
1375:
1368:
1360:
1356:
1348:
1344:
1336:
1332:
1324:
1320:
1312:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1288:
1284:
1276:
1267:
1259:
1252:
1244:
1240:
1232:
1225:
1217:, p. 321;
1213:
1209:
1201:
1197:
1189:
1185:
1177:
1173:
1165:
1161:
1153:
1149:
1141:
1137:
1129:
1125:
1117:
1113:
1105:
1101:
1093:
1089:
1081:
1077:
1069:
1065:
1057:
1048:
1040:
1036:
1028:
1024:
1016:
1012:
1004:
997:
991:McReynolds 1957
989:
985:
977:
973:
967:McReynolds 1957
961:
957:
949:
945:
937:
930:
924:McReynolds 1957
918:
914:
906:
902:
894:
887:
875:
871:
863:
852:
844:
840:
832:
828:
820:
816:
808:
804:
796:
792:
784:
780:
772:
768:
760:
756:
748:
741:
733:
729:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
701:
696:
692:
687:
683:
678:
674:
670:
645:
616:
614:Cultural legacy
595:
578:USP Leavenworth
534:
498:
462:
442:
436:New York Herald
432:
423:
398:
382:
376:Weekly Chieftan
372:
363:
330:New York Herald
322:
305:
230:
209:
124:
100: 3:00 AM
99:
95:
90:
88:
72:
70:
66:
63:
58:
55:
53:
51:
50:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2353:
2343:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2278:
2277:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2244:
2233:
2225:"(No title)".
2222:
2211:
2200:
2189:
2178:
2167:
2159:"(No title)".
2156:
2145:
2134:
2123:
2112:
2101:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2077:
2060:
2035:
2002:
1996:
1979:
1963:
1957:
1937:
1931:
1914:
1901:
1881:10.2307/743965
1875:(1): 154–156.
1857:
1839:(4): 315–373.
1826:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1802:
1790:
1775:
1763:
1751:
1735:
1723:
1711:
1699:
1687:
1675:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1654:
1642:
1627:
1615:
1613:, p. 192.
1603:
1578:
1552:
1550:, p. 154.
1536:
1534:, p. 193.
1524:
1515:
1490:
1478:
1453:
1451:, p. 170.
1441:
1429:
1417:
1405:
1403:, p. 129.
1393:
1381:
1366:
1354:
1342:
1330:
1318:
1306:
1294:
1282:
1265:
1250:
1238:
1223:
1207:
1195:
1183:
1171:
1159:
1147:
1135:
1123:
1111:
1099:
1087:
1075:
1063:
1046:
1034:
1022:
1010:
1008:, p. 154.
995:
993:, p. 339.
983:
971:
969:, p. 340.
955:
943:
928:
912:
900:
885:
883:, p. 153.
879:, p. 35;
869:
850:
838:
826:
824:, p. 126.
814:
802:
790:
788:, p. 155.
778:
766:
754:
739:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
708:
699:
690:
681:
671:
669:
666:
615:
612:
594:
591:
561:John R. Thomas
533:
530:
514:murder statute
497:
494:
461:
458:
424:
422:
419:
397:
394:
364:
362:
359:
321:
318:
304:
301:
229:
226:
208:
205:
196:John R. Thomas
173:Maud, Oklahoma
169:Palmer Sampson
143:
142:
139:
135:
134:
125:
122:
119:
118:
115:
111:
110:
85:
81:
80:
48:
42:
41:
38:Maud, Oklahoma
34:
30:
29:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2352:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2275:
2269:
2264:
2263:
2252:
2251:
2245:
2241:
2240:
2234:
2230:
2229:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2212:
2208:
2207:
2201:
2197:
2196:
2190:
2186:
2185:
2179:
2175:
2174:
2168:
2164:
2163:
2157:
2153:
2152:
2146:
2142:
2141:
2135:
2131:
2130:
2124:
2120:
2119:
2113:
2109:
2108:
2102:
2099:. p. 14.
2098:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2080:
2078:9780807125847
2074:
2070:
2066:
2061:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1997:9780313220975
1993:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1971:The Seminoles
1968:
1964:
1960:
1958:9780878059232
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1932:9783847006084
1928:
1924:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1828:
1811:
1806:
1799:
1794:
1787:
1782:
1780:
1772:
1767:
1760:
1755:
1748:
1745:, p. 2;
1744:
1739:
1732:
1727:
1720:
1715:
1708:
1703:
1696:
1691:
1684:
1679:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1652:, p. 84.
1651:
1646:
1640:, p. 82.
1639:
1634:
1632:
1624:
1619:
1612:
1607:
1592:
1588:
1582:
1567:
1563:
1556:
1549:
1545:
1540:
1533:
1528:
1519:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1487:
1482:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1450:
1445:
1438:
1433:
1426:
1421:
1414:
1409:
1402:
1397:
1390:
1385:
1379:, p. 93.
1378:
1373:
1371:
1364:, p. 96.
1363:
1358:
1351:
1346:
1340:, p. 92.
1339:
1334:
1328:, p. 96.
1327:
1322:
1316:, p. 89.
1315:
1310:
1304:, p. 86.
1303:
1298:
1291:
1286:
1280:, p. 83.
1279:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1263:, p. 82.
1262:
1257:
1255:
1247:
1242:
1235:
1230:
1228:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1204:
1199:
1192:
1187:
1181:, p. 61.
1180:
1175:
1169:, p. 72.
1168:
1163:
1156:
1151:
1145:, p. 53.
1144:
1139:
1132:
1127:
1121:, p. 48.
1120:
1115:
1109:, p. 47.
1108:
1103:
1097:, p. 46.
1096:
1091:
1085:, p. 36.
1084:
1079:
1073:, p. 54.
1072:
1067:
1061:, p. 42.
1060:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1043:
1038:
1031:
1026:
1019:
1014:
1007:
1002:
1000:
992:
987:
981:, p. 75.
980:
975:
968:
964:
959:
952:
947:
941:, p. 25.
940:
935:
933:
925:
921:
916:
909:
904:
898:, p. 35.
897:
892:
890:
882:
878:
873:
867:, p. 34.
866:
861:
859:
857:
855:
847:
842:
835:
830:
823:
818:
811:
806:
799:
794:
787:
782:
775:
770:
764:, p. 18.
763:
758:
752:, p. 10.
751:
746:
744:
736:
731:
727:
703:
694:
685:
676:
672:
665:
663:
659:
658:
651:
644:
639:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
611:
609:
605:
600:
590:
588:
584:
579:
573:
570:
566:
562:
559:Before Judge
557:
555:
550:
546:
542:
538:
529:
526:
521:
519:
515:
511:
502:
493:
491:
487:
482:
481:
476:
466:
457:
453:
451:
446:
441:
438:
437:
429:
418:
414:
412:
406:
402:
393:
391:
385:
381:
378:
377:
369:
358:
356:
352:
348:
343:
341:
332:
331:
326:
317:
313:
311:
300:
298:
294:
290:
285:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
222:
218:
213:
204:
201:
197:
193:
188:
184:
182:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
140:
136:
133:
129:
126:
120:
116:
112:
108:
103:
86:
82:
77:
49:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
22:
19:
2267:
2248:
2237:
2226:
2215:
2204:
2193:
2182:
2171:
2160:
2149:
2138:
2127:
2116:
2105:
2094:
2064:
2052:. Retrieved
2043:
2014:
2010:
2006:
1983:
1970:
1944:
1918:
1905:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1836:
1832:
1812:, p. 3.
1805:
1800:, p. 1.
1793:
1788:, p. 3.
1766:
1761:, p. 2.
1754:
1749:, p. 3.
1738:
1733:, p. 6.
1726:
1721:, p. 1.
1714:
1709:, p. 2.
1702:
1697:, p. 4.
1690:
1685:, p. 3.
1678:
1673:, p. 6.
1666:
1650:Pfeifer 2021
1645:
1638:Pfeifer 2021
1618:
1606:
1594:. Retrieved
1590:
1581:
1569:. Retrieved
1565:
1555:
1548:Wickett 2000
1539:
1527:
1518:
1506:. Retrieved
1502:
1493:
1481:
1469:. Retrieved
1465:
1456:
1444:
1432:
1420:
1408:
1396:
1384:
1357:
1345:
1333:
1321:
1309:
1297:
1285:
1241:
1219:Sampson 2002
1210:
1198:
1186:
1174:
1162:
1150:
1138:
1126:
1114:
1102:
1090:
1078:
1066:
1037:
1025:
1020:, p. 7.
1013:
1006:Wickett 2000
986:
974:
958:
946:
915:
903:
881:Wickett 2000
872:
841:
829:
817:
805:
798:Wickett 2000
793:
786:Wickett 2000
781:
769:
757:
730:
702:
693:
684:
675:
655:
640:
617:
608:Pennsylvania
604:Matthew Quay
596:
593:Compensation
574:
558:
537:Horace Speed
535:
522:
507:
478:
471:
454:
447:
443:
439:report, 1899
434:
431:
426:
415:
407:
403:
399:
386:
383:
374:
371:
366:
344:
336:
328:
314:
306:
286:
240:people from
231:
200:Horace Speed
189:
185:
177:
168:
164:
157:live burning
148:
146:
132:live burning
18:
1825:Scholarship
723:Scholarship
646: [
549:indictments
450:brush arbor
347:horse theft
262:pastoralist
219:(left) and
215:Map of the
203:innocence.
123:Attack type
71: /
46:Coordinates
2284:Categories
2087:Newspapers
1819:References
1659:Newspapers
1215:Baker 2007
713:References
565:jury trial
547:to return
545:grand jury
518:deposition
207:Background
91:1898-01-08
59:96°46′39″W
56:35°07′55″N
2031:229417729
2017:: 81–86.
1897:147043442
1853:143564441
1623:Dyck 2016
1611:Dyck 2016
1503:okcca.net
718:Citations
654:released
641:In 1996,
587:Eva Dugan
567:and some
475:race riot
289:lynchings
2054:July 15,
2048:Archived
1969:(1957).
1943:(1996).
1596:July 17,
1571:July 17,
1508:July 17,
1471:July 17,
649:Wikidata
636:genocide
602:Senator
421:Lynching
396:Violence
250:Oklahoma
238:Seminole
192:indicted
161:Seminole
153:lynching
151:was the
128:Lynching
107:UTC-5:00
33:Location
624:alcohol
583:Arizona
569:pleaded
355:larceny
320:Victims
244:to the
242:Florida
234:removed
171:, near
163:youth,
159:of two
89: (
2075:
2029:
1994:
1955:
1929:
1895:
1889:743965
1887:
1851:
1499:"OCCA"
620:memoir
379:, 1898
303:Murder
252:. The
138:Deaths
114:Target
2027:S2CID
1893:S2CID
1885:JSTOR
1849:S2CID
668:Notes
652:]
268:were
36:Near
2073:ISBN
2056:2022
1992:ISBN
1953:ISBN
1927:ISBN
1598:2023
1573:2023
1510:2023
1473:2023
353:for
278:Maud
236:the
167:and
147:The
84:Date
40:, US
2019:doi
1877:doi
1867:".
1841:doi
606:of
520:.
361:Mob
280:in
155:by
130:by
102:CST
2286::
2071:.
2067:.
2046:.
2042:.
2025:.
2015:20
2013:.
1990:.
1951:.
1947:.
1925:.
1921:.
1908:.
1891:.
1883:.
1873:13
1871:.
1847:.
1837:20
1835:.
1778:^
1630:^
1589:.
1564:.
1501:.
1464:.
1369:^
1268:^
1253:^
1226:^
1049:^
998:^
931:^
888:^
853:^
742:^
638:.
556:.
433:—
373:—
284:.
97:c.
2081:.
2058:.
2033:.
2021::
2000:.
1977:.
1961:.
1935:.
1912:.
1899:.
1879::
1855:.
1843::
1600:.
1575:.
1512:.
1475:.
1221:.
141:2
109:)
105:(
93:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
