2415:
806:
1413:
3001:
2986:(2011) that not even the most triumphalist Christian, nor even the most sceptic scholar, can deny the continued survival of the practices of these women. However, it is also clear that during centuries of transmission, their practices changed through external influences, and evolved. Attitudes also changed and sorcery was increasingly considered to be witchcraft during the Middle Ages, and by the 15th century society appears no longer to have distinguished between sorcesses and healers such as midwives and wise women. The witch was inherently evil, she could fly to the sabbath and have intercourse with the devil, and she ate infants.
2427:
2964:, which point out that the practitioners of magic were respected and well integrated in society. They were often connected to the highest echelons of society, they were free and they owned land. In a Norwegian setting they usually belong to Norwegian families, and in Iceland they do not live in caves or on islands, but in settlements with other people. Nor are they described as perverted or as sexual deviants. Moreover, archaeological studies from Norway and Sweden, such as that of the Oseberg burial, show that they belonged to the highest elite and were part of aristocratic society.
878:; and they had a raised platform which the priestess would mount, and then, bending over the kettle, would cut the throat of each prisoner after he had been lifted up; and from the blood that poured forth into the vessel some of the priestesses would draw a prophecy, while still others would split open the body and from an inspection of the entrails would utter a prophecy of victory for their own people; and during the battles they would beat on the hides that were stretched over the wicker-bodies of the wagons and in this way produce an unearthly noise.
2037:; the cemetery section of the site contains, among about 30 others, the grave of a woman buried within a horse-drawn carriage and wearing a red and blue dress embroidered with gold thread, all signs of high status. While the grave contains items commonly found in female Viking Age graves such as scissors and spindle whorls, it also contains a variety of other rare and exotic items. For example, the woman wore silver toe rings (otherwise unknown in the Scandinavian record) and her burial contained two bronze bowls originating from Central Asia.
3027:, sex both oral and anal, incest and cannibalism of infants. Morris comments that the accusations reveal more about the inquisitors than about the women who were accused. The accusations were characterized by ecclesiastical attitudes towards female sexuality, and it is notable that the practices they were accused of were preventive to procreation. Morris argues that the evolution from Germanic pagan seeresses to witches during the witch-hunts is a case study in how attitudes towards magic were affected by the change of religion.
6547:
2078:
1600:
137:
1047:
1271:
706:
2820:
2184:
3046:
685:(1993) as " direct contact with spiritual beings and guardian spirits, together with the mediating role played by a shaman in a ritual setting The presence of guardian spirits during the trance and following shamanic actions " then it is correct to define their practices as "broadly shamanic". However, he considers that in this case shamanism also includes traditional practices from a large part of Europe, such as the
6456:
958:, and empties, a mighty river, into the northern ocean. Drusus undertook to cross this river, but failing in the attempt, set up trophies and withdrew. For a woman of superhuman size met him and said: "Whither, pray, art thou hastening, insatiable Drusus? It is not fated that thou shalt look upon all these lands. But depart; for the end alike of thy labours and of thy life is already at hand".
1878:
catskin. She bore a staff with a knob at the top, adorned with brass set with stones on top. About her waist she had a linked charm belt with a large purse. In it she kept the charms which she needed for her predictions. She wore calfskin boots lined with fur, with long, sturdy laces and large pewter knobs on the ends. On her hands she wore gloves of catskin, white and lined with fur.
2460:(mentioned above) attracted protective spirits that provided information to the enchantress, there were animal spirits that were sent out to collect information for her, and to perform other tasks. Consequently, the task of the sorceress was to control spirits, and the name that appears to have been used for these spirits and for several other aspects in sorcery is
2719:, it is in the beginning of the trance that she breathes in, and Tolley considers that this may represent a breathing in of spirits rather than her letting out her soul. Price comments that as far as textual criticism is concerned, this detail can not have been borrowed from those of the neighbouring Fenno-Ugric peoples, because the closest practitioners are the
837:
for their women than for themselves. Indeed, peoples who are ordered to include girls of noble family among their hostages are thereby placed under a more effective restraint. They even believe that there is something holy and an element of the prophetic in women, hence they neither scorn their advice nor ignore their predictions. Under the
2009:, who can transform themselves into falcons.). The falcon also appears to wear a cloak of the type worn by Scandinavian women. There is a cross above the falcon; coins bearing the falcon and the cross are dated to Olga's time in the 950s and the 960s. Images of women with a bird's head have also been found on the Norwegian 9th c.
1030:. The Germans traditionally regard many of the female sex as prophetic, and indeed, by an excess of superstition, as divine. This was a case in point. Veleda's prestige stood high, for she had foretold the German successes and the extermination of the legions. But Lupercus was put to death before he reached her.
2326:, the songs are said to be sung or spoken by the seeresses' followers, but at the same time there is only one woman who knows them and sings them. Price argues that since the name appears with two spellings (depending on the manuscript), it is possible to interpret the name in two ways, either by referring to
3014:
extended the concept of "witch" to more women, and concepts that used to be separate – folklore and witchcraft - merged with the concept of heresy. Morris argues that without this book there would probably never have been witch-hunts, and that the printing press helped spread the notion of diabolical
2778:
The notion of ecstatic experience induced or complemented by the use of intoxicants in the context of Nordic pagan religion is not new, and there have been several attempts to reconstruct such practices. Little evidence to confirm the Viking Age ingestion of hallucinogens such as psilocybin mushrooms
788:
Germanic seeresses are first described by the Romans, who discuss the role seeresses played in
Germanic society. A gap in the historical record occurs until the North Germanic record began over a millennium later, when the Old Norse sagas frequently mention seeresses among the North Germanic peoples.
1679:
Few records of myths among the
Germanic peoples survive to modern times. The North Germanic record is an exception, containing the vast majority of material that survives about the mythology of the Germanic peoples. These sources mention numerous seeresses among the North Germanic peoples, including
873:
Writers report a custom of the Cimbri to this effect: Their wives, who would accompany them on their expeditions, were attended by priestesses who were seers; these were grey-haired, clad in white, with flaxen cloaks fastened on with clasps, girt with girdles of bronze, and bare-footed; now sword in
2686:
comments that instead of being a reference to a wand as her tool or insignia, her name may be a reference to her function among the
Germanic tribes (like Veleda's name). Sundqvist also comments that the name may have referred instead to her abilities, like de Vries who connects her name directly to
2053:
If these seeds are thrown onto a fire, a mildly hallucinogenic smoke is produced. Taken in the right quantities, they can produce hallucinations and euphoric states. Henbane was often used by the witches of later periods. It could be used as a "witch's salve" to produce a psychedelic effect, if the
2000:
came of age, Olga may have chosen to add the key to the seal of the ruler of Kievan Rus', the key being a symbol whose significance would have been understood all over northern Europe, not only as the symbol of a woman who has authority, but also as a symbol of guardianship. On the reverse side the
836:
It is recorded that some armies that were already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by women pleading steadfastly, blocking their path with bared breasts, and reminding their men how near they themselves are to being taken captive. This they fear by a long way more desperately
123:
Societal beliefs about the practices and abilities of seeresses would contribute to the development of the
European concept of "witches", because their practices survived Christianization, although the practitioners became marginalized, and evolved into north European mediaeval witchcraft. Germanic
1885:
That evening tables were set up and food prepared for the seeress. A porridge of kid's milk was made for her and as meat she was given the hearts of all the animals available there. She had a spoon of brass and a knife with an ivory shaft, its two halves clasped with bronze bands, and the point of
774:
and
Sundqvist have commented that although the seeresses were referred to as "priestesses" by the Romans, they probably should not be so labelled in a strict sense. As for the later North Germanic version, Näsström writes that the völva did not perform any sacrifices, but her roles as a prophetess
1881:
When she entered, everyone was supposed to offer her respectful greetings, and she responded by according to how the person appealed to her. Farmer
Thorkel took the wise woman by the hand and led her to the seat which had been prepared for her. He then asked her to survey his flock, servants and
1241:
as a "magic staff" and the "insignia of her calling", but in a later work he adds that it meant "magic object or being" and instead of referring to a wand as her tool or insignia, her name may instead have been a reference to her function among the
Germanic tribes (like Veleda's name). Sundqvist
968:. And I find confirmation of the story in these incidents: wolves were prowling about the camp and howling just before his death; two youths were seen riding through the midst of the camp; a sound as of women lamenting was heard; and there were shooting stars in the sky. So much for these events.
2945:
Modern archaeological finds, however, do not confirm that the North
Germanic seeresses had a marginal position at the bottom of society as depicted by older scholarship and Christian sources, but instead they suggest the contrary. The seeresses have been cast in a new light by a recent detailed
2937:
comments that the associations with Freyja and the Vanir gods lingered for a long time in
Christian medieval Scandinavia, but the Viking Age views were replaced by negative views influenced by Christian attitudes towards female sexuality as something dangerous that had to be contained. This was
1946:
Olga is strongly associated with birds in the sources, which also was true of the goddess Freyja, the goddess of magic (seiðr). The goddess was popular among
Scandinavian women in general, and especially among aristocratic women who profited from corollary authority and power. Older scholarship
1877:
When she arrived one evening, along with the man who had been sent to fetch her, she was wearing a black mantle with a strap, which was adorned with precious stones right down to the hem. About her neck she wore a string of glass beads and on her head a hood of black lambskin lined with white
2810:
were found in the Oseberg ship burial, among the piles of pillows thrown into the prow of the ship when the grave was robbed. A single seed of cannabis was also found embedded in a clump of decayed leather, bound by a thin woollen cord, apparently the remains of a small leather pouch with a
1663:
Wagner argues that the demonization of both the women and the Huns shows that the account was written in a Christian context. Morris (1991) comments that it was a precedent for future Christian tradition, where demonic women have intercourse with the Devil or with demons. In the Anglo-Saxon
645:), but rather to what degree similarities can be found between what is preserved about them in Old Norse literature and the shamanism of northern Eurasia in a more restricted sense. The majority of scholars support the "shamanic interpretation, and the presence of ecstatic rituals" (e.g.
2131:, Sweden. The grave contained female human remains interred with an iron wand or staff, a carriage, horses, and Arabic bronze jugs. The grave also contained a small silver figurine of a woman with a large necklace, which has been interpreted by archaeologists as representing the goddess
2811:
draw-string; it is possible that all the seeds were originally contained in this bag. The pouch was too small to hold enough seeds for planting, suggesting that they might have had symbolic significance, and could have been connected with the higher status woman's religious functions.
725:
Fate is central in Germanic literature and mythology, and men's destiny is inextricably linked to supernatural women and seeresses. Morris comments that the importance of fate can not be overstressed, and the seeresses were feared and revered by gods and mortals alike. Even the god
1145:. The Semnoni reenacted the "horrific origins" of their nation with a human sacrifice, with each victim representing Tuisto (the "twin") and being cut up to repeat the "acts of creation", which can be compared to how Odin and his brothers cut up the body of the primordial giant
2165:. They also take part in other activities, but they do not appear to perform sacrifices. They are described as ritual specialists travelling from settlement to settlement, sometimes with a group of followers, and late sources tell that they received payment for their services.
2786:
properties suggest aspects of the rituals that might have been performed with it. There are many medieval accounts describing henbane's use as an ingredient in witches' ointments, used when a sorceress wished to change physical form. Henbane contains the psychoactive drug
1393:, mentioned that the Germanic seeresses also could predict the future while studying the eddies, the whirling and the splashing of currents, and Schubart suggests that this is the reason why Waluburg found herself at the swirling waters of the First Cataract of the Nile.
2342:
as meaning "locking the spirits under the seeress' power". In this way the term can be simultaneously interpreted as attracting the spirits and locking them under the summoner's power, and probably also securing them as protection against hostile entities. In the poem
7511:
1639:
The account may be based on a historic event when Filimer banished his seeresses as scapegoats for a defeat when their prophesy had proved wrong, They may also have represented the conservative faction and resisted change. This change may have been the rise of the
737:
The political role that the seeresses played was always present when the Romans were dealing with the Germanic tribes, and the Romans had to take their opinion into account. Ganna's political influence was so considerable that she was taken to Rome together with
2932:
writes that their practice was so evil that "manly men considered it too shameful to practise it, and so it was taught to priestesses". It is possible that the Christian scribes wanted to minimize and deprecate them and their rites and turn them into an oddity.
2791:, and when consumed as a tea, or when its juice is made into a topical salve and rubbed into the skin, especially around the armpits and chest, hallucinations can be experienced. A strong sensation of flight is often felt, which remains vivid for several hours.
1996:. Above the bident there is a key, and keys were a symbol of the Scandinavian mistress, as Scandinavian women carried the keys of the homestead; Kovalev (2012) argues that the key was also a symbol of Freyja. According to Kovalev, during her regency, before
1472:) instead. Frigg advised them to trick Odin, by having the Winnili women spread their hair in front of their faces so as to look bearded and stand before the window from which Odin looked down on Earth. Odin was embarrassed and asked who the "long-beards" (
1384:
considers her to have been deported by the Roman authorities, and he writes that it is uncertain how she arrived at Elephantine, but it is not surprising considering the significant and obvious influence that the Germanic seeresses wielded politically.
2827:
All over the world cats are often linked to magical practices, and the goddess Freyja, who was the first divinity reported to have practiced magic, was associated with cats. Cats and catskins appear to have been important symbols for the seeresses. In
2913:
The seeresses rarely appear in the earliest Scandinavian written sources, such as runestones and skaldic poetry, and they do not appear in place names which suggests a marginal position in society; older research has cast them in a negative light.
1670:
from the 10th century, there is a prescription for a salve against "women with whom the Devil has sexual intercourse," and in the 11th century, there appeared the idea that witches and heretics had sexual orgies during their meetings at night.
673:, Näsström and Schjødt), but there are divergent opinions within the two camps. Clive Tolley, who is among the sceptics, writes that if shamanism is defined as "tundra shamanism" as represented by the Sámi of Scandinavia and as defined by
963:
It is indeed marvellous that such a voice should have come to any man from the Deity, yet I cannot discredit the tale; for Drusus immediately departed, and as he was returning in haste, died on the way of some disease before reaching the
2853:
The most opulent female grave from the Viking Age is the extremely rich Oseberg ship burial from the first half of the 9th c. that contained two women. Although previously considered to be the grave of a queen, several scholars, such as
1953:. Consequently, Olga may have been regarded as a high priestess of Freyja, a status which would not only have appealed to her Scandinavian kinsmen but also to her Slavic subjects who would have identified Freyja with the Slavic goddess
2922:, while the Christian writers considered them to be "more or less witches". In sources from the Christian era, their rituals are described as suspicious and sometimes evil. This attitude can even be seen in some Eddic lays, and in the
1221:); Ganna would mean the "one who carries the magical staff" or "she who controls the magical staff" or something similar. Her name is thus grouped with other seeresses with staff names, like Gambara ("wand-bearer") and Waluburg from
2394:) lures a boy to his death, as intended, and a pleasing sound would also have been understood as attracting spirits to the summoner. Price suggests that the nearest equivalent to these high pitched and pleasing chants are the
841:
we witnessed how Veleda was long regarded by many of them as a divine being; and in former times, too, they revered Albruna and a number of other women, not through servile flattery nor as if they had to make goddesses out of
66:. Mentions of Germanic seeresses occur as early as the Roman era, when, for example, they at times led armed resistance against Roman rule and acted as envoys to Rome. After the Roman Era, seeresses occur in records among the
2582:) could be summoned or sent out to gather information; this spirit is in animal form, but possibly not always. The extension to the meanings "wolf" and "serpent" is due to the fact that spirits had animal form, and the term
640:
There has long been an academic debate on whether the seeresses' practice should be regarded as shamanism. However, this does not pertain to the concept of shamanism in a wider definition (see e.g. the definitions of the
2862:
and Leszek Gardeła note that the finds indicate that it was instead the grave of a seeress. In addition to a staff and cannabis it contained a chest with catskins, and a wagon that had one end decorated with nine cats
2574:). Tolley argues that the original meaning cannot have included "staff", but rather that it would have meant "sorcerer spirit" from which would have been derived the additional meanings "wand", "wolf" and "serpent" (
1117:(1986) discusses Tacitus' meeting with Ganna and what the Roman historian learnt of the mythological traditions of the early Germanic tribes, and of the Semnoni's ancestral relationships with the other tribes from
1497:
comments that Gambara lived in a world and era where prophecy was important, and not being a virgin like Veleda, she combined the roles of priestess, wise woman, mother and queen. Her name may mean "wand-bearer"
2586:
originally meant the ride of a sorcerer on a spirit in animal form such as that of a wolf. Supernatural creatures could also use wolves as steeds; later the term came to refer to the sorcerer riding on a staff.
1947:
believed that the aristocratic Norse women passively waited at home for their husbands, but the modern view is that they actively took part in warfare from home with seiðr, a magic reflected in the Norse poem
1090:, the king of her tribe, where they had an audience with the Roman emperor and were treated with honours, after which they returned home. This probably happened in 86 AD, the year after his final war with the
941:, conquering with difficulty the territory traversed and defeating the forces that attacked him only after considerable bloodshed. From there he proceeded to the country of the Cherusci, and crossing the
4476:
1931:'s old mother, although she was his grand-mother. There she is described as "very wise" and her main function at the court was as a prophetess, one whose predictions also came true. When the king of
2472:
is complex and a matter of discussion among scholars. The original meaning appears to be "something which is connected with the soul of the magician and can be sent out from him or her in sleep or
1939:, he asked her to predict the future and to do so she was carried to him on a chair which recalls the elevated platforms of the seeresses. Although he may not have transmitted a historical event,
1161:
that was the cradle of the tribe's inception, and that could only be entered when they were fettered. The god who was worshiped was probably Odin, and being fettered may have been an imitation of
789:
It is noteworthy that Veleda, who prophesied in a high tower in the first century, finds an echo in the thirteenth-century account of Þorbjörg lítilvölva who prophesied from a raised platform in
371:). However, there is little that the scholar could use to differentiate them, if such a distinction ever existed, and the two types of names are often used synonymously and about the same women.
2059:
Henbane's aphrodisiac properties may have also been relevant to its use by the seeress. At the feet of the corpse was a small box, called a box brooch and originating from the Swedish island of
1086:, and she appears to have been active in the second half of the 1st century, after Veleda's time. Ganna's political influence was considerable enough that she was taken to Rome together with
1050:
It appears to have been Ganna herself, and her king Masyos, who informed Tacitus of the Semnoni religious practices. An illustration of the Semnoni sacred grove, which is identified with the
4456:
2699:
There are two ways in which the seeress conveys the acquired information to the audience. One of them is by having a seizure during the trance and gasping for air with a wide open mouth (
1456:, led by the brothers Ibor and Agio, their neighbours, the Vandals, demanded that they pay tribute, but their mother Gambara advised them not to. Before the battle, the Vandals called on
7845:
1620:, etc.) (Goth-Latin). They were in the words of Wolfram "women who engaged in magic with the world of the dead", and they were banished from their tribe by Filimer who was the last pre-
2070:
and bird bones. The grave also contained amulets shaped like a chair, potentially a reflection of the long-standing association of seeresses and chairs (as described in Strabo's
2054:
magic practitioners rubbed it into their skin. Did the woman from Fyrkat do this? In her belt buckle was white lead, which was sometimes used as an ingredient in skin ointment.
2678:
seeress Veleda as the leader of an alliance of Germanic tribes when the latter had been captured and deported by the Romans. Her name "Ganna" is usually linked to the ON word
874:
hand these priestesses would meet with the prisoners of war throughout the camp, and having first crowned them with wreaths would lead them to a brazen vessel of about twenty
677:, then the differences are too great. He allies himself with the position of Ohlmarks, who was familiar with a wide range shamanism and rejected it in 1939, in a debate with
2013:, and the women have been identified as priestesses of Freyja wearing bird masks. Several scholars consider the woman who was buried with the tapestry to have been a völva.
1652:
clan of gods). As in the case of the early Lombards, this would have taken place after a decisive victory that saved a tribe whose existence had been threatened by enemies.
1011:—wrote about the ancient Germanic peoples, and made note of the role of seeresses in Germanic society. Tacitus mentions Germanic seeresses in book 4 of his first century CE
2918:
comments that all our sources on Germanic seeresses have passed through the filter of Roman and Christian interpretations. The Romans interpreted them as similar to their
3140:, a name meaning 'wand-wielder' applied to a valkyrie in the Old Norse corpus and later appearing in a 14th-century charm used as evidence in a Norwegian witchcraft trial
1321:'staff', which could be a reference to the seeresses' insignia, the magic staff, and which connects her name semantically to that of her fellow tribeswoman, the seeress
2606:, but it can also refer to magically flying on a staff in a physical sense. Price disagrees with Tolley's argument that "staff" was not part of the original meaning of
458:. It is possible that the names once had different meanings, but at the time of the saga's composition, they were no longer distinguished in meaning, just as the words
2101:
fur with a variety of notable grave goods: the grave contained a bronze-ornamented staff with a small house atop it, a jug made in Central Asia, and a bronze cauldron
2005:
has the image of a falcon, a bird not only associated with the Swedish and Rus' elite of the Viking Age, but also especially associated with the goddesses Freyja and
2021:
The archaeological record for Viking Age society features a variety of graves that are identified as those of North Germanic seeresses. A notable example occurs at
821:, Tacitus expounds on some of these points. In chapter eight, he reports the following about women in then-contemporary Germanic society and the role of seeresses:
697:, who has studied circumpolar shamanism, and argues that he finds enough similarities to define the North Germanic seeresses as shamans also in the stricter sense.
2319:, and scholars such as Cleasby, Vigfússon and Strömbäck consider it to be the origin of the Scottish word. Katherine Morris translates the word as "warlock-song".
6592:
1624:
king of the migrating Goths. They found refuge in the wilderness where they were impregnated by unclean spirits from the Steppe, and engendered the Huns, which
929:, and omens occurred that were anything but favourable to him. Many buildings were destroyed by storm and by thunderbolts, among them any temples; even that of
775:
and as a sorceress were still important aspects of the spiritual life of her society. Price comments that Katherine Morris has usefully defined these women:
6597:
5493:
Janson, Henrik (2018). "Pictured by the Other: Classical and Early Medieval Perspectives on Religions in the North". In Clunies Ross, Margaret (ed.).
1023:
779:
magic was manipulative, practical, and achieved immediately. The sorceress changed the weather, cast spells, or controlled things outside of herself.
35:. They are also referred to with many other names meaning "prophetess", "staff bearer", "wise woman" and "sorceress", and they are frequently called
1376:
Schubart proposes that she may have been a war prisoner accompanying a Roman soldier in his career that led to him being stationed in Egypt at the
1113:
who reports that he discussed the Semnoni religious practices with informants from that tribe, who considered themselves the noblest of the Suebi.
355:
3023:" and "high magic" as heresy. About eighty per cent of those accused of witchcraft were women, and the accusations included Devil worship, having
1577:, in a parallel with the Lombard myth. Frigg's infidelity and connection with prophecy normally belong to Freyja, and her association with magic (
602:
that only meant "sorceress", and a number of derogatory names that correspond to "witch" with many negative connotations, and these terms include
734:
are an example of the link between women and fate, which was elevated in Germanic society, and the association was incarnated by the seeresses.
5582:
344:
1518:
argues that the legend goes back to a time when the early Lombards primarily worshiped the mother goddess Freyja, as part of the Scandinavian
7455:
7368:
6012:
Samplonius, Kees (2001). "Sibylla borealis: Notes on the Structure of Vǫluspá". In Olsen, Karin E.; Harbus, Antonina; Hofstra, Tette (eds.).
363:
The various names in North Germanic sources may give the impression that there were two types of sorceress, the staff-bearers, or seeresses (
3057:
The concept of the Germanic seeress has had influence in a variety of areas of popular culture. For example, in 1965, the Icelandic scholar
116:
Archaeologists have identified several graves that appear to be the remains of Scandinavian seeresses. These graves contain objects such as
5611:. Aberystwyth Canolfan Uwchefrydiau Cymreig a Cheltaidd Prifysgol Cymru, University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies.
2942:, manifested as what Ellis Davidson referred to as "the sinister light which played round cult for the story-tellers of a Christian age".
2112:
also may have contained a seeress. The ship contained the remains of two people, one a woman of elevated status and the other possibly a
766:... and if we must choose between masters, then we may more honorably bear with the Emperors of Rome, than with the women of the Germans.
2622:("spirits") for the purpose of clairvoyance or prophesy, and sometimes in order to harm people. The use of the staff may have implied
2044:, a poisonous plant, inside it, and a partially disintegrated metal wand, used by seeresses in the Old Norse record. According to the
113:, was one such, serving as a "priestess of Freyja" among the Scandinavian elite in Kievan Rus' before they converted to Christianity.
1582:
2782:
Several hundred seeds of henbane were found in grave 4 at Fyrkat. Their presence in the grave is likely significant, and the herb's
1984:, a token given to officials by Scandinavian kings and Rus' rulers, indicating that the buried man had political influence. On the
933:
and the gods worshipped with him was injured. Drusus, however, paid no heed to any of these things, but invaded the country of the
5171:
For discussion regarding examples of modern-day seeresses in Germanic Heathenry, see for example discussion throughout Blain 2002.
2838:
tells that her ritual dress had a black lambskin hood that was lined with white catskin and on her hands she wore catskin gloves.
269:
7573:
7543:
2647:". Especially the last poem contains many Germanic pagan elements that are also found in Old Norse sources, such as sorceresses (
2908:
2867:), animals sacred to Freyja , which suggests that it was a reference to the goddess whose wagon is pulled by cats, according to
2365:, are said to protect a person on all sides, and they are also likely bound to that individual. Tolley points out that the form
797:
comments that the saga's account of Þorbjörg's raised platform and her wand conveys authentic practices from Germanic paganism.
74:. Both the classical and the Norse accounts imply that they used wands, and describe them as sitting on raised platforms during
7774:
1485:
805:
7743:
7680:
6380:
6291:
6217:
6147:
6075:
6052:
6023:
5946:
5906:
5789:
5770:
5732:
5656:
5592:
5553:
5502:
5483:
5454:
5286:
5228:
5199:
5158:
4911:
3667:
1514:
means "boar", the animal sacred to the Norse god Freyr, the god of fertility and the main god of the Vanir clan of the gods.
926:
2414:
750:, who appears to have met Ganna and to have been informed by her of most of what we know of early Germanic religion, wrote:
681:
who found similarities with Sámi practices. However, Tolley concedes that if shamanism is defined in line with the words of
6671:
1866:
provides a particularly detailed account of the appearance and activities of a seeress. For example, regarding the seeress
1851:('the foretelling of the seeress') consists of an undead seeress reciting information about the past and future to the god
466:
are interchangeable in modern popular language. There are also five instances of a group of rarer names having the element
1919:
6460:
2123:
Another notable grave containing what has been identified as the remains of a seeress was excavated by archaeologists in
6487:
7840:
7650:
7415:
6789:
6253:
3036:
3015:
witchcraft from the ecclesiastical elite to a larger part of the population. This was also the time of the revival of "
1242:
suggests that the name may have referred instead to her abilities, like de Vries who connects her name directly to the
412:("seiðr woman/wife") appears eight times; the two terms are often used interchangeably. The second most common term is
2773:
2492:
2384:
The chants appear to have been sung with a high pitch, and they are reported to have been pleasing to the ear. In the
6784:
6348:
6321:
6208:
Sundqvist, Olof (2020). "Cultic Leaders and Religious Specialists". In Schjødt, J.P.; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.).
6198:
6125:
5970:
5925:
5876:
5854:
5831:
5808:
5713:
5694:
5675:
5616:
5524:
5399:
5380:
5349:
5330:
3024:
770:
However, the seeresses do not appear to have been just any women, but were those who occupied a special office. Both
2707:). She delivers her prophesy during the trance, and it may be said that a song appears from elsewhere in her mouth (
905:, a Germanic people. According to Diorites Cassius, the woman foresees Drusus's death, and he dies soon thereafter:
2451:
2904:
1026:
was sent along with other presents to Veleda, an unmarried woman who enjoyed wide influence over the tribe of the
7558:
7182:
5603:
5445:
Hermann, Pernille (2020). "Memory, Oral Tradition, and Sources". In Schjødt, J.P; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.).
1302:
island. The name occurs among a list of Roman and Graeco-Egyptian soldier names, perhaps indicating its use as a
6420:
Pohl, Walter (2018). "Narratives of Origin and Migration in Early Medieval Europe: Problems of Interpretation".
3091:
1845:
Unnamed seeresses occur in various contexts in the Old Norse corpus. For example, as its name implies, the poem
1571:
of Norse mythology, from where he could see everything, and where Frigg also conspires against Odin in the poem
7538:
7399:
6764:
6175:
5751:
5278:
709:
The fate of men was always in the hands of female powers. An illustration of the Norns who spin the threads of
5670:. Handbooks of World Mythology. ABC-CLIO, Inc., Santa Barbara, California; Denver, Colorado; Oxford, England.
7624:
6801:
6732:
6587:
6396:
2977:
2835:
1867:
1761:
1274:
The swirls of the First Cataract. Using them for prophesying may have been the reason why she was sent there.
595:, but it has also been explained with meanings that connote "radiance and golden light, honour and payment".
437:
283:("of pleasure"). However, it is sometimes proposed that the first element is a term corresponding to Swedish
98:
2864:
1179:
7439:
2982:
The seeress tradition did not disappear, at least not during the Middle Ages. Mitchell writes in his book
1612:, a 6th century work on the history of the Goths, reports that the early Goths had called their seeresses
1515:
7876:
7025:
6796:
3040:
2726:
The other situation occurs when the seeress has returned from her trance and tells about it while awake (
1412:
268:. These West Germanic forms are probably derived from a Proto-Germanic word with positive connotations,
7463:
6263:
5956:
5626:
Kovalev, Roman K. (2012). "Grand Princess Olga of Rus' Shows the Bird: Her 'Christian Falcon' Emblem".
5242:
4481:
4452:
2934:
2859:
2480:
2194:
In the Roman era, the Germanic word for chanting was similar to the reconstructed Proto-Germanic form *
2045:
2010:
1430:
694:
662:
152:
Aside from the names of individuals, Roman era accounts do not contain information about how the early
120:, seeds with hallucinogenic and aphrodisiac properties, and a variety of items indicating high status.
6602:
5920:. Translated by Foulke, William Dudley. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
1905:
may have served as a Völva, and as a "priestess of Freyja", before converting to Christianity. In the
7799:
7495:
5304:
2302:
2297:, where the latter simply means "seiðr songs". The former term is more complex, and scholars such as
642:
5935:
Pohl, Walter (2006). "Gender and ethnicity in the early middle ages". In Noble, Thomas F. X. (ed.).
2626:
and sexual acts while it was used, and the staff was possibly also ridden in order to hurt enemies.
1874:
A high seat was set for her, complete with a cushion. This was to be stuffed with chicken feathers.
105:
has a particular association with seeresses, and there are indications that the Viking princess and
7825:
7603:
7593:
7503:
7375:
6664:
5780:
Mitchell, Stephen A. (2020). "Magic and Religion". In Schjødt, J.P; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.).
5253:
6369:
Wolfram, Herwig (2006). "Gothic history as historical ethnography". In Noble, Thomas F. X. (ed.).
5464:
Hultgård, Anders (2005). "Seherinnen". In Beck, Heinrich; Geuenich, Dieter; Steuer, Heiko (eds.).
5308:
3000:
1333:
in Rome. In the same way, her name may also be connected to the name of another Germanic seeress,
810:
333:, it was a punishable offence to accuse a woman of having ridden a fence-gate, in the appearance (
7670:
7665:
7660:
7655:
7619:
7431:
7383:
7170:
7052:
6844:
6301:
5495:
The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, Research and Reception, From the Middle Ages to c. 1830
2895:; it has been argued that these powerful women had a special connection with the goddess Freyja.
1977:
1839:
759:
513:
191:
6480:
4222:
2521:
378:
means "staff bearer" and is related etymologically to the names of the early Germanic seeresses
7701:
7685:
7675:
7634:
7629:
7487:
7479:
6339:]. Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde - Ergänzungsbände (in German). Vol. 1.
6066:
Schjødt, Jens Peter (2020). "Crisis Rituals". In Schjødt, J.P.; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.).
5257:
3117:, the modern revival of Germanic paganism, seek to revive the concept of the Germanic seeress.
2830:
2630:
2426:
1862:
1767:
1440:
1363:'staff bearer'. In North Germanic accounts, the seeresses were always equipped with a staff, a
1057:
658:
442:
63:
5647:
Kunz, Keneva (2000). "Eirik the Red's Saga". In Thorsson, Orndélfur; Scudder, Bernard (eds.).
5605:
Celto-Germanic, Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West
5272:
4901:
754:... they believe that there resides in women an element of holiness and a gift of prophecy ...
97:. Norse mythology mentions several seeresses, some of them by name, including Heimlaug völva,
7716:
7711:
7588:
7110:
6866:
6839:
6779:
6415:. Lund Studies in History of Religion. Vol. 5. Department of History of Religions, Lund.
5988:
5960:
5185:
2842:
argues that the catskin represents the seeresses' helping animal spirits (see the section on
1660:
who was made the Scandinavian great-grandfather of Amal, the founder of the new ruling clan.
1386:
1377:
1243:
1109:
During their stay in Rome, Ganna and Masyos appear also to have met with the Roman historian
224:
81:
Ancient Roman and Greek literature records the name of several Germanic seeresses, including
67:
566:
7835:
7830:
7553:
7548:
7345:
6705:
6680:
5534:
Jarnut, Jörg (1998). "Gambara". In Beck, Heinrich; Geuenich, Dieter; Steuer, Heiko (eds.).
5416:
Hauck, K. (1955). "Lebensnormen und Kultmythen in germ. Stammes-und Herrschergenealogien".
5359:
3019:" during the renaissance, but the Church did not separate the two and persecuted both the "
2839:
2529:
2525:
2178:
2067:
2034:
1708:
898:
646:
141:
32:
5390:
Grundy, Stephan (1996). "Freyja and Frigg". In Billington, Sandra; Green, Miranda (eds.).
2313:("guard, protector"). Several scholars have also compared it to the Scotting dialect word
1949:
1777:, Þorbjörg lítilvölva travels to Scandinavian farms in Greenland and predicts the future.
1727:
682:
8:
7721:
7706:
7447:
7407:
7062:
7047:
6849:
6744:
6739:
6715:
6657:
6535:
6190:
5219:Ásdísardóttir, Ingunn (2020). "Freyja". In Schjødt, J.P.; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.).
3010:
2973:
2960:
2954:
2875:
2435:
2109:
1985:
1666:
1013:
930:
686:
6248:. FF communications, no. 296; 297. Vol. 1. Academia Scientiarum Fennica, Helsinki.
5980:
5567:
2799:; according to some sources, it originally meant "plant of madness". The proto-Germanic
400:
in divination and clairvoyance appears to have lived on from the classical era into the
7598:
7530:
6515:
6437:
6157:
6101:
5891:
5433:
3114:
3062:
2855:
2306:
2286:("crazy", literally "having been chanted") is derived from the word for this practice.
2238:
1928:
1170:
678:
543:
appears 66 times as a word for sorceress in the prose sources. It appears twice in the
125:
6473:
6037:
Samplonius, Kees (2013) . "From Veleda to the Völva". In Mulder-Bakker, Anneke (ed.).
3058:
2723:
on the other side of Eurasia, whose practices were inaccessible for the saga writers.
1739:
1476:) were, and thus naming them he became their godfather and had to grant them victory.
670:
654:
7820:
7227:
7057:
6861:
6710:
6638:
6561:
6441:
6376:
6344:
6317:
6287:
6249:
6213:
6194:
6171:
6143:
6121:
6071:
6048:
6019:
5966:
5942:
5921:
5902:
5872:
5850:
5827:
5804:
5785:
5766:
5747:
5728:
5709:
5690:
5671:
5652:
5612:
5588:
5549:
5520:
5512:
5498:
5479:
5450:
5437:
5395:
5376:
5345:
5326:
5282:
5224:
5195:
4907:
3103:
3016:
2643:
2473:
2443:
2254:("witch"). The many uses of chanting are revealed in the words that are derived from
2188:
2128:
1407:
1334:
386:
20:
6228:
2884:
2779:
or other entheogens has been found, with the exception of two archaeological finds:
1786:
1421:
223:), and in the sense "incantation" it was probably borrowed from Proto-Germanic into
7794:
7310:
7030:
6911:
6901:
6834:
6727:
6429:
6362:
6313:
6279:
6161:
6085:
6000:
5898:
5635:
5541:
5471:
5429:
5425:
5181:
2948:
2929:
2634:
2543:("extremely holy"). As a noun it meant "falsehood" and "deception", while the verb
1819:
1805:
1733:
1166:
1162:
1072:
in the early 3rd century. The context is the campaign east of the Rhine by Emperor
1052:
746:
and were treated with honours, after which they returned home. The Roman historian
575:
329:
153:
6546:
5723:
Mazo, Jeffrey A. (2016). "Grímnismál". In Pulsiano, Philip; Wolf, Kirsten (eds.).
2077:
1599:
128:, a modern practice of Germanic pagan religion, seeresses once again play a role.
101:, Þordís spákona, and Þuríðr Sundafyllir. In North Germanic religion, the goddess
7764:
7120:
7020:
6916:
6520:
6370:
6038:
6013:
5984:
5936:
5574:
5300:
5191:
5031:
3143:
2807:
2720:
2638:
2298:
1573:
1567:
1322:
1150:
1041:
955:
918:
635:
551:
380:
340:
244:
136:
90:
71:
44:
7305:
5801:
Sorceress Or Witch?: The Image of Gender in Medieval Iceland and Northern Europe
4903:
The Well of Remembrance: Rediscovering the Earth Wisdom Myths of Northern Europe
3098:, an 1844 marble statue by French sculptor Hippolyte Maindron, an illustration,
2850:), and Price connects these cat spirits with the cats that pull Freyja's wagon.
2386:
2116:. Along with a variety of other objects, the grave contained a purse containing
1790:
1046:
650:
7350:
6806:
2498:- (in English there is still a semantic relationship between the ablaut grades
2370:
2105:
in Western Europe. The grave contained animals and humans, perhaps sacrificed.
1973:
1940:
1932:
1535:
922:
826:
203:
106:
5639:
4217:
3090:
The seeress Veleda has inspired a number of artworks, including German writer
3045:
2575:
1957:, who was represented as the only goddess among the six raised idols in Kiev.
718:
7870:
7850:
7340:
7300:
7265:
7145:
6720:
6433:
6138:(2020). "Encounters: Roman". In Schjødt, J.P; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.).
5886:
5578:
4471:
4469:
4467:
4465:
2924:
2892:
2377:("ward spells"), or more likely another possible form with the same meaning,
1993:
1523:
1114:
893:
503:
436:("wise woman" or "knowing woman"), which appears eight times in the sources.
2752:
There appears to be a continuity between elements such as the first century
2153:
In Scandinavian sources, seeresses work as diviners using a practice called
2124:
2097:, also appears to have contained a seeress. The woman was buried wrapped in
2090:
1565:
in Old English. The window from which Odin looked down on earth recalls the
1527:
1424:, in a parallel with how she tricked Odin at his window in the Lombard myth.
758:
Another telling account by Tacitus about their power was a statement by the
705:
264:
7815:
7471:
7423:
7207:
7160:
7155:
7115:
6876:
6759:
6135:
6113:
6058:
6029:
5864:
5687:
Myth, Cosmos, and Society; Indo-European Themes of Creation and Destruction
5318:
5292:
3071:
2915:
2869:
2683:
2667:), the magic of smiths, and the presence of women that are like Valkyries.
2447:
2086:
1997:
1961:
1902:
1896:
1847:
1833:
1641:
1621:
1381:
1234:
1229:), and the same word is found in the name of North Germanic seeresses, the
1157:
notes that Tacitus also learnt that the Semnoni performed their rites at a
1154:
794:
742:, the king of her tribe, where they had an audience with the Roman emperor
674:
666:
557:
110:
6283:
6004:
5342:
European Paganism. The realities of cult from antiquity to the Middle Ages
4462:
1270:
140:
Sculpture of the Germanic seeress Veleda, by Hippolyte Maindron, 1844, in
7391:
7335:
7275:
7175:
7140:
7125:
7067:
6980:
6906:
6829:
2819:
2788:
2603:
2516:
1943:, who wrote the saga in the 12th c., clearly identified Olga as a völva.
1625:
1494:
1453:
1295:
1174:
1069:
1008:
888:
857:
545:
7320:
5180:
2535:("powerful runes"). It was also used as an intensifier in the compounds
2345:
1357:. The staffs are also reflected in the North Germanic word for seeress,
855:, a Germanic people, in chapter 2.3 of volume seven of his encyclopedia
424:("prophecy maiden"), which appears 22 times, again interchangeably with
124:
seeresses are mentioned in popular culture in a variety of contexts. In
7759:
7563:
7222:
7165:
7150:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6990:
6975:
6955:
6754:
6684:
6649:
6566:
6340:
6275:
6105:
6089:
3076:
2995:
2939:
2891:, most of which are identified as the graves of wealthy women, contain
2183:
2102:
1969:
1909:, she is described by the noblemen as the "wisest of all women", where
1629:
1594:
1158:
1076:
in the 80s of the 1st century CE. Ganna belonged to a tribe called the
996:
884:
771:
570:
401:
28:
2216:("sound, song, incantation, spell, enchantment"). It is derived from *
1917:
goes back to her pre-conversion years. Her wisdom is also reported by
1603:
The banishment took when the Goths had settled north of the Black Sea.
508:
and refer to a kind of sorceress. It seems to be the feminine form of
7255:
7037:
7015:
6965:
6960:
6938:
6465:
6100:(12). Staatliche Museen zu Berlin -- Preußischer Kulturbesitz: 7–12.
6044:
3020:
2783:
2623:
2162:
2148:
1753:, who scholars generally consider to be another name for the goddess
1687:
1633:
847:
Writing also in the first century AD, Greek geographer and historian
838:
714:
518:
59:
6811:
4590:
4588:
4448:
4446:
4444:
3137:
2225:
2203:
1636:. The account serves as an explanation for the origins of the Huns.
335:
310:
253:
185:
179:
75:
7846:
Feminist interpretations of witch trials in the early modern period
7769:
7512:
Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants
7330:
7212:
7130:
6970:
6933:
6749:
6530:
6389:
Zhang, Sarah. 2019. "Icelandic Has the Best Words for Technology".
5519:. Translated by Foote, Peter. Förlag Kungliga Vitterhetsakademien.
3121:
3066:
2880:
2753:
2675:
2671:
2117:
1750:
1656:
was still a new god, and the Goths worshiped instead the "old" god
1585:. Scholars may identify Frea as Frigg/Freyja, or simply as Freyja.
1449:
1390:
1330:
1291:
1279:
1265:
1095:
1078:
1073:
1027:
942:
902:
743:
721:
with the two swans that have engendered all the swans in the world.
591:
562:
392:
324:
288:
157:
94:
6769:
6628:
6040:
Sanctity and Motherhood: Essays on Holy Mothers in the Middle Ages
2154:
2144:
2094:
1702:
1326:
539:
7315:
7245:
7135:
6896:
6871:
6510:
6391:
5843:
Nordiska gudinnor : nytolkningar av den förkristna mytologin
5689:. Harvard University Press Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London.
4585:
4441:
2909:
European witchcraft § Christianization and Early Middle Ages
2888:
2418:
Both the sorcerer and supernatural creatures could ride spirits,
2395:
2315:
2060:
2041:
2030:
2026:
1448:), from the 8th c., relate the legend that before, or after, the
1389:
who lived in Egypt at the same time as Waluburg, and the earlier
1303:
1110:
1004:
979:
875:
747:
710:
82:
62:
traditions of Europe, and they held an authoritative position in
6210:
The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures
6140:
The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures
6068:
The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures
5782:
The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures
5545:
5475:
5447:
The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures
5221:
The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures
4956:
4920:
4762:
3396:
2803:
seems to have meant "vision, hallucination" or "magical power."
2795:, the German name of henbane, is derived from the Indo-European
2760:
that played an important role in Scandinavian sources. The word
2660:
2358:
2231:
408:
and derivations of the name appear 23 times in the sources, and
173:
7325:
7280:
7250:
7202:
7197:
7192:
7105:
7088:
7083:
7010:
6618:
6571:
6525:
6455:
5765:. University of Pennsylvania Press; Philadelphia & Oxford.
5043:
4932:
3444:
3432:
3420:
3408:
2402:
in modern Swedish, which still contains the linguistic element
2132:
2113:
2022:
1989:
1980:; it has been dated to c. 960. It contained an object called a
1954:
1754:
1608:
1142:
1138:
1091:
1087:
1000:
990:
934:
852:
848:
739:
162:
102:
86:
6187:
Freyr's offspring, Rulers and religion in ancient Svea society
5847:
Nordic goddesses: reinterpretations of pre-Christian mythology
5535:
5465:
5086:
4980:
4655:
3807:
1416:
Frigg and Odin wagering against each other upon Hliðskjálf in
583:
who does not act as a seeress. The name has been connected to
7855:
7295:
7290:
7270:
7260:
7187:
7098:
7093:
7042:
6950:
6928:
6923:
6854:
6623:
2919:
2629:
Some examples of aggressive projection are also preserved in
2520:("space filled with magic powers"), and on the migration age
2354:
2174:
2006:
1992:, which later evolved into a trident and was a symbol of the
1965:
1649:
1519:
1465:
1299:
1287:
1122:
1099:
965:
938:
731:
690:
585:
497:
468:
297:
219:
145:
5824:
Blot, faith and sacrifice in the pre-Christian Nordic region
5064:
5062:
5060:
5058:
4883:
4881:
4879:
4827:
4825:
4708:
4706:
4366:
4318:
1718:, Heimlaug assists the saga protagonist by way of prophecy.
1483:
in Latin which means "priestess" or "sorceress", and in the
1194:
in Greek, which means "someone making prophesies". Her name
7285:
7217:
6985:
6943:
6633:
5962:
The Viking Way, Magic and Mind in Late Iron Age Scandinavia
5127:
5125:
4527:
4525:
4523:
3952:
3950:
3948:
3946:
3944:
3770:
3768:
3766:
3764:
3305:
3303:
2098:
1936:
1852:
1657:
1653:
1531:
1457:
1146:
1134:
1103:
1083:
946:
910:
Herbert Baldwin Foster and Earnest Cary translation (1917):
727:
527:
523:
397:
117:
5098:
5074:
4573:
4058:
3785:
3783:
3751:
3749:
3161:
3159:
2135:, a deity strongly associated with seiðr, death, and sex.
1583:
Freyja and Frigg may originally have been the same goddess
1165:. This grove has for a long time been identified with the
6015:
Germanic Texts and Latin Models: Medieval Reconstructions
5055:
5007:
4968:
4876:
4822:
4740:
4738:
4736:
4703:
4631:
4549:
4496:
4431:
4429:
4237:
4104:
4102:
4100:
3929:
3880:
3878:
3826:
3824:
3822:
3327:
2652:
2064:
305:). In that case it would be etymologically related to ON
172:(Goth-Latin). The word also appears in Old English (OE),
6120:. Translated by Hall, Angela. Boydell & Brewer Ltd.
5122:
5110:
4866:
4864:
4786:
4723:
4721:
4679:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4615:
4561:
4520:
4342:
4075:
4073:
3986:
3941:
3917:
3761:
3722:
3568:
3344:
3342:
3300:
3290:
3288:
2618:) was part of the ritual of summoning and releasing the
2514:) that may be found in the name of the primordial chasm
2452:
Flying ointment § Body in coma and riding on beasts
1464:) to give them victory, but Gambara invoked Odin's wife
1249:- ("magical ability"), also treated further down in the
16:
Woman said to foretell future events and perform sorcery
6168:
Sejd and other studies in Nordic perception of the soul
4997:
4995:
4944:
4414:
4330:
4297:
4285:
4273:
4261:
4249:
4010:
3907:
3905:
3853:
3851:
3780:
3746:
3710:
3701:
3604:
3592:
3541:
3539:
3537:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3514:
3512:
3499:
3497:
3495:
3386:
3384:
3273:
3222:
3188:
3186:
3171:
3156:
2774:
European witchcraft § Hallucinogens and witchcraft
2282:(a kind of Odinic necromancy). The modern Swedish word
2040:
The grave also contained a small purse with seeds from
198:
has been reconstructed, in which the first element is *
178:("seeress" or "witch") and in Old High German (OHG) as
4810:
4774:
4750:
4733:
4426:
4390:
4378:
4354:
4198:
4162:
4097:
3875:
3819:
3643:
3633:
3631:
3580:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3371:
3369:
3263:
3261:
367:), and the women who were named for performing magic (
6094:
Amtliche Berichte aus den Königlichen Kunstsammlungen
5146:
5019:
4861:
4849:
4837:
4798:
4718:
4691:
4667:
4643:
4612:
4600:
4537:
4186:
4174:
4126:
4085:
4070:
4022:
3890:
3836:
3795:
3616:
3468:
3339:
3285:
2468:); the relationship between the extended meanings of
1581:), but there are many similarities between them, and
6092:[Egyptian Department (Papyrus Collection)].
5965:(2 ed.). Oxbow Books, Oxford and Philadelphia.
4992:
4508:
4402:
4150:
4114:
4034:
3998:
3902:
3848:
3734:
3655:
3524:
3509:
3492:
3456:
3381:
3354:
3246:
3183:
2764:
means "incantation scaffold", for performing magic.
2602:) can refer to going out to gather information in a
1796:
Tenth century Icelandic seeress and regional leader
1294:') was discovered in the early twentieth century on
1206:
in the meaning "magical staff" (for the meanings of
817:
In his ethnography of the ancient Germanic peoples,
43:
both in early sources and in modern scholarship. In
4138:
4046:
3962:
3863:
3628:
3551:
3366:
3315:
3258:
3210:
2670:During the eighth decade of the first century, the
1522:worship, and he adds that a Lombard counterpart of
432:to refer to the same woman. There is also the name
295:("pasture", "enclosure"), from whence also English
5890:
5394:. Routledge, London and New York. pp. 56–67.
3974:
3683:
3234:
3198:
3049:Faroe Islands stamp issued in 2003, depicting the
2528:, it appears in the sense "magically powerful" in
1882:buildings. She had little to say about all of it.
999:, Greek and Roman authors—such as Greek historian
925:. In the following year Drusus became consul with
901:and a woman with supernatural abilities among the
717:, the tree of the world. Beneath them is the well
58:Seeresses were an expression of the pre-Christian
6229:"Vǫrðr and Gandr: Helping Spirits in Norse Magic"
6163:Sejd och andra studier i nordisk själsuppfattning
3692:
3480:
2187:Groa chanting protective spells, illustration by
1913:has several meanings and her reputation as being
1186:It is notable that Ganna is not referred to as a
917:The events related happened in the consulship of
190:("necromancer"), and from these forms an earlier
156:referred to them, but sixth century Goth scholar
7868:
5408:Harrison, Dick & Svensson Kristina. (2007).
5299:
5165:
4768:
4594:
4309:
3450:
3438:
3426:
3414:
3402:
166:that the early Goths had called their seeresses
5584:Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache
5323:Beowulf's Wealhtheow and the Valkyrie Tradition
4218:"Þórdís spákona (Þjóðsagnasafn Jóns Árnasonar)"
2823:The Oseberg wagon was decorated with nine cats.
1368:
1358:
1350:
1344:
1338:
1337:, which can be interpreted as 'staff bearer' (*
1316:
1310:
488:("galdr creature") with negative connotations.
217:still referred to chanting and not to letters (
7369:Witchcraft and divination in the Old Testament
6331:Wagner, Norbert (1999). Beck, Heinrich (ed.).
5979:
5763:Witchcraft and Magic in the Nordic Middle Ages
5358:
5223:. Vol. III. Brepols. pp. 1273–1302.
5092:
4986:
3813:
3674:
3102:, by K. Sigrist, and Polish-American composer
2984:Witchcraft and Magic in the Nordic Middle Ages
2905:Christian views on magic § Medieval views
579:, there is only one instance of a woman named
484:("galdr lady"). In addition there is the word
7456:A Dialogue Concerning Witches and Witchcrafts
6665:
6481:
5218:
5049:
5037:
3146:, the cosmology of the North Germanic peoples
2554:- ablaut grade was combined with the suffix -
2074:from the first century CE, discussed above).
275:, from which are also derived Old Norse (ON)
5849:] (in Swedish). Albert Bonniers Förlag.
5540:. Vol. 10 (2010 ed.). De Gruyter.
5470:. Vol. 28 (2010 ed.). De Gruyter.
5270:
5137:
4926:
4893:
4455:website. Undated. "A seeress from Fyrkat?".
2938:related to the same fears that later led to
1452:, then known as the Winnili, emigrated from
1438:), a seventh-century Latin account, and the
213:("mystery, secret"). At this time the word *
167:
6212:. Vol. II. Brepols. pp. 739–780.
6070:. Vol. II. Brepols. pp. 781–796.
5820:Blot, tro och offer i det förkristna Norden
5784:. Vol. II. Brepols. pp. 643–670.
5703:
5537:Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde
5467:Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde
5184:; International Astronomical Union (2003).
3165:
2422:, in the form of animals, such as the wolf.
6672:
6658:
6488:
6474:
6142:. Vol. I. Brepols. pp. 269–288.
6036:
6011:
5744:Meeting the Other in Norse Myth and Legend
4243:
3956:
3935:
3923:
2430:An illustration of one of the meanings of
2369:for these protective spells is probably a
2236:("to sing"). It is related to the English
2202:("song, charm; witchcraft, sorcery"), OHG
2179:Chant § Chant as a spiritual practice
1068:is mentioned by the Roman historiographer
416:("prophecy woman/wife") with the variants
279:("skillful") and Middle High German (MHG)
248:, a term that is also found in Old Dutch,
6372:From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms
6207:
6184:
6156:
5938:From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms
5741:
5174:
5104:
5080:
5068:
5013:
4962:
4831:
4712:
4685:
4637:
4579:
4502:
4016:
3774:
3598:
3333:
3309:
2491:- meaning "magic", of which there was an
1749:occur in the Old Norse corpus, including
1198:is usually interpreted as Proto-Germanic
93:, and, by way of an archaeological find,
70:, where they form a reoccurring motif in
6679:
6337:Germanic problems in today's perspective
6300:
6274:] (in German). Vol. I. Berlin:
6262:
6090:"Ägyptische Abteilung (Papyrussammlung)"
6084:
5989:"Une sorcière germaine aux bords du Nil"
5918:Paul the Deacon, History of the Lombards
5840:
5817:
5779:
5760:
5463:
5449:. Vol. I. Brepols. pp. 41–62.
5157:sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek2007 (
5116:
4792:
4567:
4555:
4531:
4420:
4156:
3884:
3789:
3716:
3666:sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek2007 (
3610:
3279:
3177:
3044:
2999:
2818:
2425:
2413:
2212:with the same meaning, also rendered as
2182:
2076:
2016:
1674:
1598:
1411:
1269:
1045:
866:Horace Leonard Jones translation (1924):
804:
704:
135:
131:
6413:Freyja ― the Great Goddess of the North
6368:
6306:Altnordisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch
6065:
5863:
5684:
5625:
5511:
5497:. Vol. I. Brepols. pp. 7–40.
5444:
5370:
4950:
4938:
4906:. Shambhala Publications. p. 249.
4899:
4756:
4396:
4384:
4372:
4360:
4348:
4336:
4324:
4303:
4291:
4279:
4267:
4180:
4168:
4132:
4108:
4028:
3830:
3755:
3728:
3649:
3586:
3574:
2208:("incantation, charm") and Old English
2081:Items discovered in the Öland gravesite
1541:In Lombard, Odin and Frigg were called
665:), while a minority is skeptical (e.g.
27:is a woman said to have the ability to
7869:
7775:List of people executed for witchcraft
6495:
6330:
6243:
6226:
5941:. Psychology Press. pp. 139―156.
5915:
5798:
5704:MacLeod, Mindy; Mees, Bernard (2006).
5665:
5533:
5492:
5389:
5339:
5317:
5131:
4843:
4780:
4744:
4727:
4673:
4661:
4649:
4606:
4477:"The magic wands of Viking seeresses?"
4204:
4192:
4120:
4091:
4079:
4064:
4040:
3980:
3911:
3857:
3842:
3622:
3503:
3474:
3252:
3192:
2806:Four seeds of the mind-altering plant
2338:as meaning "to lure the spirits", and
2161:(see below), which is associated with
2093:, a location on the Swedish island of
1644:and their claims of ancestry from the
1436:Origin of the Lombard/Langobard people
1278:Dating from the second century CE, an
1098:, who were settled between the rivers
491:There is also the reconstructed word *
47:the seeress is usually referred to as
7744:Witch trials in the Holy Roman Empire
6653:
6469:
6170:] (in Swedish). Gidlunds förlag.
6134:
6112:
5955:
5725:Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia
5573:
5415:
5271:Clarke, Robert; Merlin, Mark (2016).
5152:
5025:
5001:
4974:
4887:
4870:
4855:
4816:
4804:
4697:
4625:
4435:
4408:
4004:
3992:
3896:
3801:
3740:
3661:
3637:
3562:
3545:
3518:
3486:
3462:
3390:
3375:
3360:
3348:
3294:
2334:("lure"). He interprets the spelling
2198:, which later evolved into Old Norse
1506:) with the same meaning as Old Norse
1367:, from the same Proto-Germanic root *
1329:and who had an audience with emperor
629:
530:of having travelled around the world
5934:
5885:
5722:
5646:
5601:
5566:, vol. 3. Harvard University Press.
5562:Jones, Horace Leonard. 1924. Trans.
4543:
4514:
4255:
4144:
4052:
3968:
3869:
3321:
3267:
3240:
3228:
3216:
3204:
2547:meant "to dupe or to fool someone".
2539:("great powers", i.e. the gods) and
1396:
327:to the fence surrounding it. In the
6375:. Psychology Press. p. 57―74.
6312:] (in German) (2000 ed.).
5869:Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend
5274:Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany
5267:, vol. 8. Harvard University Press.
5040:, pp. 1278f, 1283, 1287, 1294.
4315:Harrison & Svensson (2007: 69).
3100:Veleda, die Prophetin der Brukterer
3030:
2967:
1082:who were settled east of the river
937:and advanced as far as that of the
323:does not refer to an enclosure but
13:
7841:Left-hand path and right-hand path
7416:De Lamiis et Pythonicis Mulieribus
6404:
6357:Wellesley, Kenneth. 1972 . Trans.
6333:Germanenprobleme in heutiger Sicht
6272:Ancient Germanic religious history
6268:Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte
5344:. Routledge, London and New York.
3037:Heathenry (new religious movement)
2610:and suggests that the staff/wand (
1489:, she is also specifically called
1149:(the "twin") to form the world in
995:In the first and second centuries
949:, pillaging everything on his way.
700:
14:
7888:
6449:
6310:Old Norse Etymological Dictionary
6246:Shamanism in Norse myth and magic
5708:. The Boydell Press, Woodbridge.
5364:Gods and Myths of Northern Europe
5325:. University of Wisconsin Press.
2396:traditional Swedish herding calls
2033:. Fyrkat is the site of a former
1745:Various seeresses by the name of
1446:History of the Lombard/Langobards
1282:with a Greek inscription reading
1094:, when he made a treaty with the
809:The seeress Veleda as painted by
516:"), and it is only attested from
6545:
6454:
6399:. Last accessed August 21, 2019.
6118:Dictionary of Northern Mythology
5893:A Handbook of Germanic Etymology
5187:Dictionary of minor planet names
4459:. Last accessed August 21, 2019.
2767:
1968:, where Olga was born. It was a
1628:compares with the origin of the
851:records the following about the
561:, where it is a name assumed by
472:("incantation"), with the names
5826:] (in Swedish). Norstedts.
5803:. University Press of America.
5706:Runic Amulets and Magic Objects
5310:An Icelandic-English dictionary
4210:
3124:is named for the ancient Norse
2898:
2843:
2756:seeress Veleda's tower and the
2590:In Old Norse sources, the noun
2309:and Price have derived it from
1972:grave containing elements from
1890:
1352:
1250:
1215:
891:describes in chapter 50 of his
783:
354:could mean "spirit", from PIE *
7539:Jamyi Witch hiring controversy
7400:Summis desiderantes affectibus
5430:10.7788/saeculum.1955.6.jg.186
5279:University of California Press
2989:
2694:
2289:Other names for the songs are
2250:("cock") and it appears in ON
1315:- is probably Proto-Germanic *
1173:was sacrificed to Odin in the
883:Writing in the second century
693:. An opposing view is held by
495:which may be connected to the
343:reconstructs the PGmc form as
1:
5761:Mitchell, Stephen A. (2011).
3150:
2737:
2567:
2138:
1588:
687:witchcraft of medieval Europe
569:. In a study by McKinnell of
534:(in the "guise of a vitka").
7544:accusations against children
7440:The Discoverie of Witchcraft
6422:The Medieval History Journal
5916:Peters, Edward, ed. (1974).
5651:. Viking. pp. 653–674.
5263:Cary, Earnest. 1927. Trans.
5248:Cary, Earnest. 1917. Trans.
4769:Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874
4595:Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874
3451:Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874
3439:Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874
3427:Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874
3415:Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874
3403:Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874
3092:Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué
2747:
2674:seeress Ganna succeeded the
2578:). The "sorcerer's spirit" (
2409:
2390:, the sweetness of a chant (
2266:("objects used for magic"),
2157:on a ritual platform called
1964:called N°6 was excavated in
1510:, while the name of her son
1202:and compared with Old Norse
800:
730:himself consulted them. The
636:Shamanism § Definitions
7:
6160:(2000). Gidlund, G. (ed.).
5668:Handbook of Norse Mythology
5587:(25 ed.). De Gruyter.
5237:Birley, A. R. 1999. Trans.
3131:
3041:Modern paganism and New Age
2278:("magical characters") and
2168:
1901:There are indications that
1259:
691:practices of ancient Greece
420:("old prophecy woman") and
238:("seeress" or "witch"), or
10:
7893:
7464:Daemonolatreiae libri tres
6233:Arkiv för nordisk filologi
5993:Revue des Études Anciennes
5799:Morris, Katherine (1991).
5746:. D.S. Brewer, Cambridge.
5727:. Routledge. p. 243.
5392:The Concept of the Goddess
5211:
4482:National Museum of Denmark
4453:National Museum of Denmark
3814:Reinach & Jullian 1920
3034:
2993:
2978:Medieval women's mysticism
2971:
2902:
2771:
2441:
2172:
2142:
2046:National Museum of Denmark
2011:Oseberg tapestry fragments
1894:
1592:
1431:Origo Gentis Langobardorum
1405:
1401:
1325:, who probably taught her
1263:
1180:Helgakviða Hundingsbana II
1058:Scandinavian heroic legend
1039:
988:
977:
973:
633:
598:Lastly, there is the term
350:, where the last element *
287:("wooded paddock") in the
7808:
7787:
7752:
7736:
7694:
7643:
7612:
7581:
7572:
7529:
7522:
7496:A Guide to Grand-Jury Men
7359:
7236:
7076:
6889:
6822:
6698:
6691:
6611:
6580:
6554:
6543:
6503:
5640:10.1163/48763316-03904002
5313:. Oxford Clarendon Press.
5239:Tacitus, Agricola Germany
4226:(in Icelandic). July 1998
2120:seeds and a wooden wand.
1549:, while they were called
984:
945:, advanced as far as the
657:, Meulengracht Sørensen,
7826:Christian views on magic
7504:The Discovery of Witches
7376:Directorium Inquisitorum
6434:10.1177/0971945818775460
6411:Näsström, B. M. (1994).
6185:Sundqvist, Olof (2002).
5841:Näsström, B. M. (2009).
5818:Näsström, B. M. (2002).
5742:McKinnell, John (2005).
5568:Available at Archive.org
5258:Available at Archive.org
5254:Harvard University Press
4927:Clarke & Merlin 2016
2742:
2230:("to incantate") and OE
2035:Viking Age ring fortress
1960:In 2008, a Scandinavian
1920:Óláfs saga Tryggvassonar
1284:Waluburg. Senoni Sibylla
1035:
1022:The legionary commander
480:("old galdr woman") and
7432:De praestigiis daemonum
7384:De maleficis mulieribus
5685:Lincoln, Bruce (1986).
5649:The Sagas of Icelanders
5564:The Geography of Strabo
5243:Oxford World's Classics
4900:Metzner, Ralph (2001).
3707:Wellesley (1964 : 247).
3166:MacLeod & Mees 2006
2879:. About 50 graves from
2814:
2381:("spells of warding").
2232:
2226:
2224:("to crow, sing"), OHG
2204:
1557:in Old High German and
1526:has been discovered in
1369:
1359:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1317:
1311:
954:The Albis rises in the
565:in connection with the
315:("fence rider"), where
311:
291:of "fence", i.e. PGmc *
254:
207:, the abode of the dead
186:
180:
174:
168:
7488:Compendium Maleficarum
7480:Magical Investigations
7371:(8th–2nd centuries BC)
6555:Early Mediaeval record
6359:Tacitus, the Histories
6244:Tolley, Clive (2009).
6227:Tolley, Clive (1995).
6018:. Peeters Publishers.
5602:Koch, John T. (2020).
5371:Enright, M.J. (1996).
4965:, pp. 774f, 778f.
4941:, p. 790, note 8.
4664:, p. 61, note 10.
3689:Jones (1924: 169-172).
3054:
3005:
2824:
2439:
2423:
2191:
2082:
2057:
1923:, where she is called
1888:
1886:which had broken off.
1604:
1441:Historia Langobardorum
1425:
1275:
1061:
1033:
1007:, and Roman historian
971:
881:
845:
814:
781:
768:
756:
722:
149:
29:foretell future events
7111:Cloak of invisibility
6867:Solitary practitioner
6780:Witch-cult hypothesis
6581:North Germanic record
6463:at Wikimedia Commons
6284:10.1515/9783110865486
6005:10.3406/rea.1920.2105
5666:Lindow, John (2001).
5375:. Four Courts Press.
3698:Cary (1917: 378-381).
3048:
3035:Further information:
3003:
2994:Further information:
2972:Further information:
2903:Further information:
2822:
2772:Further information:
2526:Stentoften runestones
2442:Further information:
2429:
2417:
2186:
2173:Further information:
2143:Further information:
2080:
2050:
2017:Archaeological Record
1872:
1675:North Germanic corpus
1602:
1415:
1387:Clement of Alexandria
1273:
1163:Odin's self-sacrifice
1049:
1019:
914:
897:an encounter between
870:
833:
811:Jules Eugène Lenepveu
808:
777:
764:
752:
708:
634:Further information:
252:("witch") and in OHG
209:, and the second is *
139:
132:Names and terminology
68:North Germanic people
7831:Magical organization
7346:Witches of Benevento
5373:Lady with a Mead Cup
5360:Ellis Davidson, H.R.
5340:Dowden, Ken (2000).
5281:. pp. 259–260.
5190:. Berlin; New York:
4375:, p. 489–491ff.
4327:, p. 510f, 513.
3231:, pp. 155, 310.
2865:a significant number
2705:Hauks þáttr hábrókar
2434:, a painting in the
2270:("a magic device"),
899:Nero Claudius Drusus
142:Jardin du Luxembourg
7448:Newes from Scotland
7408:Malleus Maleficarum
6785:Anglo-Saxon England
6588:Þorbjörg Lítilvölva
6536:Woman of the Chatti
6191:Uppsala universitet
5412:. Natur och Kultur.
5265:Dio's Roman History
5250:Dio's Roman History
5093:Ellis Davidson 1964
4987:Ellis Davidson 1964
4977:, pp. 41, 127.
4929:, pp. 259–260.
4890:, pp. 168–169.
4258:, pp. 653–674.
4067:, p. 129, 176.
3011:Malleus Maleficarum
3004:Malleus maleficarum
2974:European witchcraft
2940:witchcraft hysteria
2836:Þorbjörg lítilvölva
2604:non-corporeal sense
2436:Schleswig Cathedral
2262:("book of magic"),
2110:Oseberg ship burial
1868:Þorbjörg Lítilvölva
1815:Þuríðr sundafyllir
1762:Þorbjörg lítilvölva
1309:The first element *
1251:section on magical
1216:section on magical
931:Jupiter Capitolinus
829:translation (1999):
184:("necromancy") and
99:Þorbjörg lítilvölva
7877:Germanic seeresses
7800:Witches in fiction
7788:In popular culture
7362:historic treatises
6603:Þuríðr Sundafyllir
6516:Cimbrian seeresses
6497:Germanic seeresses
6461:Seeress (Germanic)
5871:. London: Cassel.
5513:Jansson, Sven B.F.
5050:Ásdísardóttir 2020
5038:Ásdísardóttir 2020
3995:, p. 186–223.
3680:Birley (1999: 41).
3115:Germanic Heathenry
3063:Icelandic language
3055:
3025:sex with the Devil
3006:
2825:
2558:-, the same as in
2440:
2424:
2220:, which became ON
2192:
2083:
2063:, which contained
2025:, in the northern
1929:Vladimir the Great
1840:Völuspá hin skamma
1829:Unnamed seeresses
1605:
1534:in the modern day
1493:, i.e. "seeress".
1486:Chronicum Gothanum
1479:Gambara is called
1426:
1286:(Greek 'Waluburg,
1276:
1062:
956:Vandalic Mountains
887:, Roman historian
815:
723:
630:The term shamanism
537:The personal name
242:, has the synonym
150:
126:Germanic Heathenry
7864:
7863:
7821:Witch (archetype)
7783:
7782:
7732:
7731:
7058:Sympathetic magic
6885:
6884:
6647:
6646:
6639:Witch (etymology)
6459:Media related to
6382:978-0-415-32742-8
6293:978-3-11-002678-8
6219:978-2-503-57491-2
6149:978-2-503-57491-2
6077:978-2-503-57491-2
6054:978-1-134-81949-2
6025:978-90-429-0985-4
5981:Reinach, Théodore
5948:978-0-415-32742-8
5908:978-90-04-12875-0
5887:Orel, Vladimir E.
5791:978-2-503-57491-2
5772:978-0-8122-4290-4
5734:978-1-315-16132-7
5658:978-0-14-100003-9
5594:978-3-11-022364-4
5555:978-3-11-045562-5
5504:978-2-503-56881-2
5485:978-3-11-045562-5
5456:978-2-503-57491-2
5288:978-0-520-29248-2
5230:978-2-503-57491-2
5201:978-3-540-00238-3
5182:Schmadel, Lutz D.
4913:978-0-8348-2931-2
4438:, pp. 115ff.
3113:Practitioners of
3104:Eduard Sobolewski
3096:Welleda und Ganna
2834:, the account of
2831:Eiríks saga rauða
2728:Eiríks saga rauða
2717:Hrólfs saga kraka
2713:Hrólfs saga kraka
2701:Hrólfs saga kraka
2631:Old English poems
2444:Astral projection
2330:("fastening") or
2324:Eiríks saga rauða
2274:("magic storm"),
2189:W. G. Collingwood
1927:and mistaken for
1907:Primary Chronicle
1863:Eiríks saga rauða
1859:
1858:
1775:Eiríks saga rauða
1768:Eiríks saga rauða
1728:Hrólfs saga kraka
1408:Gambara (seeress)
1397:Early Middle Ages
911:
867:
839:Deified Vespasian
830:
791:Eiríks saga rauða
476:("galdr women"),
446:is called both a
443:Eiríks saga rauða
21:Germanic paganism
7884:
7795:Magic in fiction
7625:Northern Moravia
7579:
7578:
7559:Papua New Guinea
7527:
7526:
7311:Nine sorceresses
7063:Witches' Sabbath
6912:Ceremonial magic
6902:Apotropaic magic
6696:
6695:
6674:
6667:
6660:
6651:
6650:
6549:
6504:Roman era record
6490:
6483:
6476:
6467:
6466:
6458:
6445:
6416:
6386:
6363:Penguin Classics
6354:
6327:
6297:
6259:
6240:
6223:
6204:
6181:
6153:
6131:
6109:
6081:
6062:
6033:
6008:
5976:
5952:
5931:
5912:
5896:
5882:
5860:
5837:
5814:
5795:
5776:
5757:
5738:
5719:
5700:
5681:
5662:
5643:
5622:
5610:
5598:
5575:Kluge, Friedrich
5559:
5530:
5508:
5489:
5460:
5441:
5405:
5386:
5367:
5366:. Penguin Books.
5355:
5336:
5314:
5296:
5234:
5206:
5205:
5178:
5172:
5169:
5163:
5162:
5150:
5144:
5141:
5135:
5134:, p. 174ff.
5129:
5120:
5114:
5108:
5102:
5096:
5090:
5084:
5078:
5072:
5066:
5053:
5052:, p. 1294f.
5047:
5041:
5035:
5029:
5023:
5017:
5011:
5005:
4999:
4990:
4984:
4978:
4972:
4966:
4960:
4954:
4948:
4942:
4936:
4930:
4924:
4918:
4917:
4897:
4891:
4885:
4874:
4868:
4859:
4853:
4847:
4841:
4835:
4829:
4820:
4814:
4808:
4802:
4796:
4790:
4784:
4778:
4772:
4766:
4760:
4754:
4748:
4742:
4731:
4725:
4716:
4710:
4701:
4695:
4689:
4683:
4677:
4671:
4665:
4659:
4653:
4647:
4641:
4635:
4629:
4623:
4610:
4604:
4598:
4592:
4583:
4577:
4571:
4565:
4559:
4553:
4547:
4541:
4535:
4529:
4518:
4512:
4506:
4500:
4494:
4493:
4491:
4489:
4473:
4460:
4450:
4439:
4433:
4424:
4418:
4412:
4406:
4400:
4394:
4388:
4382:
4376:
4370:
4364:
4358:
4352:
4351:, p. 478ff.
4346:
4340:
4334:
4328:
4322:
4316:
4313:
4307:
4301:
4295:
4289:
4283:
4277:
4271:
4265:
4259:
4253:
4247:
4241:
4235:
4234:
4232:
4231:
4214:
4208:
4202:
4196:
4190:
4184:
4178:
4172:
4166:
4160:
4154:
4148:
4142:
4136:
4130:
4124:
4118:
4112:
4106:
4095:
4089:
4083:
4077:
4068:
4062:
4056:
4050:
4044:
4038:
4032:
4026:
4020:
4014:
4008:
4002:
3996:
3990:
3984:
3978:
3972:
3966:
3960:
3954:
3939:
3933:
3927:
3921:
3915:
3909:
3900:
3894:
3888:
3882:
3873:
3867:
3861:
3855:
3846:
3840:
3834:
3828:
3817:
3811:
3805:
3799:
3793:
3787:
3778:
3772:
3759:
3753:
3744:
3738:
3732:
3731:, p. 45–50.
3726:
3720:
3714:
3708:
3705:
3699:
3696:
3690:
3687:
3681:
3678:
3672:
3671:
3659:
3653:
3647:
3641:
3635:
3626:
3620:
3614:
3608:
3602:
3596:
3590:
3584:
3578:
3577:, p. 45―50.
3572:
3566:
3560:
3549:
3543:
3522:
3516:
3507:
3501:
3490:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3466:
3460:
3454:
3448:
3442:
3436:
3430:
3424:
3418:
3412:
3406:
3400:
3394:
3388:
3379:
3373:
3364:
3358:
3352:
3351:, pp. 72ff.
3346:
3337:
3331:
3325:
3319:
3313:
3307:
3298:
3292:
3283:
3277:
3271:
3265:
3256:
3250:
3244:
3238:
3232:
3226:
3220:
3214:
3208:
3202:
3196:
3190:
3181:
3175:
3169:
3163:
3031:Modern influence
2968:Late Middle Ages
2961:Íslendingaþættir
2930:Snorri Sturluson
2635:Nine Herbs Charm
2483:, the origin of
2235:
2229:
2207:
1683:
1682:
1632:as presented by
1450:Langobard people
1372:
1362:
1356:
1348:
1342:
1320:
1314:
1167:Grove of Fetters
1064:A seeress named
1053:Grove of Fetters
1003:, Roman senator
909:
865:
825:
330:Westrogothic law
314:
257:
189:
183:
177:
171:
160:reported in his
154:Germanic peoples
64:Germanic society
7892:
7891:
7887:
7886:
7885:
7883:
7882:
7881:
7867:
7866:
7865:
7860:
7804:
7779:
7748:
7728:
7690:
7644:Northern Europe
7639:
7608:
7568:
7518:
7361:
7355:
7238:
7232:
7171:Magical weapons
7121:Flying ointment
7072:
6917:Magical formula
6881:
6818:
6765:Greece and Rome
6687:
6678:
6648:
6643:
6607:
6576:
6550:
6541:
6499:
6494:
6452:
6419:
6410:
6407:
6405:Further reading
6402:
6395:, 5 July 2015.
6383:
6351:
6324:
6294:
6256:
6220:
6201:
6178:
6150:
6128:
6078:
6055:
6026:
5973:
5949:
5928:
5909:
5879:
5857:
5834:
5811:
5792:
5773:
5754:
5735:
5716:
5697:
5678:
5659:
5628:Russian History
5619:
5608:
5595:
5556:
5527:
5517:Runes in Sweden
5505:
5486:
5457:
5424:(JG): 186–223.
5402:
5383:
5352:
5333:
5289:
5231:
5214:
5209:
5202:
5192:Springer-Verlag
5179:
5175:
5170:
5166:
5156:
5151:
5147:
5142:
5138:
5130:
5123:
5115:
5111:
5107:, p. 778f.
5103:
5099:
5091:
5087:
5083:, p. 775f.
5079:
5075:
5067:
5056:
5048:
5044:
5036:
5032:
5024:
5020:
5012:
5008:
5000:
4993:
4985:
4981:
4973:
4969:
4961:
4957:
4949:
4945:
4937:
4933:
4925:
4921:
4914:
4898:
4894:
4886:
4877:
4869:
4862:
4854:
4850:
4842:
4838:
4830:
4823:
4819:, p. 293f.
4815:
4811:
4803:
4799:
4791:
4787:
4779:
4775:
4767:
4763:
4755:
4751:
4743:
4734:
4726:
4719:
4711:
4704:
4696:
4692:
4684:
4680:
4672:
4668:
4660:
4656:
4648:
4644:
4636:
4632:
4624:
4613:
4605:
4601:
4597:, p. 679f.
4593:
4586:
4582:, p. 124f.
4578:
4574:
4566:
4562:
4558:, p. 655f.
4554:
4550:
4546:, p. 123f.
4542:
4538:
4530:
4521:
4513:
4509:
4501:
4497:
4487:
4485:
4475:
4474:
4463:
4451:
4442:
4434:
4427:
4419:
4415:
4407:
4403:
4395:
4391:
4383:
4379:
4371:
4367:
4359:
4355:
4347:
4343:
4339:, p. 461f.
4335:
4331:
4323:
4319:
4314:
4310:
4306:, p. 510f.
4302:
4298:
4294:, p. 508f.
4290:
4286:
4282:, p. 504f.
4278:
4274:
4270:, p. 503f.
4266:
4262:
4254:
4250:
4244:Samplonius 2001
4242:
4238:
4229:
4227:
4223:Háskóli Íslands
4216:
4215:
4211:
4207:, p. 148f.
4203:
4199:
4191:
4187:
4179:
4175:
4167:
4163:
4155:
4151:
4143:
4139:
4131:
4127:
4119:
4115:
4107:
4098:
4090:
4086:
4078:
4071:
4063:
4059:
4051:
4047:
4039:
4035:
4027:
4023:
4015:
4011:
4003:
3999:
3991:
3987:
3979:
3975:
3967:
3963:
3957:Samplonius 2013
3955:
3942:
3936:Samplonius 2013
3934:
3930:
3924:Samplonius 2013
3922:
3918:
3910:
3903:
3899:, p. 279f.
3895:
3891:
3883:
3876:
3868:
3864:
3856:
3849:
3841:
3837:
3829:
3820:
3816:, p. 105f.
3812:
3808:
3804:, p. 370f.
3800:
3796:
3788:
3781:
3773:
3762:
3758:, p. 186f.
3754:
3747:
3739:
3735:
3727:
3723:
3715:
3711:
3706:
3702:
3697:
3693:
3688:
3684:
3679:
3675:
3665:
3660:
3656:
3648:
3644:
3636:
3629:
3621:
3617:
3609:
3605:
3597:
3593:
3585:
3581:
3573:
3569:
3561:
3552:
3544:
3525:
3517:
3510:
3502:
3493:
3485:
3481:
3473:
3469:
3461:
3457:
3449:
3445:
3437:
3433:
3425:
3421:
3413:
3409:
3405:, p. 539f.
3401:
3397:
3389:
3382:
3374:
3367:
3359:
3355:
3347:
3340:
3336:, p. 234f.
3332:
3328:
3320:
3316:
3308:
3301:
3297:, p. 414f.
3293:
3286:
3278:
3274:
3270:, p. 149f.
3266:
3259:
3251:
3247:
3239:
3235:
3227:
3223:
3219:, p. 155f.
3215:
3211:
3203:
3199:
3191:
3184:
3180:, p. 322f.
3176:
3172:
3164:
3157:
3153:
3144:Norse cosmology
3134:
3059:Sigurður Nordal
3043:
3033:
2998:
2992:
2980:
2970:
2955:Íslendingasögur
2911:
2901:
2817:
2808:cannabis sativa
2776:
2770:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2721:Yukaghir people
2709:Ǫrvar-Odds saga
2697:
2691:- (see above).
2639:Against a Dwarf
2633:, such as the "
2566:, "chant" (see
2454:
2412:
2371:reinterperation
2181:
2171:
2151:
2141:
2019:
1899:
1893:
1801:Þoríðr spákona
1782:Þordís spákona
1740:Örvar-Odds saga
1716:Gull-Þóris saga
1709:Gull-Þóris saga
1680:the following:
1677:
1597:
1591:
1410:
1404:
1399:
1268:
1262:
1225:-, "staff" (ON
1151:Norse mythology
1137:), the sons of
1044:
1042:Ganna (seeress)
1038:
1024:Munius Lupercus
993:
987:
982:
976:
927:Titus Crispinus
919:Iullus Antonius
803:
786:
762:to the Romans:
713:at the foot of
703:
701:Role in society
638:
632:
626:("evil doer").
567:War of the Gods
134:
72:Norse mythology
45:Norse mythology
33:perform sorcery
17:
12:
11:
5:
7890:
7880:
7879:
7862:
7861:
7859:
7858:
7853:
7848:
7843:
7838:
7833:
7828:
7823:
7818:
7812:
7810:
7806:
7805:
7803:
7802:
7797:
7791:
7789:
7785:
7784:
7781:
7780:
7778:
7777:
7772:
7767:
7762:
7756:
7754:
7750:
7749:
7747:
7746:
7740:
7738:
7734:
7733:
7730:
7729:
7727:
7726:
7725:
7724:
7714:
7709:
7704:
7698:
7696:
7695:Western Europe
7692:
7691:
7689:
7688:
7683:
7678:
7673:
7668:
7663:
7658:
7653:
7647:
7645:
7641:
7640:
7638:
7637:
7632:
7627:
7622:
7616:
7614:
7613:Eastern Europe
7610:
7609:
7607:
7606:
7601:
7596:
7591:
7585:
7583:
7576:
7570:
7569:
7567:
7566:
7561:
7556:
7551:
7546:
7541:
7535:
7533:
7524:
7520:
7519:
7517:
7516:
7508:
7500:
7492:
7484:
7476:
7468:
7460:
7452:
7444:
7436:
7428:
7420:
7412:
7404:
7396:
7388:
7380:
7372:
7365:
7363:
7357:
7356:
7354:
7353:
7351:Witch of Endor
7348:
7343:
7338:
7333:
7328:
7323:
7318:
7313:
7308:
7303:
7298:
7293:
7288:
7283:
7278:
7273:
7268:
7263:
7258:
7253:
7248:
7242:
7240:
7234:
7233:
7231:
7230:
7228:Witch's ladder
7225:
7220:
7215:
7210:
7205:
7200:
7195:
7190:
7185:
7180:
7179:
7178:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7148:
7143:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7123:
7118:
7113:
7108:
7103:
7102:
7101:
7091:
7086:
7080:
7078:
7074:
7073:
7071:
7070:
7065:
7060:
7055:
7050:
7045:
7040:
7035:
7034:
7033:
7028:
7023:
7013:
7008:
7003:
6998:
6993:
6988:
6983:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6963:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6947:
6946:
6941:
6936:
6926:
6921:
6920:
6919:
6909:
6904:
6899:
6893:
6891:
6887:
6886:
6883:
6882:
6880:
6879:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6859:
6858:
6857:
6847:
6842:
6837:
6832:
6826:
6824:
6820:
6819:
6817:
6816:
6815:
6814:
6804:
6799:
6794:
6793:
6792:
6787:
6782:
6777:
6772:
6767:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6737:
6736:
6735:
6725:
6724:
6723:
6718:
6713:
6702:
6700:
6693:
6689:
6688:
6677:
6676:
6669:
6662:
6654:
6645:
6644:
6642:
6641:
6636:
6631:
6626:
6621:
6615:
6613:
6609:
6608:
6606:
6605:
6600:
6598:Heimlaug Völva
6595:
6593:Þordís Spákona
6590:
6584:
6582:
6578:
6577:
6575:
6574:
6569:
6564:
6558:
6556:
6552:
6551:
6544:
6542:
6540:
6539:
6533:
6528:
6523:
6518:
6513:
6507:
6505:
6501:
6500:
6493:
6492:
6485:
6478:
6470:
6451:
6450:External links
6448:
6447:
6446:
6428:(2): 192–221.
6417:
6406:
6403:
6401:
6400:
6387:
6381:
6366:
6355:
6349:
6328:
6322:
6298:
6292:
6260:
6255:978-9514110283
6254:
6241:
6224:
6218:
6205:
6199:
6182:
6176:
6158:Strömbäck, Dag
6154:
6148:
6132:
6126:
6110:
6082:
6076:
6063:
6053:
6034:
6024:
6009:
5999:(2): 104–106.
5977:
5971:
5953:
5947:
5932:
5926:
5913:
5907:
5883:
5877:
5861:
5855:
5838:
5832:
5815:
5809:
5796:
5790:
5777:
5771:
5758:
5752:
5739:
5733:
5720:
5714:
5701:
5695:
5682:
5676:
5663:
5657:
5644:
5634:(4): 460–517.
5623:
5617:
5599:
5593:
5579:Seebold, Elmar
5571:
5560:
5554:
5531:
5525:
5509:
5503:
5490:
5484:
5461:
5455:
5442:
5413:
5406:
5400:
5387:
5381:
5368:
5356:
5350:
5337:
5331:
5315:
5297:
5287:
5268:
5261:
5246:
5235:
5229:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5207:
5200:
5194:. p. 27.
5173:
5164:
5155:, p. 357.
5145:
5136:
5121:
5119:, p. 10f.
5109:
5105:Sundqvist 2020
5097:
5095:, p. 123.
5085:
5081:Sundqvist 2020
5073:
5071:, p. 777.
5069:Sundqvist 2020
5054:
5042:
5030:
5028:, p. 115.
5018:
5016:, p. 778.
5014:Sundqvist 2020
5006:
4991:
4989:, p. 120.
4979:
4967:
4963:Sundqvist 2020
4955:
4953:, p. 788.
4943:
4931:
4919:
4912:
4892:
4875:
4873:, p. 279.
4860:
4858:, p. 172.
4848:
4836:
4834:, p. 97f.
4832:McKinnell 2005
4821:
4809:
4807:, p. 136.
4797:
4795:, p. 132.
4785:
4783:, p. 67f.
4773:
4771:, p. 200.
4761:
4749:
4747:, p. 141.
4732:
4717:
4715:, p. 221.
4713:Strömbäck 2000
4702:
4700:, p. 133.
4690:
4686:McKinnell 2005
4678:
4666:
4654:
4642:
4640:, p. 125.
4638:Strömbäck 2000
4630:
4628:, p. 170.
4611:
4599:
4584:
4580:Strömbäck 2000
4572:
4570:, p. 657.
4560:
4548:
4536:
4534:, p. 655.
4519:
4517:, p. 124.
4507:
4505:, p. 774.
4503:Sundqvist 2020
4495:
4461:
4440:
4425:
4423:, p. 181.
4413:
4411:, p. 280.
4401:
4399:, p. 469.
4389:
4387:, p. 467.
4377:
4365:
4363:, p. 483.
4353:
4341:
4329:
4317:
4308:
4296:
4284:
4272:
4260:
4248:
4246:, p. 185.
4236:
4209:
4197:
4195:, p. 138.
4185:
4173:
4171:, p. 65f.
4161:
4149:
4147:, p. 142.
4137:
4125:
4113:
4111:, p. 506.
4096:
4094:, p. 65f.
4084:
4082:, p. 129.
4069:
4057:
4055:, p. 243.
4045:
4033:
4021:
4017:McKinnell 2005
4009:
4007:, p. 187.
3997:
3985:
3973:
3971:, p. 149.
3961:
3940:
3938:, p. 87f.
3928:
3916:
3901:
3889:
3874:
3872:, p. 445.
3862:
3847:
3845:, p. 31f.
3835:
3833:, p. 187.
3818:
3806:
3794:
3792:, p. 321.
3779:
3777:, p. 747.
3775:Sundqvist 2020
3760:
3745:
3743:, p. 280.
3733:
3721:
3719:, p. 678.
3709:
3700:
3691:
3682:
3673:
3664:, p. 326.
3654:
3652:, p. 174.
3642:
3627:
3625:, p. 173.
3615:
3613:, p. 106.
3603:
3599:Sundqvist 2002
3591:
3589:, p. 210.
3579:
3567:
3550:
3548:, p. 279.
3523:
3521:, p. 280.
3508:
3491:
3479:
3477:, p. 588.
3467:
3465:, p. 260.
3455:
3453:, p. 164.
3443:
3441:, p. 146.
3431:
3429:, p. 222.
3419:
3417:, p. 159.
3407:
3395:
3393:, p. 76f.
3380:
3365:
3363:, p. 75f.
3353:
3338:
3334:Strömbäck 2000
3326:
3324:, p. 150.
3314:
3312:, p. 234.
3310:Strömbäck 2000
3299:
3284:
3282:, p. 250.
3272:
3257:
3255:, p. 212.
3245:
3243:, p. 137.
3233:
3221:
3209:
3207:, p. 155.
3197:
3195:, p. 253.
3182:
3170:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3148:
3147:
3141:
3133:
3130:
3106:'s 1836 opera
3094:'s 1818 novel
3032:
3029:
2991:
2988:
2969:
2966:
2900:
2897:
2885:Mälaren Valley
2876:Skáldskaparmál
2840:Ellis Davidson
2816:
2813:
2769:
2766:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2732:Vatnsdœla saga
2696:
2693:
2411:
2408:
2170:
2167:
2140:
2137:
2056:
2055:
2018:
2015:
1988:side it has a
1974:Norse paganism
1941:Oddr Snorrason
1895:Main article:
1892:
1889:
1857:
1856:
1843:
1830:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1816:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1802:
1798:
1797:
1794:
1787:Vatnsdæla saga
1783:
1779:
1778:
1771:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1743:
1724:
1720:
1719:
1712:
1705:
1698:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1686:Seeress name (
1676:
1673:
1593:Main article:
1590:
1587:
1536:Czech republic
1422:Lorenz Frølich
1406:Main article:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1378:first cataract
1264:Main article:
1261:
1258:
1040:Main article:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1031:
989:Main article:
986:
983:
978:Main article:
975:
972:
970:
969:
961:
959:
952:
950:
923:Fabius Maximus
913:
912:
880:
879:
869:
868:
844:
843:
832:
831:
802:
799:
785:
782:
760:Batavian tribe
702:
699:
683:Åke Hultkrantz
659:Turville-Petre
647:Ellis Davidson
631:
628:
618:("Giantess"),
600:fjolkyngiskona
339:) of a troll.
231:means "poem".
192:Proto-Germanic
133:
130:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7889:
7878:
7875:
7874:
7872:
7857:
7854:
7852:
7851:Folk religion
7849:
7847:
7844:
7842:
7839:
7837:
7834:
7832:
7829:
7827:
7824:
7822:
7819:
7817:
7814:
7813:
7811:
7807:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7792:
7790:
7786:
7776:
7773:
7771:
7768:
7766:
7763:
7761:
7758:
7757:
7755:
7751:
7745:
7742:
7741:
7739:
7735:
7723:
7720:
7719:
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7715:
7713:
7710:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7700:
7699:
7697:
7693:
7687:
7684:
7682:
7679:
7677:
7674:
7672:
7669:
7667:
7664:
7662:
7659:
7657:
7654:
7652:
7649:
7648:
7646:
7642:
7636:
7633:
7631:
7628:
7626:
7623:
7621:
7618:
7617:
7615:
7611:
7605:
7602:
7600:
7597:
7595:
7592:
7590:
7587:
7586:
7584:
7580:
7577:
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7565:
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7560:
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7542:
7540:
7537:
7536:
7534:
7532:
7528:
7525:
7521:
7514:
7513:
7509:
7506:
7505:
7501:
7498:
7497:
7493:
7490:
7489:
7485:
7482:
7481:
7477:
7474:
7473:
7469:
7466:
7465:
7461:
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7445:
7442:
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7421:
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7413:
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7409:
7405:
7402:
7401:
7397:
7394:
7393:
7389:
7386:
7385:
7381:
7378:
7377:
7373:
7370:
7367:
7366:
7364:
7358:
7352:
7349:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7341:Three Witches
7339:
7337:
7334:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7324:
7322:
7319:
7317:
7314:
7312:
7309:
7307:
7304:
7302:
7301:Morgan le Fay
7299:
7297:
7294:
7292:
7289:
7287:
7284:
7282:
7279:
7277:
7274:
7272:
7269:
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7264:
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7247:
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7224:
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7216:
7214:
7211:
7209:
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7204:
7201:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7191:
7189:
7186:
7184:
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7177:
7174:
7173:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7152:
7149:
7147:
7146:Kitchen witch
7144:
7142:
7139:
7137:
7134:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7122:
7119:
7117:
7114:
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7109:
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7097:
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7095:
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7059:
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7054:
7051:
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7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7018:
7017:
7014:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7002:
6999:
6997:
6994:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6979:
6977:
6974:
6972:
6969:
6967:
6964:
6962:
6959:
6957:
6954:
6952:
6949:
6945:
6942:
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6937:
6935:
6932:
6931:
6930:
6927:
6925:
6922:
6918:
6915:
6914:
6913:
6910:
6908:
6905:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6894:
6892:
6888:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6865:
6863:
6860:
6856:
6853:
6852:
6851:
6848:
6846:
6843:
6841:
6838:
6836:
6833:
6831:
6828:
6827:
6825:
6821:
6813:
6810:
6809:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6798:
6797:Latin America
6795:
6791:
6788:
6786:
6783:
6781:
6778:
6776:
6773:
6771:
6768:
6766:
6763:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6742:
6741:
6738:
6734:
6731:
6730:
6729:
6726:
6722:
6721:Witch smeller
6719:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6709:
6708:
6707:
6704:
6703:
6701:
6697:
6694:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6675:
6670:
6668:
6663:
6661:
6656:
6655:
6652:
6640:
6637:
6635:
6632:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6616:
6614:
6610:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6585:
6583:
6579:
6573:
6570:
6568:
6565:
6563:
6560:
6559:
6557:
6553:
6548:
6537:
6534:
6532:
6529:
6527:
6524:
6522:
6519:
6517:
6514:
6512:
6509:
6508:
6506:
6502:
6498:
6491:
6486:
6484:
6479:
6477:
6472:
6471:
6468:
6464:
6462:
6457:
6443:
6439:
6435:
6431:
6427:
6423:
6418:
6414:
6409:
6408:
6398:
6394:
6393:
6388:
6384:
6378:
6374:
6373:
6367:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6350:9783110108064
6346:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6329:
6325:
6323:90 04 05436 7
6319:
6315:
6311:
6307:
6303:
6302:de Vries, Jan
6299:
6295:
6289:
6285:
6281:
6277:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6264:de Vries, Jan
6261:
6257:
6251:
6247:
6242:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6225:
6221:
6215:
6211:
6206:
6202:
6200:91-554-5263-9
6196:
6192:
6188:
6183:
6179:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6164:
6159:
6155:
6151:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6136:Simek, Rudolf
6133:
6129:
6127:9780859915137
6123:
6119:
6115:
6114:Simek, Rudolf
6111:
6107:
6103:
6099:
6096:(in German).
6095:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6073:
6069:
6064:
6060:
6056:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6041:
6035:
6031:
6027:
6021:
6017:
6016:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5978:
5974:
5972:9781842172605
5968:
5964:
5963:
5958:
5954:
5950:
5944:
5940:
5939:
5933:
5929:
5927:0-8122-1079-4
5923:
5919:
5914:
5910:
5904:
5900:
5895:
5894:
5888:
5884:
5880:
5878:0-304-34520-2
5874:
5870:
5866:
5865:Orchard, Andy
5862:
5858:
5856:9789100122379
5852:
5848:
5844:
5839:
5835:
5833:91-7297-033-2
5829:
5825:
5821:
5816:
5812:
5810:9780819182579
5806:
5802:
5797:
5793:
5787:
5783:
5778:
5774:
5768:
5764:
5759:
5755:
5749:
5745:
5740:
5736:
5730:
5726:
5721:
5717:
5715:1-84383-205-4
5711:
5707:
5702:
5698:
5696:0-674-59775-3
5692:
5688:
5683:
5679:
5677:1-57607-217-7
5673:
5669:
5664:
5660:
5654:
5650:
5645:
5641:
5637:
5633:
5629:
5624:
5620:
5618:9781907029325
5614:
5607:
5606:
5600:
5596:
5590:
5586:
5585:
5580:
5576:
5572:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5551:
5547:
5543:
5539:
5538:
5532:
5528:
5526:9789178440672
5522:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5506:
5500:
5496:
5491:
5487:
5481:
5477:
5473:
5469:
5468:
5462:
5458:
5452:
5448:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5414:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5401:0-203-76462-5
5397:
5393:
5388:
5384:
5382:1-85182-188-0
5378:
5374:
5369:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5353:
5351:0-415-12034-9
5347:
5343:
5338:
5334:
5332:0-299-09500-2
5328:
5324:
5320:
5319:Damico, Helen
5316:
5312:
5311:
5306:
5305:Vigfússon, G.
5302:
5298:
5294:
5290:
5284:
5280:
5276:
5275:
5269:
5266:
5262:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5244:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5226:
5222:
5217:
5216:
5203:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5188:
5183:
5177:
5168:
5160:
5154:
5149:
5143:Zhang (2015).
5140:
5133:
5128:
5126:
5118:
5117:Mitchell 2011
5113:
5106:
5101:
5094:
5089:
5082:
5077:
5070:
5065:
5063:
5061:
5059:
5051:
5046:
5039:
5034:
5027:
5022:
5015:
5010:
5004:, p. 69.
5003:
4998:
4996:
4988:
4983:
4976:
4971:
4964:
4959:
4952:
4947:
4940:
4935:
4928:
4923:
4915:
4909:
4905:
4904:
4896:
4889:
4884:
4882:
4880:
4872:
4867:
4865:
4857:
4852:
4846:, p. 58.
4845:
4840:
4833:
4828:
4826:
4818:
4813:
4806:
4801:
4794:
4793:Mitchell 2011
4789:
4782:
4777:
4770:
4765:
4759:, p. 24.
4758:
4753:
4746:
4741:
4739:
4737:
4730:, p. 67.
4729:
4724:
4722:
4714:
4709:
4707:
4699:
4694:
4688:, p. 97.
4687:
4682:
4676:, p. 72.
4675:
4670:
4663:
4658:
4652:, p. 43.
4651:
4646:
4639:
4634:
4627:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4616:
4609:, p. 61.
4608:
4603:
4596:
4591:
4589:
4581:
4576:
4569:
4568:Mitchell 2020
4564:
4557:
4556:Mitchell 2020
4552:
4545:
4540:
4533:
4532:Mitchell 2020
4528:
4526:
4524:
4516:
4511:
4504:
4499:
4484:
4483:
4478:
4472:
4470:
4468:
4466:
4458:
4454:
4449:
4447:
4445:
4437:
4432:
4430:
4422:
4421:Näsström 2009
4417:
4410:
4405:
4398:
4393:
4386:
4381:
4374:
4369:
4362:
4357:
4350:
4345:
4338:
4333:
4326:
4321:
4312:
4305:
4300:
4293:
4288:
4281:
4276:
4269:
4264:
4257:
4252:
4245:
4240:
4225:
4224:
4219:
4213:
4206:
4201:
4194:
4189:
4183:, p. 60.
4182:
4177:
4170:
4165:
4158:
4157:Hultgård 2005
4153:
4146:
4141:
4135:, p. 59.
4134:
4129:
4123:, p. 16.
4122:
4117:
4110:
4105:
4103:
4101:
4093:
4088:
4081:
4076:
4074:
4066:
4061:
4054:
4049:
4043:, p. 65.
4042:
4037:
4031:, p. 61.
4030:
4025:
4019:, p. 13.
4018:
4013:
4006:
4001:
3994:
3989:
3982:
3977:
3970:
3965:
3959:, p. 88.
3958:
3953:
3951:
3949:
3947:
3945:
3937:
3932:
3926:, p. 87.
3925:
3920:
3914:, p. 16.
3913:
3908:
3906:
3898:
3893:
3887:, p. 9f.
3886:
3885:Schubart 1917
3881:
3879:
3871:
3866:
3860:, p. 32.
3859:
3854:
3852:
3844:
3839:
3832:
3827:
3825:
3823:
3815:
3810:
3803:
3798:
3791:
3790:de Vries 1970
3786:
3784:
3776:
3771:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3757:
3752:
3750:
3742:
3737:
3730:
3725:
3718:
3717:de Vries 2000
3713:
3704:
3695:
3686:
3677:
3669:
3663:
3658:
3651:
3646:
3640:, p. 72.
3639:
3634:
3632:
3624:
3619:
3612:
3611:Näsström 2002
3607:
3601:, p. 82.
3600:
3595:
3588:
3583:
3576:
3571:
3565:, p. 99.
3564:
3559:
3557:
3555:
3547:
3542:
3540:
3538:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3520:
3515:
3513:
3506:, p. 30.
3505:
3500:
3498:
3496:
3488:
3483:
3476:
3471:
3464:
3459:
3452:
3447:
3440:
3435:
3428:
3423:
3416:
3411:
3404:
3399:
3392:
3387:
3385:
3378:, p. 76.
3377:
3372:
3370:
3362:
3357:
3350:
3345:
3343:
3335:
3330:
3323:
3318:
3311:
3306:
3304:
3296:
3291:
3289:
3281:
3280:Mitchell 2011
3276:
3269:
3264:
3262:
3254:
3249:
3242:
3237:
3230:
3225:
3218:
3213:
3206:
3201:
3194:
3189:
3187:
3179:
3178:de Vries 1970
3174:
3167:
3162:
3160:
3155:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3129:
3127:
3123:
3120:The asteroid
3118:
3116:
3111:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3086:
3083:(number) and
3082:
3078:
3074:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3038:
3028:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3013:
3012:
3002:
2997:
2987:
2985:
2979:
2975:
2965:
2963:
2962:
2957:
2956:
2951:
2950:
2943:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2927:
2926:
2925:Ynglinga saga
2921:
2917:
2910:
2906:
2896:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2856:Stine Ingstad
2851:
2849:
2847:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2832:
2821:
2812:
2809:
2804:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2768:Hallucinogens
2765:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2692:
2690:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2668:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2594:and the verb
2593:
2588:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2571:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2479:According to
2477:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2421:
2416:
2407:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2388:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2367:urðarlok(k)ur
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2347:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2318:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2240:
2234:
2228:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2150:
2146:
2136:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2121:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2079:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2066:
2062:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2014:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1995:
1994:Rurik dynasty
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1962:chamber grave
1958:
1956:
1952:
1951:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1898:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1869:
1865:
1864:
1854:
1850:
1849:
1844:
1842:
1841:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1742:
1741:
1736:
1735:
1730:
1729:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1711:
1710:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1699:
1695:
1693:Attestations
1692:
1689:
1685:
1684:
1681:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1661:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1610:
1601:
1596:
1586:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1575:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1442:
1437:
1433:
1432:
1423:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1347:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1313:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1272:
1267:
1257:
1255:
1254:
1248:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1219:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1182:
1181:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1141:, the son of
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1115:Bruce Lincoln
1112:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1059:
1055:
1054:
1048:
1043:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1015:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
992:
981:
967:
962:
960:
957:
953:
951:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
915:
908:
907:
906:
904:
900:
896:
895:
894:Roman History
890:
886:
877:
872:
871:
864:
863:
862:
860:
859:
854:
850:
840:
835:
834:
828:
824:
823:
822:
820:
812:
807:
798:
796:
792:
780:
776:
773:
767:
763:
761:
755:
751:
749:
745:
741:
735:
733:
729:
720:
716:
712:
707:
698:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
679:Dag Strömbäck
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
637:
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
596:
594:
593:
588:
587:
582:
578:
577:
572:
568:
564:
560:
559:
554:
553:
548:
547:
542:
541:
535:
533:
529:
525:
521:
520:
515:
511:
507:
505:
504:Gesta Danorum
500:
499:
494:
489:
487:
483:
479:
478:galdrakerling
475:
471:
470:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
444:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
396:. The use of
395:
394:
389:
388:
383:
382:
377:
372:
370:
366:
361:
359:
358:
353:
349:
348:
342:
338:
337:
332:
331:
326:
325:metonymically
322:
318:
313:
308:
304:
300:
299:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
273:
267:
266:
261:
256:
251:
247:
246:
241:
237:
232:
230:
226:
222:
221:
216:
212:
208:
206:
201:
197:
196:χalja-rūnō(n)
193:
188:
182:
176:
170:
165:
164:
159:
155:
147:
143:
138:
129:
127:
121:
119:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
79:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
56:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
7816:Witch (word)
7765:Witch's mark
7574:Early Modern
7510:
7502:
7494:
7486:
7478:
7472:Daemonologie
7470:
7462:
7454:
7446:
7438:
7430:
7424:Laienspiegel
7422:
7414:
7406:
7398:
7390:
7382:
7374:
7306:Muma Pădurii
7237:Folklore and
7208:Sator Square
7161:Magic circle
7156:Magic carpet
7116:Crystal ball
7053:Spiritualism
6877:Witch doctor
6774:
6760:Cunning folk
6496:
6453:
6425:
6421:
6412:
6390:
6371:
6358:
6336:
6332:
6309:
6305:
6271:
6267:
6245:
6236:
6232:
6209:
6186:
6167:
6162:
6139:
6117:
6097:
6093:
6086:Schubart, W.
6067:
6059:Google Books
6057:– via
6039:
6030:Google Books
6028:– via
6014:
5996:
5992:
5961:
5937:
5917:
5892:
5868:
5846:
5842:
5823:
5819:
5800:
5781:
5762:
5743:
5724:
5705:
5686:
5667:
5648:
5631:
5627:
5604:
5583:
5563:
5536:
5516:
5494:
5466:
5446:
5421:
5417:
5409:
5391:
5372:
5363:
5341:
5322:
5309:
5293:Google Books
5291:– via
5273:
5264:
5249:
5238:
5220:
5186:
5176:
5167:
5148:
5139:
5112:
5100:
5088:
5076:
5045:
5033:
5021:
5009:
4982:
4970:
4958:
4951:Schjødt 2020
4946:
4939:Schjødt 2020
4934:
4922:
4902:
4895:
4851:
4839:
4812:
4800:
4788:
4776:
4764:
4757:Jansson 1987
4752:
4693:
4681:
4669:
4657:
4645:
4633:
4602:
4575:
4563:
4551:
4539:
4510:
4498:
4486:. Retrieved
4480:
4416:
4404:
4397:Kovalev 2012
4392:
4385:Kovalev 2012
4380:
4373:Kovalev 2012
4368:
4361:Kovalev 2012
4356:
4349:Kovalev 2012
4344:
4337:Kovalev 2012
4332:
4325:Kovalev 2012
4320:
4311:
4304:Kovalev 2012
4299:
4292:Kovalev 2012
4287:
4280:Kovalev 2012
4275:
4268:Kovalev 2012
4263:
4251:
4239:
4228:. Retrieved
4221:
4212:
4200:
4188:
4181:Wolfram 2006
4176:
4169:Enright 1996
4164:
4152:
4140:
4133:Wolfram 2006
4128:
4116:
4109:Kovalev 2012
4087:
4060:
4048:
4036:
4029:Hermann 2020
4024:
4012:
4000:
3988:
3976:
3964:
3931:
3919:
3892:
3865:
3838:
3831:Enright 1996
3809:
3797:
3756:Enright 1996
3736:
3729:Lincoln 1986
3724:
3712:
3703:
3694:
3685:
3676:
3657:
3650:Orchard 1997
3645:
3618:
3606:
3594:
3587:Enright 1996
3582:
3575:Lincoln 1986
3570:
3482:
3470:
3458:
3446:
3434:
3422:
3410:
3398:
3356:
3329:
3317:
3275:
3248:
3236:
3224:
3212:
3200:
3173:
3168:, p. 5.
3125:
3119:
3112:
3107:
3099:
3095:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3070:
3056:
3050:
3009:
3007:
2983:
2981:
2959:
2953:
2947:
2946:analysis of
2944:
2923:
2912:
2899:Christianity
2874:
2870:Gylfaginning
2868:
2852:
2845:
2829:
2826:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2781:
2777:
2761:
2757:
2751:
2731:
2727:
2725:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2698:
2688:
2679:
2669:
2664:
2656:
2648:
2644:Wið færstice
2642:
2628:
2624:sexual magic
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2600:renna gǫndum
2599:
2595:
2591:
2589:
2583:
2579:
2569:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2549:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2493:ablaut grade
2488:
2484:
2478:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2458:varðlok(k)ur
2457:
2455:
2448:Clairvoyance
2431:
2419:
2403:
2399:
2391:
2387:Laxdœla saga
2385:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2373:of an older
2366:
2362:
2350:
2344:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2321:
2314:
2310:
2294:
2291:varðlok(k)ur
2290:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2276:galdrastafir
2275:
2271:
2267:
2264:galdrasmiðja
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2199:
2195:
2193:
2158:
2152:
2129:Östergötland
2122:
2107:
2087:ship setting
2084:
2071:
2058:
2039:
2020:
2002:
1998:Sviatoslav I
1981:
1978:Christianity
1959:
1950:Darraðarljóð
1948:
1945:
1924:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1903:Olga of Kiev
1900:
1897:Olga of Kiev
1891:Olga of Kiev
1884:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1861:
1860:
1846:
1838:
1832:
1818:
1804:
1791:Kormáks saga
1785:
1774:
1766:
1746:
1738:
1732:
1726:
1715:
1707:
1678:
1665:
1662:
1645:
1638:
1622:Amal dynasty
1617:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1578:
1572:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1540:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1490:
1484:
1480:
1478:
1473:
1469:
1461:
1445:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1427:
1417:
1375:
1364:
1308:
1283:
1277:
1252:
1246:
1244:ablaut grade
1238:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1185:
1178:
1155:Rudolf Simek
1130:
1126:
1118:
1108:
1077:
1065:
1063:
1051:
1012:
994:
892:
882:
856:
846:
827:A. R. Birley
818:
816:
790:
787:
784:Attestations
778:
769:
765:
757:
753:
736:
724:
675:Edward Vajda
669:, Dillmann,
639:
623:
619:
615:
614:("ogress"),
611:
610:("ogress"),
607:
606:("ogress"),
603:
599:
597:
590:
584:
580:
574:
556:
550:
544:
538:
536:
531:
517:
509:
502:
496:
492:
490:
485:
481:
477:
473:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
441:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
391:
385:
379:
375:
373:
368:
364:
362:
356:
351:
346:
334:
328:
320:
316:
306:
302:
296:
292:
284:
280:
276:
271:
263:
259:
249:
243:
239:
235:
233:
228:
218:
214:
210:
204:
199:
195:
161:
151:
122:
115:
111:Olga of Kiev
80:
57:
52:
48:
40:
36:
24:
18:
7523:Persecution
7392:Formicarius
7336:Spearfinger
7276:Elbow witch
7176:Magic sword
7141:Julleuchter
7126:Goofer dust
7068:White magic
6981:Incantation
6907:Black magic
6862:Renaissance
6830:Chaos magic
6802:Middle East
6733:Philippines
5985:Jullian, C.
5957:Price, Neil
5546:10.1515/gao
5476:10.1515/gao
5301:Cleasby, R.
5132:Morris 1991
4844:Tolley 1995
4781:Tolley 1995
4745:Lindow 2001
4728:Tolley 1995
4674:Tolley 1995
4662:Tolley 1995
4650:Morris 1991
4607:Tolley 1995
4205:Morris 1991
4193:Wagner 1999
4121:Foulke 1974
4092:Grundy 1996
4080:Lindow 2001
4065:Lindow 2001
4041:Grundy 1996
3981:Jarnut 1998
3912:Janson 2018
3858:Morris 1991
3843:Morris 1991
3623:Morris 1991
3504:Morris 1991
3475:Tolley 2009
3253:Damico 1984
3193:Dowden 2000
3061:coined the
2990:Witch-hunts
2949:Landnámabók
2793:Bilsenkraut
2789:scopolamine
2695:Prophesying
2576:Jörmungandr
2568:section on
2541:ginnheilagr
2530:Proto-Norse
2517:Ginnungagap
2379:varðarlokur
2351:urðarlokkur
2246:, to Latin
2239:nightingale
2072:Geographica
1935:celebrated
1933:Kievan Rus'
1820:Landnámabók
1806:Landnámabók
1734:Landnámabók
1618:haliurunnae
1474:longobarbae
1454:Scandinavia
1296:Elephantine
1190:, but as a
1070:Cassius Dio
1009:Cassius Dio
889:Cassius Dio
858:Geographica
719:Urðarbrunnr
608:flagð(kona)
576:Landnámabók
571:Norse sagas
546:Poetic Edda
474:galdrakonur
448:vísendakona
434:vísendakona
404:. The name
187:hellirunari
169:haliurunnae
41:priestesses
7836:Maleficium
7760:Witch-hunt
7564:Witch camp
7223:Witch ball
7166:Magic ring
7151:Love charm
7006:Necromancy
7001:Moon magic
6996:Mediumship
6991:Love magic
6976:Gray magic
6956:Divination
6755:Benandanti
6685:witchcraft
6567:Haliurunas
6341:De Gruyter
6276:De Gruyter
6177:9178443180
5753:1843840421
5410:Vikingaliv
5252:, vol. 6.
5153:Simek 2007
5026:Price 2019
5002:Price 2019
4975:Price 2019
4888:Price 2019
4871:Simek 1996
4856:Price 2019
4817:Price 2019
4805:Price 2019
4698:Price 2019
4626:Price 2019
4488:August 21,
4436:Price 2019
4409:Price 2019
4230:2021-05-08
4005:Hauck 1955
3993:Hauck 1955
3897:Simek 2020
3802:Simek 1996
3741:Simek 1996
3662:Simek 2007
3638:Price 2019
3563:Simek 1996
3546:Simek 2020
3519:Simek 2020
3487:Price 2019
3463:Price 2019
3391:Price 2019
3376:Price 2019
3361:Price 2019
3349:Price 2019
3295:Kluge 2011
3151:References
3079:the words
3017:high magic
2996:Witch-hunt
2893:lynx skins
2860:Neil Price
2846:projection
2762:seiðhjallr
2758:seiðhjallr
2754:Bructerian
2738:Attributes
2687:the grade
2676:Bructerian
2596:renna gand
2533:ginnarunaʀ
2522:Björketorp
2487:is a word
2456:While the
2336:varðlokkur
2305:, Tolley,
2272:galdrahríð
2258:, such as
2159:seiðhjallr
2139:Activities
2125:Hagebyhöga
2091:Köpingsvik
2029:region of
1630:Sarmatians
1614:haliurunas
1595:Haliurunas
1589:Haliurunas
1574:Grímnismál
1568:Hliðskjálf
1481:phitonissa
1420:(1895) by
1418:Grímnismál
1253:Projection
1218:Projection
1214:, see the
1192:theiázousa
1175:Eddic poem
1159:holy grove
695:Neil Price
552:Hyndluljóð
532:vitka líki
522:24, where
506:, book III
486:galdrakind
482:galdrasnót
418:spákerling
402:Viking Age
347:haga-tusjō
301:(through *
250:haghetisse
7737:Classical
7256:Baba Yaga
7239:mythology
7048:Spiritism
7038:Sex magic
7016:Shamanism
7011:Occultism
6966:Evocation
6961:Entheogen
6939:Damnation
6890:Practices
6538:(alleged)
6442:158374863
6045:Routledge
5438:170200000
4544:Orel 2003
4515:Orel 2003
4256:Kunz 2000
4145:Pohl 2006
4053:Mazo 2016
3969:Pohl 2006
3870:Orel 2003
3322:Orel 2003
3268:Orel 2003
3241:Koch 2020
3229:Orel 2003
3217:Orel 2003
3205:Orel 2003
3065:term for
3053:(Prophet)
3021:low magic
2784:deliriant
2748:Platforms
2672:Semnonian
2649:hægtessan
2537:ginnregin
2410:Summoning
2375:vǫrðlokur
2340:varðlokur
2307:Strömbäck
2303:Vigfússon
2268:galdravél
2260:galdrabók
2163:shamanism
2149:Shamanism
2089:grave in
1976:and from
1970:syncretic
1701:Heimlaug
1688:Old Norse
1667:Leechbook
1642:Amal clan
1634:Herodotus
1504:gand-bara
1500:gand-bera
1346:gand-bara
1340:gand-bera
1327:the craft
1290:from the
1237:analyses
1014:Histories
801:Roman Era
715:Yggdrasil
519:Lokasenna
460:sorceress
374:The term
255:hagazussa
236:hellerune
181:hellirûna
175:hellerune
7871:Category
7770:Pricking
7681:Scotland
7604:Virginia
7594:New York
7589:Maryland
7582:Americas
7331:Sorginak
7321:Pasiphaë
7213:Talisman
7183:Mojo bag
7131:Grimoire
7026:Regional
6971:Familiar
6934:Anathema
6850:Neopagan
6845:Medieval
6750:Akelarre
6612:See also
6531:Waluburg
6304:(1962).
6266:(1970).
6239:: 57–75.
6116:(1996).
6088:(1917).
5987:(1920).
5959:(2019).
5889:(2003).
5867:(1997).
5577:(2011).
5515:(1987).
5418:Saeculum
5362:(1964).
5321:(1984).
5307:(1874).
3132:See also
3122:131 Vala
3077:blending
3067:computer
2958:and the
2881:Medelpad
2844:magical
2592:gandreið
2584:gandreið
2570:Chanting
2481:de Vries
2432:gandreið
2392:seiðlæti
2357:of fate
2346:Grógaldr
2295:seiðlæti
2280:valgaldr
2169:Chanting
2118:cannabis
1751:Gullveig
1391:Plutarch
1331:Domitian
1300:Egyptian
1292:Semnones
1280:ostracon
1266:Waluburg
1260:Waluburg
1171:the hero
1169:, where
1102:and the
1096:Cherusci
1079:Semnones
1074:Domitian
1028:Bructeri
943:Visurgis
903:Cherusci
876:amphorae
819:Germania
744:Domitian
689:and the
663:de Vries
651:Ohlmarks
563:Gullveig
526:accuses
514:sorcerer
438:Þorbiorg
430:seiðkona
410:seiðkona
393:Waluburg
369:seiðkona
309:and OHG
265:hagzissa
260:hagzussa
245:hægtesse
158:Jordanes
95:Waluburg
60:shamanic
7809:Related
7753:Related
7671:Iceland
7666:Finland
7661:England
7656:Denmark
7620:Hungary
7316:Obayifo
7246:Agamede
7203:Potions
7136:Incense
7077:Objects
6897:Animism
6872:Warlock
6807:Oceania
6790:Britain
6562:Gambara
6511:Albruna
6392:Gizmodo
6106:4235200
5581:(ed.).
5212:Sources
3108:Velleda
3051:Völuspá
2889:Gotland
2848:, above
2797:bhelena
2641:" and "
2616:gǫndull
2572:, above
2562:, from
2400:lockrop
2316:warlock
2299:Cleasby
2218:ʒalanan
2210:ʒealdor
2196:ʒalđran
2103:smithed
2068:pellets
2061:Gotland
2042:henbane
2031:Denmark
2027:Jutland
2003:jartegn
1982:jartegn
1925:Allogia
1848:Völuspá
1834:Völuspá
1530:, near
1524:Uppsala
1491:sibylla
1402:Gambara
1349:), see
1335:Gambara
1304:payroll
1188:sibylla
1111:Tacitus
1005:Tacitus
980:Albruna
974:Albruna
748:Tacitus
671:Dumézil
655:Pálsson
624:fordæða
592:heathen
558:Vǫluspá
555:and in
456:spákona
414:spákona
387:Gambara
312:zûnrite
307:túnriða
240:helrūne
234:In OE,
225:Finnish
202:, i.e.
109:saint,
83:Albruna
76:séances
37:witches
25:seeress
7722:Basque
7707:Geneva
7702:France
7686:Sweden
7676:Norway
7651:Baltic
7635:Russia
7630:Poland
7531:Modern
7515:(1751)
7507:(1647)
7499:(1627)
7491:(1608)
7483:(1599)
7475:(1597)
7467:(1595)
7459:(1593)
7451:(1591)
7443:(1584)
7435:(1563)
7427:(1509)
7419:(1489)
7411:(1487)
7403:(1484)
7395:(1475)
7387:(1440)
7379:(1376)
7326:Sebile
7281:Hecate
7251:Aradia
7198:Poppet
7193:Nkondi
7106:Censer
7089:Athame
7084:Amulet
7043:Sigils
7031:Yellow
6840:Hoodoo
6835:Goetia
6812:Mākutu
6740:Europe
6711:Azande
6706:Africa
6699:Region
6619:Freyja
6572:Thiota
6526:Veleda
6440:
6397:Online
6379:
6347:
6320:
6290:
6252:
6216:
6197:
6174:
6146:
6124:
6104:
6074:
6051:
6022:
5969:
5945:
5924:
5905:
5875:
5853:
5830:
5807:
5788:
5769:
5750:
5731:
5712:
5693:
5674:
5655:
5615:
5591:
5552:
5523:
5501:
5482:
5453:
5436:
5398:
5379:
5348:
5329:
5285:
5227:
5198:
4910:
4457:Online
3138:Göndul
2952:, the
2920:augurs
2907:, and
2883:, the
2715:). In
2689:gin(n)
2663:gods (
2620:gandir
2506:, and
2474:extasy
2466:gandir
2450:, and
2420:gandir
2363:lokkur
2353:, the
2252:gylfra
2248:gallus
2214:galdor
2205:galtar
2133:Freyja
2023:Fyrkat
1990:bident
1955:Mokosh
1755:Freyja
1723:Heiðr
1696:Notes
1609:Getica
1210:- and
1200:Gan-no
1143:Tuisto
1139:Mannus
1092:Chatti
1088:Masyos
1001:Strabo
991:Veleda
985:Veleda
935:Chatti
853:Cimbri
849:Strabo
813:, 1883
740:Masyos
454:and a
422:spámey
303:χaʒjaz
281:be-hac
227:where
194:form *
163:Getica
103:Freyja
87:Veleda
7856:Adept
7717:Spain
7712:Italy
7599:Salem
7554:Nepal
7549:India
7360:Major
7296:Medea
7291:Kalku
7271:Drude
7266:Dayan
7261:Circe
7188:Nkisi
7099:besom
7094:Broom
7021:Black
6951:Demon
6929:Curse
6924:Coven
6855:Wicca
6775:Völva
6770:Seiðr
6745:Italy
6716:Ghana
6692:Types
6681:Magic
6629:Seiðr
6624:Galdr
6521:Ganna
6438:S2CID
6335:[
6314:Brill
6308:[
6270:[
6166:[
6102:JSTOR
5899:Brill
5845:[
5822:[
5609:(PDF)
5434:S2CID
3126:vǫlva
3085:völva
3075:— by
3072:tölva
2935:Price
2916:Simek
2743:Wands
2684:Simek
2680:gandr
2653:elves
2612:gandr
2608:gandr
2580:gandr
2560:galdr
2545:ginna
2485:gandr
2470:gandr
2464:(pl.
2462:gandr
2332:lokka
2311:vǫrðr
2284:galen
2256:galdr
2233:ʒalan
2227:galan
2200:galdr
2175:Galdr
2155:seiðr
2145:Seiðr
2114:slave
2095:Öland
2007:Frigg
1986:front
1966:Pskov
1747:Heiðr
1703:völva
1650:Aesir
1648:(the
1646:anses
1579:seiðr
1559:Woden
1555:Friia
1551:Uodan
1543:Godan
1528:Žuráň
1520:Vanir
1516:Hauck
1508:vǫlva
1466:Frigg
1462:Godan
1382:Simek
1370:waluz
1360:vǫlva
1353:gandr
1323:Ganna
1318:waluz
1298:, an
1288:sibyl
1239:gandr
1235:Simek
1231:vǫlur
1212:gandr
1204:gandr
1196:Ganna
1131:Irmin
1123:Yngvi
1100:Weser
1066:Ganna
1036:Ganna
966:Rhine
947:Albis
939:Suebi
842:them.
795:Simek
732:Norns
667:Bugge
604:skass
586:heath
581:Heiðr
549:, in
540:Heiðr
510:vitki
498:Wecha
493:vitka
469:galdr
464:witch
452:vǫlva
426:vǫlva
406:vǫlva
398:wands
381:Ganna
376:vǫlva
365:vǫlva
352:tusjō
341:Kluge
298:hedge
293:χaʒōn
289:sense
272:χaʒaz
200:χaljō
146:Paris
118:wands
91:Ganna
49:völva
7286:Huld
7218:Wand
6986:Jinn
6944:Jinx
6823:Form
6728:Asia
6683:and
6634:Wand
6377:ISBN
6345:ISBN
6318:ISBN
6288:ISBN
6250:ISBN
6214:ISBN
6195:ISBN
6172:ISBN
6144:ISBN
6122:ISBN
6072:ISBN
6049:ISBN
6020:ISBN
5967:ISBN
5943:ISBN
5922:ISBN
5903:ISBN
5873:ISBN
5851:ISBN
5828:ISBN
5805:ISBN
5786:ISBN
5767:ISBN
5748:ISBN
5729:ISBN
5710:ISBN
5691:ISBN
5672:ISBN
5653:ISBN
5613:ISBN
5589:ISBN
5550:ISBN
5521:ISBN
5499:ISBN
5480:ISBN
5451:ISBN
5396:ISBN
5377:ISBN
5346:ISBN
5327:ISBN
5283:ISBN
5225:ISBN
5196:ISBN
5159:help
4908:ISBN
4490:2019
3668:help
3081:tala
3039:and
3008:The
2976:and
2887:and
2873:and
2815:Cats
2730:and
2711:and
2703:and
2661:Æsir
2657:ylfa
2637:", "
2598:(or
2564:gala
2550:The
2524:and
2510:and
2504:swim
2502:and
2500:swam
2406:-).
2404:lokk
2359:Urðr
2355:norn
2328:loka
2301:and
2293:and
2244:yell
2242:and
2222:gala
2177:and
2147:and
2108:The
2099:bear
1937:Yule
1915:wise
1911:wise
1853:Odin
1658:Gaut
1654:Odin
1626:Pohl
1616:(or
1563:Frig
1561:and
1553:and
1547:Frea
1545:and
1532:Brno
1512:Ibor
1502:or *
1495:Pohl
1470:Frea
1458:Odin
1428:The
1365:vǫlr
1343:or *
1312:Walu
1247:ginn
1227:vǫlr
1223:walu
1147:Ymir
1135:Odin
1129:and
1104:Elbe
1084:Elbe
921:and
772:Mogk
728:Odin
711:fate
661:and
622:and
620:hála
616:fála
612:gýgr
589:and
573:and
528:Odin
524:Loki
462:and
428:and
390:and
357:dwes
336:hamr
285:hage
277:hagr
229:runo
220:rune
215:rūnō
211:rūnō
107:Rus'
53:vala
31:and
23:, a
6430:doi
6280:doi
6237:110
6001:doi
5636:doi
5542:doi
5472:doi
5426:doi
2801:bil
2734:).
2665:esa
2659:),
2651:),
2614:or
2556:đra
2552:gan
2512:sit
2508:sat
2496:gin
2489:gan
2476:".
2361:'s
2322:In
2127:in
2065:owl
1773:In
1714:In
1208:gan
1127:Ist
1125:),
1119:Ing
1056:in
643:OED
501:in
440:in
360:-.
321:zûn
317:tún
262:or
205:Hel
51:or
39:or
19:In
7873::
6436:.
6426:21
6424:.
6361:.
6343:.
6316:.
6286:.
6278:.
6235:.
6231:.
6193:.
6189:.
6098:38
6047:.
6043:.
5997:22
5995:.
5991:.
5983:;
5901:.
5897:.
5632:39
5630:.
5548:.
5478:.
5432:.
5420:.
5303:;
5277:.
5256:.
5241:.
5124:^
5057:^
4994:^
4878:^
4863:^
4824:^
4735:^
4720:^
4705:^
4614:^
4587:^
4522:^
4479:.
4464:^
4443:^
4428:^
4220:.
4099:^
4072:^
3943:^
3904:^
3877:^
3850:^
3821:^
3782:^
3763:^
3748:^
3630:^
3553:^
3526:^
3511:^
3494:^
3383:^
3368:^
3341:^
3302:^
3287:^
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