1335:
1980:
6230:
1523:
1549:
906:
1582:. Algebra was mainly used for recreation: it had few practical applications at that time. Geometry was studied at different levels. Some texts contain practical geometrical rules for surveying and for measuring figures. Theoretical geometry was a necessary prerequisite for understanding astronomy and optics, and it required years of concentrated work. Early in the Abbasid caliphate (founded 750), soon after the foundation of Baghdad in 762, some mathematical knowledge was assimilated by
2489:
1446:
1227:
2475:
1612:
6623:
6145:
2170:
6611:
1869:
6600:
6134:
2461:
862:
1060:
1769:
261:
2307:
1897:
1405:– contained, among many other topics, both realistic botany and fantastic accounts. For example, he described trees which grew birds on their twigs in place of leaves, but which could only be found in the far-distant British Isles. The use and cultivation of plants was documented in the 11th century by
1607:
were translated into Arabic. By the second half of the ninth century, Islamic mathematicians were already making contributions to the most sophisticated parts of Greek geometry. Islamic mathematics reached its apogee in the
Eastern part of the Islamic world between the tenth and twelfth centuries.
1467:
The spread of Islam across
Western Asia and North Africa encouraged an unprecedented growth in trade and travel by land and sea as far away as Southeast Asia, China, much of Africa, Scandinavia and even Iceland. Geographers worked to compile increasingly accurate maps of the known world, starting
2229:
view of motion. He argued instead that an object acquires an inclination to move when it has a motive power impressed on it. In the eleventh century Ibn Sina adopted roughly the same idea, namely that a moving object has force which is dissipated by external agents like air resistance. Ibn Sina
1958:
that vision occurs by way of light rays forming a cone with its vertex at the center of the eye. He suggested that light was reflected from different surfaces in different directions, thus causing objects to look different. He argued further that the mathematics of reflection and
39:
1954:(Alhazen, 965–1040) rejected the Greek ideas about vision, whether the Aristotelian tradition that held that the form of the perceived object entered the eye (but not its matter), or that of Euclid and Ptolemy which held that the eye emitted a ray. Al-Haytham proposed in his
1823:
865–925) identified smallpox and measles, and recognized fever as a part of the body's defenses. He wrote a 23-volume compendium of
Chinese, Indian, Persian, Syriac and Greek medicine. al-Razi questioned the classical Greek medical theory of how the four humours regulate
3270:, page 263–277: "In a sense, al-Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than Diophantus because al-Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers".
1842:(Medical Knowledge). It is a 30-volume set mainly discussing medical symptoms, treatments, and pharmacology. The last volume, on surgery, describes surgical instruments, supplies, and pioneering procedures. Avicenna (c. 980–1037) wrote the major medical textbook,
3549:
Alhazen (or Al-Haytham; 965–1039 CE) was perhaps one of the greatest physicists of all times and a product of the
Islamic Golden Age or Islamic Renaissance (7th–13th centuries). He made significant contributions to anatomy, astronomy, engineering,
3554:, medicine, ophthalmology, philosophy, physics, psychology, and visual perception and is primarily attributed as the inventor of the scientific method, for which author Bradley Steffens (2006) describes him as the "first scientist".
1079:
in 1248, as work continued in the eastern centres (such as in Persia). After the completion of the
Spanish reconquest in 1492, the Islamic world went into an economic and cultural decline. The Abbasid caliphate was followed by the
1569:
Islamic mathematicians gathered, organised and clarified the mathematics they inherited from ancient Egypt, Greece, India, Mesopotamia and Persia, and went on to make innovations of their own. Islamic mathematics covered
1802:
enjoining the preservation of good health. Its physicians inherited knowledge and traditional medical beliefs from the civilisations of classical Greece, Rome, Syria, Persia and India. These included the writings of
2238:
when the object is in opposition to its natural motion. He concluded that continuation of motion depends on the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that the object remains in motion until the
1250:
Astronomy became a major discipline within
Islamic science. Astronomers devoted effort both towards understanding the nature of the cosmos and to practical purposes. One application involved determining the
1586:'s group of scientists from the pre-Islamic Persian tradition in astronomy. Astronomers from India were invited to the court of the caliph in the late eighth century; they explained the rudimentary
1190:(c. 865–925), contain the earliest systematic classifications of chemical substances. Alchemists were also interested in artificially creating such substances. Jabir describes the synthesis of
2145:, described a thousand simples and drugs based directly on Mediterranean plants collected along the entire coast between Syria and Spain, for the first time exceeding the coverage provided by
1705:(1048–1131), known in the West as a poet, calculated the length of the year to within 5 decimal places, and found geometric solutions to all 13 forms of cubic equations, developing some
1399:
1354:
1382:). Only volumes 3 and 5 have survived, with part of volume 6 reconstructed from quoted passages. The surviving text describes 637 plants in alphabetical order from the letters
2437:. In a more general sense, the positive achievement of Islamic science was simply to flourish, for centuries, in a wide range of institutions from observatories to libraries,
1919:
Optics developed rapidly in this period. By the ninth century, there were works on physiological, geometrical and physical optics. Topics covered included mirror reflection.
6330:
1522:
1437:. His practical and systematic book describes over 180 plants and how to propagate and care for them. It covered leaf- and root-vegetables, herbs, spices and trees.
5884:
5766:
2538:
2280:(c. 1080 – 1164/5) disagreed, arguing that velocity and acceleration are two different things, and that force is proportional to acceleration, not to velocity.
5134:
1548:
3808:
2449:, but such external comparisons are probably to be rejected as imposing "chronologically and culturally alien standards" on a successful medieval culture.
5751:
1137:
3413:
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Ghiyath al-Din
Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
2686:
Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque
104:
and beyond, spanning the period roughly between 786 and 1258. Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas, especially
5850:
1512:
1470–1553) made a map of the New World and West Africa in 1513. He made use of maps from Greece, Portugal, Muslim sources, and perhaps one made by
4634:
1362:
The study of the natural world extended to a detailed examination of plants. The work done proved directly useful in the unprecedented growth of
1334:
6648:
6305:
2408:
2039:
the complex drugs then used. Sabur Ibn Sahl (died 869) was the first physician to describe a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments.
1641:
in his proofs. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline in its own right, and presented the first systematic solution of
1967:, the concept that a hypothesis must be proved by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical evidence, five centuries before
4561:
4396:
2091:(Avicenna) described 700 preparations, their properties, their mode of action and their indications. He devoted a whole volume to simples in
151:
Medieval
Islamic science had practical purposes as well as the goal of understanding. For example, astronomy was useful for determining the
6658:
6181:
1626:
1553:
1186:
and in one of the works attributed to Jabir. In practical chemistry, the works of Jabir, and those of the
Persian alchemist and physician
6355:
6350:
6320:
6310:
6300:
5781:
1498:(Book of Roger), a geographic study of the peoples, climates, resources and industries of the whole of the world known at that time. The
1462:
1125:
129:
6360:
6345:
6340:
6325:
4185:
A World of Beasts: A Thirteenth-Century
Illustrated Arabic Book on Animals (the Kitab Na't al-Hayawan) in the Ibn Bakhtishu' Tradition)
1856:
in the Islamic world. He wrote commentaries on Galen and on Avicenna's works. One of these commentaries, discovered in 1924, described
5855:
5771:
17:
1887:
5872:
5835:
5756:
1241:
1117:
1105:
635:
117:
105:
3977:
Espinoza, Fernando (2005). "An Analysis of the Historical Development of Ideas About Motion and its Implications for Teaching".
5776:
4666:
2412:
1791:
1109:
113:
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to hospitals and courts, both at the height of the Islamic golden age and for some centuries afterwards. It did not lead to a
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4533:
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3140:
3087:
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2190:
The fields of physics studied in this period, apart from optics and astronomy which are described separately, are aspects of
2185:
1968:
1113:
141:
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1429:(Treatise on Agriculture). Ibn Bassāl had travelled widely across the Islamic world, returning with a detailed knowledge of
2277:
6663:
6269:
6254:
6204:
2614:
2508:
1005:
2925:. Owing to the unreliability of the data al-Zarqali relied on for this estimate, its remarkable accuracy was fortuitous.
2333:
2243:
is spent. He also claimed that a projectile in a vacuum would not stop unless it is acted upon. That view accords with
1662:
1024:. This supported the larger population and enabled culture to flourish. From the 9th century onwards, scholars such as
1001:
6219:
5638:
5592:
5252:
5246:
2528:
700:
2247:, on inertia. As a non-Aristotelian suggestion, it was essentially abandoned until it was described as "impetus" by
6174:
5509:
5365:
4842:
4738:
3711:
300:
1480:(973–1048) measured the radius of the earth using a new method. It involved observing the height of a mountain at
1312:'s astrologer, he was given an observatory and gained access to Chinese techniques and observations. He developed
6517:
6003:
5809:
4272:
An Introduction to the History of Medicine: with Medical Chronology, Suggestions for Study and Bibliographic Data
2244:
2012:
1891:
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892:
133:
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6249:
6068:
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5514:
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2020:
1979:
837:
988:(750–1258), with stable political structures and flourishing trade. Major religious and cultural works of the
5426:
5185:
4862:
4172:: book XI–XIV of the Kitab al-Hayawan, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam-Oxford 1979.
1816:
1564:
1300:
moves slowly relative to the fixed stars, and obtained a good estimate of its motion for its rate of change.
1101:
571:
109:
1390:, so the whole book must have covered several thousand kinds of plants. Al-Dinawari described the phases of
6527:
6489:
6244:
5988:
5965:
5575:
5431:
5421:
5327:
4980:
2518:
2513:
1434:
1329:
1017:
603:
6229:
2286:, Jafar-Muhammad, Ahmad and al-Hasan (c. early 9th century) invented automated devices described in their
6653:
6626:
6522:
6479:
6167:
6090:
5955:
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5529:
5322:
4699:
4125:
Translating Image and Text in the Medieval Mediterranean World between the Tenth and Thirteenth Centuries
1259:
1245:
1172:(written c. 850–950), remained the basis of theories of metallic composition until the 18th century. The
650:
477:
2087:), describing in detail the properties of drugs, the role of pharmacy and the duties of the pharmacist.
6370:
5840:
5723:
5240:
4659:
3301:
Broemeling, Lyle D. (1 November 2011). "An Account of Early Statistical Inference in Arab Cryptology".
2640:
1694:
1682:
690:
2747:
Norris, John (2006). "The Mineral Exhalation Theory of Metallogenesis in Pre-Modern Mineral Science".
157:, the direction in which to pray, botany had practical application in agriculture, as in the works of
6614:
6209:
5933:
5920:
5621:
5450:
5146:
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4831:
4253:
4020:
2287:
785:
497:
4155:
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6214:
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5804:
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5401:
4881:
1932:
717:
517:
1710:
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from the region within a few decades. Within a century, Islam had reached the area of present-day
178:
6565:
6469:
6451:
6284:
6279:
5943:
4754:
4626:
4283:
3915:
2016:
1741:
312:
4908:
3776:
3078:
73:
6532:
6474:
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6274:
6100:
6029:
5998:
5928:
4852:
4847:
4765:
3625:
2337:
1756:
numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern
1100:
Medieval Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas, especially
909:
766:
532:
4123:
2568:
2562:
6603:
6509:
6494:
6446:
6264:
6046:
6024:
4775:
4652:
4446:
4287:
4277:
4222:
4183:
2922:
2442:
2430:
2342:
2327:
2306:
2093:
2032:
1857:
1844:
761:
586:
370:
325:
3909:
3424:
2268:(973–1048) describes non-uniform motion as the result of acceleration. Ibn-Sina's theory of
1274:, used by astronomers to predict the movements of the sun, moon and planets across the sky.
6580:
6575:
6499:
6388:
6378:
5703:
5610:
5555:
4267:
3986:
3045:
2681:
2199:
1963:
needed to be consistent with the anatomy of the eye. He was also an early proponent of the
1601:
1513:
1301:
1263:
2272:
tried to relate the velocity and weight of a moving object, a precursor of the concept of
8:
6585:
6550:
6542:
6431:
6421:
5938:
5814:
5708:
5524:
4963:
4760:
4208:
Kruk, R., 2003, "La zoologie aristotélicienne. Tradition arabe", DPhA Supplement, 329–334
4109:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
3535:
Mind, Brain, and Education Science: A Comprehensive Guide to the New Brain-Based Teaching
2446:
2379:
2252:
2118:
2098:
2060:
2040:
1994:
1472:(850–934), founder of the Balkhī school of cartography in Baghdad, wrote an atlas called
1395:
1394:
and the production of flowers and fruit. The thirteenth century encyclopedia compiled by
1367:
1350:
1275:
1165:
885:
771:
405:
305:
221:, Al-Bīrūnī and others studied optics and mechanics as well as astronomy, and criticised
4635:
is there such a thing as Islamic science? the influence of Islam on the world of science
3990:
3834:
2133:(1250–1316) translated and added a supplement to the work of al-Mardini under the title
1678:
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4002:
3959:
3955:
3684:
3618:
3318:
3262:
3189:
2764:
2523:
2494:
2276:. Aristotle's theory of motion stated that a constant force produces a uniform motion;
2158:
1722:
1706:
1650:
1646:
1638:
1489:
1469:
1020:
in the countryside brought more crops and improved agricultural technology, especially
981:
928:
795:
752:
722:
705:
680:
625:
581:
293:
166:
61:
5103:
3209:(1990). "Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston.
1156:
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4381:
4362:
4340:
4291:
4259:
4228:
4189:
4129:
4057:
4006:
3998:
3919:
3798:
Toomer p.464: "Schramm sums up achievement in the development of scientific method."
3772:
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3432:
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2727:
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2503:
2422:
1964:
1908:
1718:
1674:
1654:
1191:
1064:
985:
938:
846:
832:
800:
747:
660:
620:
482:
229:
65:
47:
3963:
3266:
2768:
2283:
2177:
1270:(850–922) accurately determined the length of the solar year. He contributed to the
1012:
and Persian influences. A new common civilisation formed, based on Islam. An era of
77:
6436:
6110:
6095:
5845:
5550:
5272:
5210:
5200:
5190:
5175:
4923:
4826:
4798:
4686:
3994:
3951:
3345:
3310:
3254:
3245:
3206:
3181:
2791:
2756:
2719:
2632:
2558:
2207:
2056:
1928:
1920:
1873:
1773:
1534:
1494:
1418:
1305:
1271:
1207:
1199:
1187:
1169:
997:
969:
947:
645:
640:
591:
576:
561:
470:
349:
214:
162:
51:
30:
1852:(1213–1288) wrote an influential book on medicine; it largely replaced Avicenna's
6036:
5733:
5678:
5478:
5164:
5124:
5013:
4969:
4743:
3336:
Al-Kadi, Ibrahim A. (1992). "The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions".
2211:
2150:
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1912:
1757:
1642:
965:
827:
780:
596:
556:
545:
527:
430:
375:
288:
228:
During the Middle Ages, Islamic science flourished across a wide area around the
194:
93:
81:
1713:(c. 1380–1429) is credited with several theorems of trigonometry, including the
905:
6148:
5865:
5718:
5560:
5262:
3672:
3602:
R. Rashed, "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses",
3279:
Maher, P. (1998). From Al-Jabr to Algebra. Mathematics in School, 27(4), 14–15.
3007:
2609:
2480:
2130:
1951:
1940:
1900:
1836:(936–1013) was a surgeon whose most important surviving work is referred to as
1740:, (On the numbers of the Indians). A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the
1717:, also known as Al-Kashi's Theorem. He has been credited with the invention of
1714:
1619:
1499:
1174:
1161:
1092:(1501–1736), centred in Persia, where work in the arts and sciences continued.
1089:
1081:
1041:
989:
878:
740:
727:
685:
630:
244:
218:
89:
3809:"International Year of Light - Ibn Al-Haytham and the Legacy of Arabic Optics"
3349:
6642:
6051:
5878:
5728:
5267:
5230:
5205:
5042:
4622:
4581:
4557:
4468:
4104:
3792:
3073:
2817:
Newton the Alchemist: Science, Enigma, and the Quest for Nature's Secret Fire
2703:
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2295:
2138:
1944:
1658:
1450:
1410:
1317:
1293:
1211:
1053:
805:
710:
670:
97:
2760:
1931:(810–887) developed lenses for magnification and the improvement of vision.
1142:
The early Islamic period saw the establishment of theoretical frameworks in
232:
and further afield, for several centuries, in a wide range of institutions.
6138:
6063:
5713:
5565:
5443:
5159:
5008:
4993:
4707:
4354:
4049:
3942:
Sayili, Aydin (1987). "Ibn Sina and Buridan on the Motion the Projectile".
3788:
3658:
3314:
2784:
Das "Buch über das Geheimnis der Schöpfung" von Pseudo-Apollonios von Tyana
2712:
Das "Buch über das Geheimnis der Schöpfung" von Pseudo-Apollonios von Tyana
2488:
2466:
2248:
2126:
2106:
2052:
2024:
2008:
1849:
1829:
1828:. He challenged Galen's work on several fronts, including the treatment of
1808:
1702:
1615:
1587:
1391:
1363:
1313:
1215:
1202:, and Abu Bakr al-Razi experimented with the heating of ammonium chloride,
1195:
1179:
1013:
977:
866:
812:
549:
281:
270:
186:
170:
137:
2795:
2723:
2564:
The Venture of Islam; Conscience and History in a World Civilisation Vol 1
2334:
classical works, including those of Aristotle, were transmitted from Greek
1699:
Spiritual Crafts and Natural Secrets in the Details of Geometrical Figures
29:"Islamic science" redirects here. For the Islamic religious sciences, see
5690:
5180:
5088:
4988:
4875:
4490:
4247:
3768:
3551:
3521:
Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method.
3512:
2146:
2036:
1804:
1608:
Most medieval Islamic mathematicians wrote in Arabic, others in Persian.
1445:
1309:
1289:
1234:
1226:
1072:
961:
608:
566:
490:
43:
4612:
3868:
Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine
3861:"Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision"
2370:
1611:
5993:
5075:
5032:
5003:
3860:
2787:
2715:
2418:
2203:
2169:
1960:
1833:
1825:
1749:
1579:
1406:
1281:
1267:
1021:
1016:
and innovation ensued, with rapid growth in population and cities. The
613:
158:
3747:
Distance Points: Essays in Theory and Renaissance Art and Architecture
3193:
2474:
6159:
5698:
5129:
5071:
5018:
4886:
4512:
3132:
2426:
2291:
2226:
2191:
2076:
2004:
1838:
1686:
1583:
1529:
1516:. He represented a part of a major tradition of Ottoman cartography.
1505:
1485:
1477:
1454:
1285:
1230:
1147:
1045:
512:
222:
206:
2015:(Rhazes) (865–915) promoted the medical uses of chemical compounds.
1868:
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5141:
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3185:
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2374:
2319:
2273:
2088:
1983:
1666:
1596:
1575:
1430:
1037:
1025:
973:
918:
822:
790:
504:
438:
198:
190:
174:
125:
4279:
What Went Wrong? : Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response
4054:
Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science
3771:(2009). "Science in Islam". Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages.
2149:
in classical times. Islamic physicians such as Ibn Sina described
1732:
Sometime around the seventh century, Islamic scholars adopted the
952:
The Islamic era began in 622. Islamic armies eventually conquered
6484:
6056:
5652:
5340:
5220:
5098:
5093:
5080:
5064:
5057:
5052:
4784:
3793:
Review on JSTOR, Toomer's 1964 review of Matthias Schramm (1963)
2434:
2195:
2068:
2019:(Abulcasis) (936–1013) pioneered the preparation of medicines by
1745:
1634:
1591:
1590:
techniques used in Indian astronomy. Ancient Greek works such as
1571:
1502:
1492:, the Norman King of Sicily (ruled 1105–1154). He also wrote the
1481:
1422:
1342:
1203:
1143:
1076:
1052:. These translations supported advances by scientists across the
1033:
1009:
655:
332:
202:
182:
145:
85:
69:
4322:, chapters 1–5 cover science, mathematics and medicine in Islam.
1927:; this remained influential in the West until the 17th century.
1796:
Islamic society paid careful attention to medicine, following a
5570:
5544:
5503:
5464:
5381:
5294:
5215:
5117:
5027:
4958:
4953:
4720:
4644:
4552:(chapters 1–5 cover science, mathematics and medicine in Islam)
2351:
2064:
2000:
1798:
1371:
1338:
1297:
1278:(1473–1543) later used some of Al-Battani's astronomic tables.
1178:, a cryptic text that all later alchemists up to and including
1049:
993:
953:
675:
665:
454:
422:
414:
399:
393:
277:
209:, Avicenna and others described the preparation of hundreds of
121:
101:
1059:
38:
5819:
5644:
5598:
5586:
5388:
5374:
5333:
5110:
4948:
4805:
4791:
4712:
4675:
3043:
2872:
Promethean Ambitions: Alchemy and the Quest to Perfect Nature
2336:
to Syriac, then to Arabic, then to Latin in the Middle Ages.
2110:
1812:
1768:
1346:
1252:
1029:
957:
817:
695:
386:
344:
337:
260:
252:
210:
153:
4548:
The Cambridge History of Science. Volume 2: Medieval Science
4517:
The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West
4337:
From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of Mathematical Astronomy
3243:
Gandz, S. (1936), "The Sources of Al-Khowārizmī's Algebra",
1629:(8th–9th centuries) was instrumental in the adoption of the
5485:
5457:
5407:
5354:
5299:
4812:
3589:
K. B. Wolf, "Geometry and dynamics in refracting systems",
2340:
remained dominant in its field for two thousand years. The
2154:
2072:
1904:
446:
354:
4586:
Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance
2417:
Muslim scientists helped in laying the foundations for an
1907:). A polymath, sometimes considered the father of modern
1673:
980–1037) contributed to mathematical techniques such as
984:(roughly between 786 and 1258) spanned the period of the
46:, a mathematical device invented by the Persian polymath
4627:"Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?"
3532:
3425:"The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered"
3129:
Medieval Islamic Civilization, Volume 1: An Encyclopedia
3008:"Ibn Baṣṣāl: Dīwān al-filāḥa / Kitāb al-qaṣd wa'l-bayān"
2251:(c. 1295–1363), who was likely influenced by Ibn Sina's
1896:
1637:, introduced methods of simplifying equations, and used
1182:
saw as the foundation of their art, first occurs in the
3937:
3935:
3012:
The Filaha Texts Project: The Arabic Books of Husbandry
2539:
Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world
1726:
1695:
repeating patterns popular in Islamic decorative motifs
4420:
Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction
3361:
3359:
2637:
The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World
1210:, which would eventually lead to the discovery of the
169:
to make accurate maps. Islamic mathematicians such as
4111:. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 151, 235, 375.
1067:, 750–1261 (and later in Egypt) at its height, c. 850
4473:
The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives
4376:
McClellan, James E. III; Dorn, Harold, eds. (2006).
3932:
3429:
The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives
2838:
2836:
2688:. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale.
2456:
1939:
940–1000) discovered the law of refraction known as
1911:
due to his emphasis on experimental data and on the
3726:
3356:
2627:
2625:
2592:
2590:
2588:
1888:
Physics in the medieval Islamic world § Optics
1693:870–950) attempted to describe, geometrically, the
1657:, and gave the first known recorded explanation of
1138:
Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world
217:and chemical compounds. Islamic physicists such as
60:was the science developed and practised during the
4417:
4168:Kruk, R., 1979, The Arabic Version of Aristotle's
3617:
3076:(March 1997). "BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN iv. Geography".
2045:The foundations of the true properties of Remedies
1947:that focused light without geometric aberrations.
1736:, describing their use in a standard type of text
1288:, used for centuries afterwards. He constructed a
4027:
3167:
2833:
2230:distinguished between "force" and "inclination" (
205:, and challenged classical Greek medical theory.
6640:
2622:
2585:
2063:, and drew attention to the poisonous nature of
2007:in the Islamic world encouraged developments in
1112:. Other subjects of scientific inquiry included
116:. Other subjects of scientific inquiry included
4451:Studies in the exact sciences in medieval Islam
4093:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 23, 56.
3907:
3901:
3679:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 189–218.
3677:A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen's Optics
1744:began to emerge around the 10th century in the
1071:Islamic science survived the initial Christian
4056:. Vol. 2. Brill Publishers. p. 203.
3911:Clinical trials: design, conduct, and analysis
3504:
2842:
2409:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe
6175:
4660:
4563:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
4542:
4398:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
4394:
4375:
4319:
3170:Episodes in the Mathematics of Medieval Islam
2983:
2597:
1262:, predicting events affecting human life and
886:
4036:The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia
3908:Meinert, Curtis L.; Tonascia, Susan (1986).
3620:Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History
3168:Hogendijk, Jan P.; Berggren, J. L. (1989). "
2959:
2957:
2955:
2843:Karpenko, Vladimír; Norris, John A. (2002).
2290:. Advances on the subject were also made by
2115:De Medicinis universalibus et particularibus
1468:from many existing but fragmentary sources.
1440:
2782:Weisser, Ursula (1980). Spies, Otto (ed.).
2710:Weisser, Ursula (1980). Spies, Otto (ed.).
2602:
1863:
1661:and the first description of the method of
1463:Geography and cartography in medieval Islam
1316:as a separate field, and compiled the most
1304:(1201–1274) wrote an important revision to
6599:
6182:
6168:
4667:
4653:
4224:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science
4033:
3944:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
3832:
3641:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler
3537:. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 39.
3510:
3427:, in J. P. Hogendijk; A. I. Sabra (eds.),
3300:
2680:
1858:the circulation of blood through the lungs
1221:
893:
879:
197:. Islamic doctors described diseases like
4181:
4013:
3422:
2952:
2819:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
2180:'s treatise on mechanical devices, c. 850
1653:(801–873) worked on cryptography for the
1374:in the Islamic world with his six-volume
1266:such as going to war or founding a city.
1214:by 13th-century Latin alchemists such as
4088:
3976:
3970:
3744:
3709:
3671:
3643:. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
3638:
3632:
3213:. 7. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
3174:Journal of the American Oriental Society
2969:
2874:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2631:
2421:science with their contributions to the
2391:(Ibn Rushd) commented on and criticised
2305:
2168:
2153:for determining the efficacy of medical
1986:teaching the use of drugs. 15th-century
1978:
1895:
1867:
1767:
1610:
1547:
1488:(1100–1166) drew a map of the world for
1444:
1421:(also called Abū l-Khayr al-Ishbīlī) of
1333:
1225:
1131:
1058:
904:
37:
4613:"How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs"
4395:Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996).
4378:Science and Technology in World History
4121:
3749:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
3335:
3072:
2781:
2709:
2676:
2674:
2557:
1943:. He used the law to produce the first
1681:(835–901) calculated the solution to a
1618:'s "Cubic equation and intersection of
1242:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
1160:("The Secret of Creation", c. 750–850,
1088:1299–1922), centred in Turkey, and the
14:
6641:
6189:
4415:
4353:
4334:
4077:
4042:
4023:. University of St. Andrews, Scotland.
3941:
3858:
3782:
3733:
3615:
3609:
3578:
3566:
3499:
3487:
3475:
3463:
3451:
3402:
3390:
3378:
3366:
3289:
3231:
3156:
3115:
3103:
3032:
2995:
2964:
2947:
2935:
2918:
2907:
2895:
2866:
2811:
2746:
2666:
2654:
2551:
2413:Latin translations of the 12th century
1792:Medicine in the medieval Islamic world
1323:
1284:(1028–1087) developed a more accurate
235:
6649:Science in the medieval Islamic world
6163:
5905:
5673:
5289:
4648:
4526:Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences
4275:
4217:
4103:
4048:
3892:
3273:
3242:
3236:
2845:"Vitriol in the History of Chemistry"
2186:Physics in the medieval Islamic world
1729:correctly to 17 significant figures.
1306:Ptolemy's 2nd-century celestial model
1256:, the direction to face during prayer
1168:), and in the writings attributed to
58:Science in the medieval Islamic world
5674:
5290:
4511:
4258:, p. 162–186. Simon & Schuster.
3126:
3052:. Bodleian Library. pp. 61–63.
2671:
2234:); he claimed that an object gained
2113:more than fifty times, appearing as
2031:provides instructions for preparing
1264:selecting suitable times for actions
1095:
50:to model the not perfectly circular
6659:Medieval history of the Middle East
4034:Nasr, S. H.; Razavi, M. A. (1996).
3762:
2615:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2509:Indian influence on Islamic science
1417:(The Court of Agriculture), and by
24:
4439:
3956:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37219.x
3833:Al-Khalili, Jim (4 January 2009).
3745:Ackerman, James S. (August 1991),
3624:. Yale University Press. pp.
3511:Al-Khalili, Jim (4 January 2009).
3211:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
2567:. University of Chicago. pp.
1725:to calculate roots. He calculated
1044:knowledge, including the works of
25:
6675:
6220:History and philosophy of science
4606:
3710:El-Bizri, Nader (30 March 2011).
3567:2009, pp.47–48, 59, 96–97, 171–72
3533:Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa (2010).
2529:Islamic attitudes towards science
1832:, arguing that it was effective.
1685:involving an exponential series.
964:, and successfully displaced the
6622:
6621:
6609:
6598:
6228:
6144:
6143:
6132:
5653:Schools of islamic jurisprudence
4843:Timeline of the history of Islam
4674:
4227:. Bloomsbury. pp. 354–355.
3859:Gorini, Rosanna (October 2003).
2975:
2810:p. 46. On Newton's alchemy, see
2487:
2473:
2459:
2373:(died 850), and commented on by
1521:
860:
259:
6004:List of ex-Muslim organisations
4495:Islamic Science And Engineering
4471:; Sabra, Abdelhamid I. (2003).
4335:Linton, Christopher M. (2004).
4241:
4211:
4202:
4175:
4162:
4115:
4097:
4082:
4070:
3886:
3852:
3826:
3801:
3738:
3703:
3665:
3596:
3583:
3571:
3559:
3526:
3492:
3480:
3468:
3456:
3444:
3416:
3407:
3395:
3383:
3371:
3329:
3294:
3282:
3224:
3200:
3161:
3149:
3127:Meri, Josef W. (January 2006).
3120:
3108:
3096:
3066:
3037:
3025:
3000:
2988:
2940:
2928:
2912:
2900:
2888:
2859:
2775:
2402:
2047:, describing chemicals such as
1974:
1892:Ophthalmology in medieval Islam
1407:Muhammad bin Ibrāhīm Ibn Bassāl
1152:sulfur-mercury theory of metals
1002:Islamic culture inherited Greek
4497:. Edinburgh University Press.
4339:. Cambridge University Press.
4313:
3795:Ibn Al-Haythams Weg Zur Physik
2740:
2659:
2647:
2129:(c. 997 – 1074) respectively.
1543:
13:
1:
4550:. Cambridge University Press.
4546:; Shank, M. H., eds. (2013).
4528:. Syracuse University Press.
4519:. Cambridge University Press.
4424:. University of Texas Press.
4380:(2 ed.). Johns Hopkins.
2545:
2215:
2102:
2067:compounds, especially copper
2043:, in the 10th century, wrote
1936:
1877:
1820:
1807:such as on the theory of the
1781:
1772:A coloured illustration from
1690:
1670:
1565:Mathematics in medieval Islam
1509:
1085:
5989:Apostasy in Islam by country
5856:Liberalism and progressivism
4566:. Vol. 2–3. Routledge.
4359:Science and Islam: A History
3835:"The 'first true scientist'"
3779:. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
3513:"The 'first true scientist'"
3431:, MIT Press, pp. 3–22,
3050:Medieval Views of the Cosmos
2519:History of Islamic economics
2514:History of scientific method
2245:Newton's first law of motion
2109:(1008–1074) were printed in
1435:Arab Agricultural Revolution
1330:Arab Agricultural Revolution
1318:accurate astronomical tables
1296:, discovered that the Sun's
1018:Arab Agricultural Revolution
7:
6571:Neurology and neurosurgery
4524:Kennedy, Edward S. (1983).
3639:Lindberg, David C. (1976).
3591:European Journal of Physics
2452:
2055:. He distinguished between
1763:
1760:used throughout the world.
1734:Hindu–Arabic numeral system
1631:Hindu–Arabic numeral system
1538:, upside-down, north at top
1320:available up to that time.
1246:Cosmology in medieval Islam
434:("Stories of the Prophets")
10:
6680:
6664:Science in the Middle Ages
5906:
4639:Science Creative Quarterly
4416:Turner, Howard R. (1997).
4401:. Vol. 3. Routledge.
4328:
4091:Science in the Middle Ages
3999:10.1088/0031-9120/40/2/002
2982:, in Morelon & Rashed
2641:Cambridge University Press
2406:
2369:The book was mentioned by
2325:
2301:
2183:
2164:
2013:Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi
1992:
1885:
1789:
1562:
1460:
1449:Surviving fragment of the
1366:across the Islamic world.
1327:
1239:
1135:
945:
28:
6594:
6541:
6508:
6460:
6407:
6369:
6293:
6237:
6226:
6197:
6127:
6012:
5979:
5919:
5915:
5901:
5828:
5795:
5767:Geography and cartography
5742:
5689:
5685:
5669:
5495:
5417:
5364:
5313:
5309:
5285:
5155:
4979:
4939:
4822:
4774:
4698:
4694:
4683:
4320:Lindberg & Shank 2013
4254:The Story of Civilization
3895:Early Arabic Pharmacology
3350:10.1080/0161-119291866801
3303:The American Statistician
3172:by J. Lennart Berggren".
2288:Book of Ingenious Devices
2278:Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī
2178:Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir
1923:(809–873) wrote the book
1441:Geography and cartography
1425:in his 12th century book
1403:(The Wonders of Creation)
1126:geography and cartography
130:geography and cartography
18:Science in medieval Islam
6086:Islamic view of miracles
4449:; Stroyls, J.J. (1984).
4307:
4182:Contadini, Anna (2012).
4128:. Brill. pp. 288–.
4122:Hoffman, Eva R. (2013).
4089:Lindberg, David (1978).
4021:"Biography of Al-Biruni"
3423:Kunitzsch, Paul (2003),
3403:2009, pp.5, 104, 145–146
2346:(كتاب الحيوان, English:
2123:Medicamentis simplicibus
1950:In the eleventh century
1925:Ten Treatises on the Eye
1864:Optics and ophthalmology
1419:Ibn al-'Awwam al-Ishbīlī
1075:, including the fall of
523:Medieval Islamic science
165:, and geography enabled
6285:20th century in science
6280:19th century in science
5841:Creationism (evolution)
4284:Oxford University Press
4276:Lewis, Bernard (2001).
3916:Oxford University Press
3082:. Columbia University.
2761:10.1179/174582306X93183
2708:vol. II, p. 1, note 1;
2667:1997, Table of contents
2433:approach to scientific
2393:On the Parts of Animals
2360:On the Parts of Animals
2210:. In the sixth century
2121:(died 1015) and as the
2017:Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi
1988:Great Canon of Avicenna
1742:Eastern Arabic numerals
1633:and the development of
1222:Astronomy and cosmology
6205:Theories and sociology
6101:Persecution of Muslims
5999:List of former Muslims
4848:Succession to Muhammad
4491:Hill, Donald Routledge
4447:Al-Daffa, Ali Abdullah
3616:Dallal, Ahmad (2010).
3315:10.1198/tas.2011.10191
2978:Botany and agriculture
2323:
2284:The Banu Musa brothers
2181:
1990:
1969:Renaissance scientists
1916:
1909:scientific methodology
1883:
1811:, and the theories of
1787:
1623:
1560:
1474:Figures of the Regions
1458:
1370:(815–896) popularised
1359:
1237:
1233:'s explanation of the
1068:
943:
533:Succession to Muhammad
54:
52:motions of the planets
6265:Scientific Revolution
5885:Conversion to mosques
5752:Alchemy and chemistry
4268:Garrison, Fielding H.
2796:10.1515/9783110866933
2724:10.1515/9783110866933
2443:scientific revolution
2407:Further information:
2397:Generation of Animals
2364:Generation of Animals
2326:Further information:
2309:
2172:
2094:The Canon of Medicine
2079:(973–1050) wrote the
1993:Further information:
1982:
1903:(Alhazen), (965–1039
1899:
1872:The eye according to
1871:
1845:The Canon of Medicine
1771:
1614:
1551:
1448:
1337:
1328:Further information:
1229:
1132:Alchemy and chemistry
1118:alchemy and chemistry
1062:
992:were translated into
946:Further information:
908:
118:alchemy and chemistry
41:
6518:Agricultural science
6270:Age of Enlightenment
5611:Ma malakat aymanukum
5186:Association football
5085:Moderate Kharijites
3606:81, p. 464–491, 1990
3135:. pp. 484–485.
3079:Encyclopædia Iranica
3046:Savage-Smith, Emilie
2908:2009, pp.74, 148–150
2266:Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī
2141:(1197–1248), in his
1723:method like Horner's
1514:Christopher Columbus
1401:ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt
1302:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
572:Association football
6556:Veterinary medicine
6250:Classical Antiquity
4219:Leroi, Armand Marie
3991:2005PhyEd..40..139E
3593:16, p. 14–20, 1995.
3464:2009, pp.74, 99–105
2643:. pp. 228–229.
2596:McClellan and Dorn
2447:Early modern Europe
2429:, experimental and
2380:The Book of Healing
2350:) is a 9th-century
2338:Aristotle's zoology
2099:Masawaih al-Mardini
2061:potassium carbonate
1995:History of pharmacy
1738:fī l-ḥisāb al hindī
1707:quadratic equations
1647:quadratic equations
1484:(now in Pakistan).
1476:(Suwar al-aqalim).
1396:Zakariya al-Qazwini
1356:Wonders of Creation
1351:Zakariya al-Qazwini
1324:Botany and agronomy
1308:. When Tusi became
1166:Apollonius of Tyana
1073:reconquest of Spain
333:Profession of Faith
306:Day of Resurrection
236:Context and history
225:'s view of motion.
6654:Islamic Golden Age
6191:History of science
6106:Quran and miracles
6020:Criticism of Islam
5724:Geometric patterns
5576:Gender segregation
5147:Non-denominational
4252:The Age of Faith (
3893:Levey, M. (1973).
2868:Newman, William R.
2813:Newman, William R.
2524:Islamic philosophy
2495:Middle Ages portal
2377:(Ibn Sīnā) in his
2356:History of Animals
2324:
2182:
2174:Self trimming lamp
2143:Al-Jami fi al-Tibb
1991:
1917:
1884:
1788:
1752:(sometimes called
1683:chessboard problem
1663:frequency analysis
1651:Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi
1639:Euclidean geometry
1624:
1561:
1470:Abu Zayd al-Balkhi
1459:
1433:that fed into the
1360:
1238:
1235:phases of the moon
1200:organic substances
1162:falsely attributed
1069:
1038:Sasanian (Persian)
982:Islamic Golden Age
944:
167:Abu Zayd al-Balkhi
62:Islamic Golden Age
55:
6636:
6635:
6528:Materials science
6490:Political science
6255:Medieval European
6157:
6156:
6123:
6122:
6119:
6118:
6091:Domestic violence
6081:Islamic terrorism
6076:Islamic extremism
5897:
5896:
5893:
5892:
5665:
5664:
5661:
5660:
5451:Marriage contract
5281:
5280:
5241:Political aspects
4970:Story of Prophets
4739:Prophets of Islam
4633:Habibi, Golareh.
4595:978-0-262-19557-7
4573:978-0-415-02063-3
4535:978-0-8156-6067-5
4504:978-0-7486-0455-5
4482:978-0-262-19482-2
4469:Hogendijk, Jan P.
4460:978-0-471-90320-8
4431:978-0-292-78149-8
4408:978-0-415-12410-2
4387:978-0-8018-8360-6
4368:978-1-785-78202-2
4346:978-0-521-82750-8
4297:978-0-19-514420-8
4264:978-0-671-01200-7
4234:978-1-4088-3622-4
4195:978-90-04-22265-6
4188:. Leiden: Brill.
4135:978-90-04-25034-5
4063:978-965-223-626-5
3979:Physics Education
3925:978-0-19-503568-1
3756:978-0-262-01122-8
3714:. Muslim Heritage
3650:978-0-226-48234-7
3544:978-0-393-70607-9
3438:978-0-262-19482-2
3219:978-0-684-16962-0
3142:978-0-415-96691-7
3089:978-1-56859-050-9
3059:978-1-851-24184-2
2881:978-0-226-57524-7
2826:978-0-691-17487-7
2805:978-3-11-007333-1
2733:978-3-11-007333-1
2695:978-3-487-09115-0
2633:Robinson, Francis
2578:978-0-226-34683-0
2559:Hodgson, Marshall
2504:Continuity thesis
2423:scientific method
2119:Mesue the Younger
2105:925–1015) and by
2085:The Book of Drugs
2081:Kitab al-Saydalah
1965:scientific method
1719:decimal fractions
1675:casting out nines
1655:Abbasid Caliphate
1192:ammonium chloride
1154:, first found in
1096:Fields of inquiry
1065:Abbasid Caliphate
996:and occasionally
986:Abbasid Caliphate
980:in the east. The
970:Byzantine Empires
910:Islamic expansion
903:
902:
833:Deobandi jihadism
230:Mediterranean Sea
181:made advances in
66:Abbasid Caliphate
48:Nasir al-Din Tusi
16:(Redirected from
6671:
6629:
6625:
6624:
6617:
6613:
6602:
6601:
6523:Computer science
6371:Natural sciences
6336:Medieval Islamic
6232:
6184:
6177:
6170:
6161:
6160:
6147:
6146:
6139:Islam portal
6137:
6136:
6135:
5917:
5916:
5909:
5903:
5902:
5744:Medieval science
5687:
5686:
5677:
5671:
5670:
5328:Economic history
5311:
5310:
5287:
5286:
5273:Islam by country
5058:Bektashi Alevism
4696:
4695:
4687:Outline of Islam
4669:
4662:
4655:
4646:
4645:
4630:
4599:
4577:
4556:Morelon, Régis;
4551:
4539:
4520:
4508:
4486:
4464:
4435:
4423:
4412:
4391:
4372:
4350:
4323:
4317:
4302:
4301:
4245:
4239:
4238:
4215:
4209:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4179:
4173:
4170:Parts of Animals
4166:
4160:
4159:
4153:
4149:
4147:
4139:
4119:
4113:
4112:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4086:
4080:
4078:2009, pp.161–163
4074:
4068:
4067:
4046:
4040:
4039:
4031:
4025:
4024:
4017:
4011:
4010:
3974:
3968:
3967:
3939:
3930:
3929:
3905:
3899:
3898:
3890:
3884:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3865:
3856:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3845:
3830:
3824:
3823:
3821:
3820:
3811:. Archived from
3805:
3799:
3786:
3780:
3766:
3760:
3759:
3742:
3736:
3734:2009, pp.173–175
3730:
3724:
3723:
3721:
3719:
3712:"Ibn al-Haytham"
3707:
3701:
3700:
3694:
3690:
3688:
3680:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3636:
3630:
3629:
3623:
3613:
3607:
3600:
3594:
3587:
3581:
3575:
3569:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3530:
3524:
3523:
3508:
3502:
3500:1997, pp.131–139
3496:
3490:
3488:2009, pp.110–111
3484:
3478:
3476:2009, pp.108–109
3472:
3466:
3460:
3454:
3452:1997, pp.131–161
3448:
3442:
3441:
3420:
3414:
3411:
3405:
3399:
3393:
3391:2009, pp.148–149
3387:
3381:
3375:
3369:
3367:2009, pp.104–105
3363:
3354:
3353:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3298:
3292:
3286:
3280:
3277:
3271:
3269:
3240:
3234:
3232:2009, pp.139–145
3228:
3222:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3165:
3159:
3153:
3147:
3146:
3124:
3118:
3116:1997, pp.128–129
3112:
3106:
3100:
3094:
3093:
3070:
3064:
3063:
3041:
3035:
3033:1997, pp.117–130
3029:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3004:
2998:
2996:1997, pp.162–188
2992:
2986:
2984:1996, pp.813–852
2981:
2973:
2967:
2965:1997, pp.138–139
2961:
2950:
2948:2009, pp.132–135
2944:
2938:
2932:
2926:
2916:
2910:
2904:
2898:
2892:
2886:
2885:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2840:
2831:
2830:
2809:
2779:
2773:
2772:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2707:
2678:
2669:
2663:
2657:
2651:
2645:
2644:
2629:
2620:
2619:
2618:. 17 March 2015.
2606:
2600:
2598:2006, pp.103–115
2594:
2583:
2582:
2555:
2497:
2492:
2491:
2483:
2478:
2477:
2469:
2464:
2463:
2462:
2387:(Ibn Bājja) and
2343:Kitāb al-Hayawān
2328:Kitāb al-Hayawān
2312:Kitāb al-Hayawān
2224:
2220:
2217:
2104:
2057:sodium carbonate
2035:from which were
2029:Liber servitoris
1938:
1929:Abbas ibn Firnas
1921:Hunayn ibn Ishaq
1882:
1879:
1874:Hunayn ibn Ishaq
1822:
1786:
1783:
1711:Jamshīd al-Kāshī
1692:
1679:Thābit ibn Qurra
1672:
1535:Tabula Rogeriana
1525:
1511:
1495:Tabula Rogeriana
1353:'s 13th century
1272:Tables of Toledo
1188:Abu Bakr al-Razi
1170:Jabir ibn Hayyan
1087:
976:in the west and
948:History of Islam
936:
929:Rashidun caliphs
926:
916:
895:
888:
881:
867:Islam portal
865:
864:
863:
263:
240:
239:
215:medicinal plants
179:Jamshīd al-Kāshī
31:Islamic sciences
21:
6679:
6678:
6674:
6673:
6672:
6670:
6669:
6668:
6639:
6638:
6637:
6632:
6620:
6608:
6590:
6537:
6504:
6462:Social sciences
6456:
6403:
6365:
6289:
6233:
6224:
6193:
6188:
6158:
6153:
6133:
6131:
6115:
6037:Cultural Muslim
6008:
5975:
5921:Other religions
5911:
5907:
5889:
5824:
5791:
5738:
5681:
5679:Islamic studies
5675:
5657:
5491:
5436:
5413:
5360:
5305:
5304:
5277:
5226:Moral teachings
5169:
5151:
5125:Nation of Islam
5038:Twelver Shi'ism
4975:
4941:Religious texts
4935:
4853:Early conquests
4836:
4818:
4770:
4690:
4679:
4673:
4621:
4617:De Lacy O'Leary
4609:
4603:
4596:
4580:
4574:
4555:
4544:Lindberg, D. C.
4536:
4523:
4505:
4489:
4483:
4467:
4461:
4445:
4442:
4440:Further reading
4432:
4409:
4388:
4369:
4347:
4331:
4326:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4305:
4298:
4246:
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3787:
3783:
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3757:
3743:
3739:
3731:
3727:
3717:
3715:
3708:
3704:
3692:
3691:
3682:
3681:
3673:El-Bizri, Nader
3670:
3666:
3651:
3637:
3633:
3614:
3610:
3601:
3597:
3588:
3584:
3576:
3572:
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3299:
3295:
3287:
3283:
3278:
3274:
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3229:
3225:
3205:
3201:
3166:
3162:
3154:
3150:
3143:
3125:
3121:
3113:
3109:
3101:
3097:
3090:
3071:
3067:
3060:
3042:
3038:
3030:
3026:
3016:
3014:
3006:
3005:
3001:
2993:
2989:
2974:
2970:
2962:
2953:
2945:
2941:
2933:
2929:
2917:
2913:
2905:
2901:
2896:1997, pp.59–116
2893:
2889:
2882:
2864:
2860:
2855:(12): 997–1005.
2841:
2834:
2827:
2806:
2780:
2776:
2745:
2741:
2734:
2718:. p. 199.
2696:
2679:
2672:
2664:
2660:
2652:
2648:
2630:
2623:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2595:
2586:
2579:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2543:
2493:
2486:
2479:
2472:
2465:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2415:
2405:
2354:translation of
2348:Book of Animals
2330:
2322:. Ninth century
2316:Book of Animals
2304:
2254:Book of Healing
2225:) rejected the
2222:
2218:
2212:John Philoponus
2188:
2167:
2151:clinical trials
2049:arsenious oxide
1997:
1977:
1945:Aspheric lenses
1915:of its results.
1913:reproducibility
1894:
1886:Main articles:
1880:
1866:
1794:
1784:
1766:
1758:Arabic numerals
1588:trigonometrical
1567:
1546:
1539:
1528:Modern copy of
1526:
1465:
1451:first World Map
1443:
1427:Kitāb al-Filāha
1415:Dīwān al-filāha
1332:
1326:
1248:
1240:Main articles:
1224:
1184:Sirr al-khalīqa
1157:Sirr al-khalīqa
1140:
1134:
1098:
950:
942:
939:Umayyad caliphs
934:
932:
924:
922:
914:
899:
861:
859:
852:
851:
828:Salafi jihadism
786:Other religions
781:Arabic language
743:
733:
732:
661:Moral teachings
552:
538:
537:
528:Spread of Islam
473:
463:
462:
450:(jurisprudence)
432:Qisas al-Anbiya
381:
380:
360:
359:
328:
318:
317:
273:
238:
195:Arabic numerals
34:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6677:
6667:
6666:
6661:
6656:
6651:
6634:
6633:
6631:
6630:
6618:
6606:
6595:
6592:
6591:
6589:
6588:
6583:
6578:
6573:
6568:
6563:
6558:
6553:
6551:Human medicine
6547:
6545:
6539:
6538:
6536:
6535:
6530:
6525:
6520:
6514:
6512:
6506:
6505:
6503:
6502:
6497:
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6487:
6482:
6477:
6472:
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6464:
6458:
6457:
6455:
6454:
6449:
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6439:
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6419:
6413:
6411:
6405:
6404:
6402:
6401:
6396:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6375:
6373:
6367:
6366:
6364:
6363:
6358:
6353:
6348:
6343:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6323:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6303:
6297:
6295:
6291:
6290:
6288:
6287:
6282:
6277:
6272:
6267:
6262:
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6252:
6247:
6241:
6239:
6235:
6234:
6227:
6225:
6223:
6222:
6217:
6212:
6210:Historiography
6207:
6201:
6199:
6195:
6194:
6187:
6186:
6179:
6172:
6164:
6155:
6154:
6152:
6151:
6141:
6128:
6125:
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6121:
6120:
6117:
6116:
6114:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6078:
6073:
6072:
6071:
6061:
6060:
6059:
6054:
6049:
6039:
6034:
6033:
6032:
6027:
6016:
6014:
6013:Related topics
6010:
6009:
6007:
6006:
6001:
5996:
5991:
5985:
5983:
5977:
5976:
5974:
5973:
5968:
5963:
5958:
5953:
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5898:
5895:
5894:
5891:
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5888:
5887:
5882:
5875:
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5869:
5868:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5832:
5830:
5826:
5825:
5823:
5822:
5817:
5812:
5807:
5801:
5799:
5793:
5792:
5790:
5789:
5784:
5779:
5774:
5769:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5748:
5746:
5740:
5739:
5737:
5736:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5716:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5695:
5693:
5683:
5682:
5667:
5666:
5663:
5662:
5659:
5658:
5656:
5655:
5650:
5649:
5648:
5636:
5634:Sources of law
5631:
5626:
5625:
5624:
5614:
5607:
5602:
5595:
5590:
5583:
5578:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5541:
5534:
5533:
5532:
5527:
5522:
5512:
5507:
5499:
5497:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5489:
5482:
5475:
5468:
5461:
5454:
5447:
5439:
5437:
5435:
5434:
5429:
5424:
5418:
5415:
5414:
5412:
5411:
5404:
5399:
5392:
5385:
5378:
5370:
5368:
5362:
5361:
5359:
5358:
5351:
5344:
5337:
5330:
5325:
5319:
5317:
5307:
5306:
5303:
5302:
5297:
5291:
5283:
5282:
5279:
5278:
5276:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5258:Social welfare
5255:
5250:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5172:
5170:
5168:
5167:
5162:
5156:
5153:
5152:
5150:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5138:
5137:
5127:
5122:
5121:
5120:
5115:
5114:
5113:
5108:
5107:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5083:
5069:
5068:
5067:
5062:
5061:
5060:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5030:
5025:
5024:
5023:
5022:
5021:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4985:
4983:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4973:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4945:
4943:
4937:
4936:
4934:
4933:
4932:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4901:
4896:
4884:
4879:
4872:
4865:
4863:Historiography
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4839:
4837:
4835:
4834:
4829:
4823:
4820:
4819:
4817:
4816:
4809:
4802:
4795:
4788:
4780:
4778:
4772:
4771:
4769:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4735:
4734:
4724:
4717:
4716:
4715:
4704:
4702:
4692:
4691:
4684:
4681:
4680:
4672:
4671:
4664:
4657:
4649:
4643:
4642:
4631:
4623:Saliba, George
4619:
4608:
4607:External links
4605:
4601:
4600:
4594:
4582:Saliba, George
4578:
4572:
4558:Rashed, Roshdi
4553:
4540:
4534:
4521:
4509:
4503:
4487:
4481:
4465:
4459:
4441:
4438:
4437:
4436:
4430:
4413:
4407:
4392:
4386:
4373:
4367:
4361:. Icon Books.
4351:
4345:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4324:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4303:
4296:
4240:
4233:
4210:
4201:
4194:
4174:
4161:
4134:
4114:
4107:, ed. (1997).
4105:Selin, Helaine
4096:
4081:
4069:
4062:
4041:
4026:
4012:
3985:(2): 139–146.
3969:
3950:(1): 477–482.
3931:
3924:
3900:
3897:. E. J. Brill.
3885:
3851:
3825:
3800:
3781:
3761:
3755:
3737:
3725:
3702:
3664:
3649:
3631:
3608:
3595:
3582:
3579:2009, pp.71–73
3570:
3558:
3543:
3525:
3503:
3491:
3479:
3467:
3455:
3443:
3437:
3415:
3406:
3394:
3382:
3379:2009, pp.48–49
3370:
3355:
3328:
3309:(4): 255–257.
3293:
3290:2009, pp.49–52
3281:
3272:
3259:10.1086/368426
3235:
3223:
3207:Toomer, Gerald
3199:
3186:10.2307/604119
3180:(4): 697–698.
3160:
3157:1997, pp.43–61
3148:
3141:
3119:
3107:
3104:2009, pp.79–80
3095:
3088:
3074:Pingree, David
3065:
3058:
3036:
3024:
2999:
2987:
2976:Fahd, Toufic,
2968:
2951:
2939:
2936:2009, pp.73–75
2927:
2911:
2899:
2887:
2880:
2858:
2849:Chemické listy
2832:
2825:
2804:
2774:
2739:
2732:
2694:
2670:
2658:
2646:
2635:, ed. (1996).
2621:
2601:
2584:
2577:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2498:
2484:
2481:Science portal
2470:
2454:
2451:
2404:
2401:
2310:Page from the
2303:
2300:
2184:Main article:
2166:
2163:
2131:Peter of Abano
2071:, and also of
1976:
1973:
1956:Book of Optics
1952:Ibn al-Haytham
1901:Ibn al-Haytham
1865:
1862:
1826:life processes
1790:Main article:
1765:
1762:
1715:law of cosines
1709:still in use.
1620:conic sections
1563:Main article:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1527:
1520:
1461:Main article:
1442:
1439:
1398:(1203–1283) –
1380:Book of Plants
1376:Kitab al-Nabat
1325:
1322:
1258:. Another was
1223:
1220:
1175:Emerald Tablet
1136:Main article:
1133:
1130:
1097:
1094:
1090:Safavid Empire
1082:Ottoman Empire
990:Islamic empire
933:
923:
913:
901:
900:
898:
897:
890:
883:
875:
872:
871:
870:
869:
854:
853:
850:
849:
843:
842:
841:
840:
835:
830:
825:
815:
810:
809:
808:
803:
793:
788:
783:
777:
776:
775:
774:
769:
764:
756:
755:
750:
744:
741:Related topics
739:
738:
735:
734:
731:
730:
725:
723:Social welfare
720:
715:
714:
713:
703:
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
633:
628:
623:
618:
617:
616:
611:
601:
600:
599:
589:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
553:
544:
543:
540:
539:
536:
535:
530:
525:
520:
515:
509:
508:
501:
494:
486:
485:
480:
474:
469:
468:
465:
464:
461:
460:
452:
443:
442:
436:
428:
420:
411:
410:
390:
382:
379:
378:
373:
367:
366:
365:
362:
361:
358:
357:
352:
347:
341:
340:
335:
329:
324:
323:
320:
319:
316:
315:
313:Predestination
309:
308:
303:
297:
296:
294:Revealed Books
291:
285:
284:
274:
269:
268:
265:
264:
256:
255:
249:
248:
237:
234:
219:Ibn Al-Haytham
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6676:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6646:
6644:
6628:
6619:
6616:
6612:
6607:
6605:
6597:
6596:
6593:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6562:
6559:
6557:
6554:
6552:
6549:
6548:
6546:
6544:
6540:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6526:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6516:
6515:
6513:
6511:
6507:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6467:
6465:
6463:
6459:
6453:
6450:
6448:
6445:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6427:Combinatorics
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6414:
6412:
6410:
6406:
6400:
6397:
6395:
6394:Earth science
6392:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6376:
6374:
6372:
6368:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6298:
6296:
6292:
6286:
6283:
6281:
6278:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6245:Ancient world
6243:
6242:
6240:
6236:
6231:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6215:Pseudoscience
6213:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6202:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6185:
6180:
6178:
6173:
6171:
6166:
6165:
6162:
6150:
6142:
6140:
6130:
6129:
6126:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6104:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6070:
6067:
6066:
6065:
6062:
6058:
6055:
6053:
6052:Post-Islamism
6050:
6048:
6045:
6044:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6035:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6022:
6021:
6018:
6017:
6015:
6011:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5986:
5984:
5982:
5978:
5972:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
5945:
5944:Protestantism
5942:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5931:
5930:
5927:
5926:
5924:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5904:
5900:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5880:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5867:
5864:
5863:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5833:
5831:
5827:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5806:
5803:
5802:
5800:
5798:
5794:
5788:
5785:
5783:
5782:Ophthalmology
5780:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5753:
5750:
5749:
5747:
5745:
5741:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5700:
5697:
5696:
5694:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5672:
5668:
5654:
5651:
5647:
5646:
5642:
5641:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5623:
5620:
5619:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5612:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5600:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5588:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5546:
5542:
5540:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5530:Death penalty
5528:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5517:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5505:
5501:
5500:
5498:
5496:Other aspects
5494:
5488:
5487:
5483:
5481:
5480:
5476:
5474:
5473:
5469:
5467:
5466:
5462:
5460:
5459:
5455:
5453:
5452:
5448:
5446:
5445:
5441:
5440:
5438:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5419:
5416:
5410:
5409:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5397:
5393:
5391:
5390:
5386:
5384:
5383:
5379:
5377:
5376:
5372:
5371:
5369:
5367:
5363:
5357:
5356:
5352:
5350:
5349:
5345:
5343:
5342:
5338:
5336:
5335:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5301:
5300:Jurisprudence
5298:
5296:
5293:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5248:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5173:
5171:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5157:
5154:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5136:
5133:
5132:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5119:
5116:
5112:
5109:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5091:
5090:
5087:
5086:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5078:
5077:
5073:
5070:
5066:
5063:
5059:
5056:
5055:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5035:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5020:
5017:
5016:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4987:
4986:
4984:
4982:
4981:Denominations
4978:
4972:
4971:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4946:
4944:
4942:
4938:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4894:
4890:
4889:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4877:
4873:
4871:
4870:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4840:
4838:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4824:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4810:
4808:
4807:
4803:
4801:
4800:
4796:
4794:
4793:
4789:
4787:
4786:
4782:
4781:
4779:
4777:
4773:
4767:
4766:Holiest sites
4764:
4762:
4761:Judgement Day
4759:
4757:
4756:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4733:
4730:
4729:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4711:
4710:
4709:
4706:
4705:
4703:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4688:
4682:
4677:
4670:
4665:
4663:
4658:
4656:
4651:
4650:
4647:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4618:
4614:
4611:
4610:
4604:
4597:
4591:
4588:. MIT Press.
4587:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4569:
4565:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4531:
4527:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4478:
4475:. MIT Press.
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4443:
4433:
4427:
4422:
4421:
4414:
4410:
4404:
4400:
4399:
4393:
4389:
4383:
4379:
4374:
4370:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4355:Masood, Ehsan
4352:
4348:
4342:
4338:
4333:
4332:
4321:
4316:
4312:
4299:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4280:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4255:
4249:
4244:
4236:
4230:
4226:
4225:
4220:
4214:
4205:
4197:
4191:
4187:
4186:
4178:
4171:
4165:
4157:
4145:
4137:
4131:
4127:
4126:
4118:
4110:
4106:
4100:
4092:
4085:
4079:
4073:
4065:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4050:Pines, Shlomo
4045:
4037:
4030:
4022:
4016:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3973:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3938:
3936:
3927:
3921:
3918:. p. 3.
3917:
3913:
3912:
3904:
3896:
3889:
3873:
3869:
3862:
3855:
3840:
3836:
3829:
3815:on 2014-10-01
3814:
3810:
3804:
3797:
3796:
3790:
3785:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3765:
3758:
3752:
3748:
3741:
3735:
3729:
3713:
3706:
3698:
3686:
3678:
3674:
3668:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3646:
3642:
3635:
3627:
3622:
3621:
3612:
3605:
3599:
3592:
3586:
3580:
3574:
3568:
3562:
3555:
3553:
3546:
3540:
3536:
3529:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3507:
3501:
3495:
3489:
3483:
3477:
3471:
3465:
3459:
3453:
3447:
3440:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3419:
3410:
3404:
3398:
3392:
3386:
3380:
3374:
3368:
3362:
3360:
3351:
3347:
3344:(2): 97–126.
3343:
3339:
3332:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3297:
3291:
3285:
3276:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3247:
3239:
3233:
3227:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3203:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3164:
3158:
3152:
3144:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3123:
3117:
3111:
3105:
3099:
3091:
3085:
3081:
3080:
3075:
3069:
3061:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3040:
3034:
3028:
3013:
3009:
3003:
2997:
2991:
2985:
2980:, p. 815
2979:
2972:
2966:
2960:
2958:
2956:
2949:
2943:
2937:
2931:
2924:
2920:
2919:Linton (2004)
2915:
2909:
2903:
2897:
2891:
2883:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2862:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2839:
2837:
2828:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2807:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2778:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2743:
2735:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2691:
2687:
2684:(1942–1943).
2683:
2677:
2675:
2668:
2662:
2656:
2650:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2626:
2617:
2616:
2611:
2605:
2599:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2580:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2565:
2560:
2554:
2550:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2534:Scholasticism
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2496:
2490:
2485:
2482:
2476:
2471:
2468:
2457:
2450:
2448:
2445:like that in
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2414:
2410:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2381:
2376:
2372:
2367:
2365:
2362:: 11–14, and
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2344:
2339:
2335:
2329:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2308:
2299:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2187:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2139:Ibn al-Baytar
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1996:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1972:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1875:
1870:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1846:
1841:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1800:
1793:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1761:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1721:, and with a
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1659:cryptanalysis
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1599:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1559:
1555:
1550:
1537:
1536:
1531:
1524:
1519:
1518:
1517:
1515:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1497:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1358:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1331:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1255:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1212:mineral acids
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1139:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1122:ophthalmology
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1093:
1091:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1055:
1054:Islamic world
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
949:
940:
930:
920:
911:
907:
896:
891:
889:
884:
882:
877:
876:
874:
873:
868:
858:
857:
856:
855:
848:
845:
844:
839:
838:Military laws
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
820:
819:
816:
814:
811:
807:
804:
802:
799:
798:
797:
794:
792:
789:
787:
784:
782:
779:
778:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
759:
758:
757:
754:
751:
749:
746:
745:
742:
737:
736:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
712:
709:
708:
707:
704:
702:
699:
697:
696:Proselytizing
694:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
615:
612:
610:
607:
606:
605:
604:Denominations
602:
598:
595:
594:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
554:
551:
547:
542:
541:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
510:
507:
506:
502:
500:
499:
495:
493:
492:
488:
487:
484:
481:
479:
476:
475:
472:
467:
466:
459:
457:
453:
451:
449:
445:
444:
440:
437:
435:
433:
429:
427:
425:
421:
419:
417:
413:
412:
408:
407:
402:
401:
396:
395:
391:
389:
388:
384:
383:
377:
374:
372:
369:
368:
364:
363:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
342:
339:
336:
334:
331:
330:
327:
322:
321:
314:
311:
310:
307:
304:
302:
299:
298:
295:
292:
290:
287:
286:
283:
279:
276:
275:
272:
267:
266:
262:
258:
257:
254:
251:
250:
246:
242:
241:
233:
231:
226:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
163:Ibn al-'Awwam
160:
156:
155:
149:
147:
143:
139:
135:
134:ophthalmology
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
53:
49:
45:
40:
36:
32:
27:
19:
6566:Neuroscience
6470:Anthropology
6452:Trigonometry
6335:
6064:Islamophobia
5929:Christianity
5877:
5810:Contemporary
5743:
5704:Architecture
5643:
5609:
5597:
5585:
5543:
5536:
5502:
5484:
5479:Nikah mut'ah
5477:
5470:
5463:
5456:
5449:
5442:
5406:
5394:
5387:
5380:
5373:
5353:
5346:
5339:
5332:
5245:
4968:
4892:
4874:
4867:
4811:
4804:
4797:
4790:
4783:
4776:Five Pillars
4753:
4719:
4708:God in Islam
4685:
4638:
4602:
4585:
4562:
4547:
4525:
4516:
4494:
4472:
4450:
4419:
4397:
4377:
4358:
4336:
4315:
4278:
4271:
4251:
4248:Durant, Will
4243:
4223:
4213:
4204:
4184:
4177:
4169:
4164:
4124:
4117:
4108:
4099:
4090:
4084:
4072:
4053:
4044:
4038:. Routledge.
4035:
4029:
4015:
3982:
3978:
3972:
3947:
3943:
3910:
3903:
3894:
3888:
3878:25 September
3876:. Retrieved
3871:
3867:
3854:
3844:24 September
3842:. Retrieved
3838:
3828:
3817:. Retrieved
3813:the original
3803:
3794:
3789:G. J. Toomer
3784:
3764:
3746:
3740:
3728:
3716:. Retrieved
3705:
3676:
3667:
3640:
3634:
3619:
3611:
3603:
3598:
3590:
3585:
3573:
3561:
3548:
3534:
3528:
3520:
3516:
3506:
3494:
3482:
3470:
3458:
3446:
3428:
3418:
3409:
3397:
3385:
3373:
3341:
3337:
3331:
3306:
3302:
3296:
3284:
3275:
3250:
3244:
3238:
3226:
3210:
3202:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3163:
3151:
3128:
3122:
3110:
3098:
3077:
3068:
3049:
3039:
3027:
3015:. Retrieved
3011:
3002:
2990:
2977:
2971:
2942:
2930:
2914:
2902:
2890:
2871:
2861:
2852:
2848:
2816:
2783:
2777:
2755:(1): 43–65.
2752:
2748:
2742:
2711:
2685:
2661:
2649:
2636:
2613:
2604:
2563:
2553:
2467:Islam portal
2431:quantitative
2419:experimental
2416:
2403:Significance
2396:
2392:
2378:
2368:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2347:
2341:
2331:
2315:
2311:
2282:
2269:
2261:
2259:
2253:
2249:Jean Buridan
2240:
2235:
2231:
2227:Aristotelian
2189:
2173:
2142:
2134:
2122:
2114:
2107:Ibn al-Wafid
2092:
2084:
2080:
2053:silicic acid
2044:
2028:
2025:distillation
2009:pharmacology
1999:Advances in
1998:
1987:
1975:Pharmacology
1955:
1949:
1924:
1918:
1853:
1850:Ibn al-Nafis
1843:
1837:
1830:bloodletting
1809:four humours
1797:
1795:
1777:
1753:
1737:
1731:
1703:Omar Khayyam
1698:
1697:in his book
1627:Al-Khwarizmi
1625:
1616:Omar Khayyam
1603:
1595:
1568:
1557:
1554:al-Khwarizmi
1552:A page from
1533:
1493:
1473:
1466:
1426:
1414:
1413:in his book
1400:
1392:plant growth
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1364:pharmacology
1361:
1355:
1314:trigonometry
1280:
1253:
1249:
1216:pseudo-Geber
1206:, and other
1196:sal ammoniac
1183:
1180:Isaac Newton
1173:
1155:
1141:
1099:
1070:
1014:high culture
978:Central Asia
951:
937: under
927: under
917: under
813:Islamophobia
592:Demographics
587:Circumcision
522:
503:
496:
489:
455:
447:
431:
423:
415:
404:
398:
392:
385:
227:
187:trigonometry
171:Al-Khwarizmi
152:
150:
138:pharmacology
57:
56:
35:
26:
6533:Engineering
6475:Archaeology
6442:Probability
6409:Mathematics
6275:Romanticism
6260:Renaissance
5934:Catholicism
5829:Other areas
5820:Theological
5815:Eschatology
5772:Mathematics
5709:Calligraphy
5639:Theological
5593:Inheritance
5510:Cleanliness
4882:Shi'a Imams
4876:Ahl al-Bayt
4256:, Volume 4)
4152:|work=
3693:|work=
3552:mathematics
3338:Cryptologia
3253:: 263–277,
3044:Edson, E.;
2682:Kraus, Paul
2147:Dioscorides
2097:. Works by
2075:compounds.
2041:Al-Muwaffaq
2021:sublimation
1941:Snell's law
1881: 1200
1805:Hippocrates
1785: 1450
1544:Mathematics
1368:Al-Dinawari
1290:water clock
1102:mathematics
1028:translated
962:Mesopotamia
491:Ahl al-Bayt
376:Foundations
110:mathematics
44:Tusi couple
6643:Categories
6510:Technology
6495:Psychology
6447:Statistics
6294:By culture
6198:Background
5994:Ex-Muslims
5879:Shu'ubiyya
5873:Psychology
5861:Literature
5851:Inventions
5797:Philosophy
5605:Leadership
5581:Honorifics
5236:Philosophy
5043:Isma'ilism
5004:Maturidism
4887:Caliphates
4858:Golden Age
4749:Revelation
4513:Huff, Toby
4286:. p.
3874:(4): 53–55
3819:2019-04-09
2788:De Gruyter
2786:. Berlin:
2716:De Gruyter
2714:. Berlin:
2610:"Al-Kindi"
2546:References
2425:and their
2296:Ibn Ma'ruf
2223: 570
2221: – c.
2219: 490
2204:kinematics
2159:substances
2135:De Veneris
2127:Abenguefit
2037:compounded
1961:refraction
1834:al-Zahrawi
1750:Al-Andalus
1580:arithmetic
1349:trees, in
1282:Al-Zarqali
1276:Copernicus
1268:Al-Battani
1022:irrigation
681:Philosophy
418:(exegesis)
355:Pilgrimage
345:Almsgiving
213:made from
159:Ibn Bassal
64:under the
6604:Timelines
6581:Pathology
6576:Nutrition
6500:Sociology
6480:Economics
6389:Chemistry
6379:Astronomy
6316:Byzantine
6311:Brazilian
6306:Argentine
6111:Symbolism
6069:Incidents
6047:Criticism
5939:Mormonism
5836:Astrology
5762:Cosmology
5757:Astronomy
5699:Arabesque
5566:Etiquette
5525:Blasphemy
5315:Economics
5130:Ahmadiyya
5072:Muhakkima
5019:Wahhabism
5009:Mu'tazili
4994:Ash'arism
4453:. Wiley.
4274:, p. 86.
4154:ignored (
4144:cite book
4007:250809354
3777:1703-7603
3769:Haq, Syed
3695:ignored (
3685:cite book
3323:123537702
3133:Routledge
2704:468740510
2655:1997, p.7
2427:empirical
2366:: 15–19.
2292:al-Jazari
2192:mechanics
2077:Al-Biruni
2033:"simples"
2005:chemistry
1839:al-Tasrif
1687:Al-Farabi
1602:Euclid's
1584:al-Mansur
1530:al-Idrisi
1506:Piri Reis
1486:Al-Idrisi
1478:Al-Biruni
1455:Piri Reis
1286:astrolabe
1260:astrology
1231:al-Biruni
1148:chemistry
1106:astronomy
1046:Aristotle
941:, 661–750
931:, 632–661
921:, 622–632
801:terrorism
753:Criticism
706:Sexuality
676:Mysticism
646:Festivals
626:Education
621:Economics
557:Academics
513:Caliphate
326:Practices
223:Aristotle
207:Al-Biruni
106:astronomy
6627:Category
6586:Pharmacy
6543:Medicine
6432:Geometry
6422:Calculus
6341:Japanese
6149:Category
6042:Islamism
6025:Muhammad
5981:Apostasy
5956:Hinduism
5846:Feminism
5777:Medicine
5617:Military
5571:Gambling
5520:Apostasy
5515:Criminal
5427:Marriage
5396:Tayammum
5348:Murabaha
5221:Madrasas
5211:Holidays
5201:Clothing
5196:Children
5191:Calendar
5142:Quranism
5076:Khawarij
5048:Alawites
4999:Atharism
4893:Rashidun
4732:In Islam
4727:Muhammad
4584:(2007).
4560:(1996).
4515:(1993).
4493:(1993).
4357:(2009).
4250:(1980).
4221:(2014).
4052:(1986).
3964:84784804
3839:BBC News
3675:(2005).
3517:BBC News
3267:60770737
3048:(2004).
3017:11 April
2870:(2004).
2815:(2019).
2769:97109455
2561:(1974).
2453:See also
2439:madrasas
2389:Averroes
2385:Avempace
2375:Avicenna
2371:Al-Kindī
2358:: 1–10,
2320:Al-Jahiz
2274:momentum
2200:dynamics
2089:Ibn Sina
1984:Ibn Sina
1933:Ibn Sahl
1764:Medicine
1667:Avicenna
1604:Elements
1597:Almagest
1576:geometry
1532:'s 1154
1431:agronomy
1110:medicine
1034:Assyrian
1026:Al-Kindi
1010:Assyrian
974:Portugal
919:Muhammad
847:Glossary
823:Jihadism
796:Violence
791:Islamism
762:Muhammad
748:Apostasy
691:Politics
641:Feminism
636:Exorcism
597:Diaspora
582:Children
577:Calendar
505:Rashidun
483:Muhammad
478:Timeline
439:Mathnawi
301:Prophets
245:a series
243:Part of
199:smallpox
191:geometry
175:Avicenna
126:agronomy
114:medicine
96:and the
94:Ziyarids
90:Samanids
82:Abbadids
74:Umayyads
6561:Anatomy
6485:History
6417:Algebra
6399:Physics
6384:Biology
6361:Spanish
6356:Russian
6351:Mexican
6326:Chinese
6301:African
6096:Nursing
6057:Qutbism
5971:Sikhism
5966:Judaism
5961:Jainism
5951:Druzism
5787:Physics
5734:Pottery
5719:Gardens
5714:Carpets
5629:Slavery
5551:Divorce
5538:Dhabiĥa
5366:Hygiene
5341:Takaful
5323:Banking
5253:Science
5247:Qurbani
5216:Mosques
5176:Animals
5165:Culture
5099:Nukkari
5094:Azzabas
5081:Azariqa
5065:Zaydism
5053:Alevism
4929:Ottoman
4919:Almohad
4914:Fatimid
4909:Córdoba
4904:Abbasid
4899:Umayyad
4832:Leaders
4827:History
4785:Shahada
4700:Beliefs
4329:Sources
4076:Masood
3987:Bibcode
3732:Masood
3659:1676198
3577:Masood
3565:Masood
3498:Turner
3486:Masood
3474:Masood
3462:Masood
3450:Turner
3401:Masood
3389:Masood
3377:Masood
3365:Masood
3288:Masood
3230:Masood
3155:Turner
3114:Turner
3102:Masood
3031:Turner
2994:Turner
2963:Turner
2946:Masood
2934:Masood
2906:Masood
2894:Turner
2665:Turner
2653:Turner
2569:233–238
2435:inquiry
2302:Zoology
2262:Shadows
2260:In the
2196:statics
2165:Physics
2069:vitriol
1817:al-Razi
1778:Anatomy
1746:Maghreb
1635:algebra
1592:Ptolemy
1572:algebra
1558:Algebra
1503:admiral
1500:Ottoman
1482:Nandana
1423:Seville
1343:cypress
1204:vitriol
1198:) from
1144:alchemy
1114:physics
1077:Seville
1048:, into
998:Persian
966:Persian
718:Slavery
701:Science
656:Madrasa
651:Finance
562:Animals
550:society
546:Culture
518:Imamate
498:Sahabah
471:History
441:(Poems)
426:(creed)
350:Fasting
278:Oneness
271:Beliefs
203:measles
183:algebra
146:zoology
142:physics
86:Seville
78:Córdoba
70:Baghdad
6615:Portal
6346:Korean
6331:Indian
6321:French
6238:By era
5908:
5866:poetry
5676:
5561:Ethics
5545:Dhimmi
5504:Baligh
5465:Mahram
5422:Family
5402:Toilet
5382:Miswak
5135:Lahori
5118:Najdat
5014:Salafi
4964:Seerah
4959:Tafsir
4954:Hadith
4924:Sokoto
4869:Sahaba
4744:Angels
4721:Tawhid
4678:topics
4592:
4570:
4532:
4501:
4479:
4457:
4428:
4405:
4384:
4365:
4343:
4294:
4262:
4231:
4192:
4132:
4060:
4005:
3962:
3922:
3775:
3753:
3718:9 July
3657:
3647:
3541:
3435:
3321:
3265:
3246:Osiris
3217:
3194:604119
3192:
3139:
3086:
3056:
2878:
2823:
2802:
2767:
2730:
2702:
2692:
2575:
2352:Arabic
2208:motion
2065:copper
2027:. His
2001:botany
1890:, and
1799:hadith
1774:Mansur
1754:ghubar
1643:linear
1457:(1513)
1411:Toledo
1372:botany
1345:, and
1339:Quince
1310:Helagu
1298:apogee
1294:Toledo
1150:. The
1124:, and
1108:, and
1050:Arabic
1030:Indian
994:Arabic
954:Arabia
935:
925:
915:
772:Hadith
686:Poetry
666:Mosque
631:Ethics
456:Sharia
424:Aqidah
416:Tafsir
400:Hadith
394:Sunnah
338:Prayer
289:Angels
144:, and
122:botany
112:, and
102:Persia
98:Buyids
92:, the
88:, the
80:, the
72:, the
6437:Logic
6030:Quran
5910:Other
5805:Early
5729:Music
5645:Kalam
5599:Jizya
5587:Hudud
5472:Nikah
5389:Najis
5375:Ghusl
5334:Sukuk
5263:Women
5231:Music
5206:Flags
5111:Sufri
5104:Wahbi
5089:Ibadi
4989:Sunni
4949:Quran
4806:Zakat
4792:Salah
4755:Qadar
4713:Allah
4676:Islam
4308:Notes
4003:S2CID
3960:S2CID
3864:(PDF)
3626:38–39
3319:S2CID
3263:S2CID
3190:JSTOR
2923:p.97)
2765:S2CID
2749:Ambix
2332:Many
2318:) by
2155:drugs
2111:Latin
1854:Canon
1813:Galen
1490:Roger
1347:sumac
1254:Qibla
1208:salts
1042:Greek
1006:Indic
958:Egypt
818:Jihad
767:Quran
728:Women
671:Music
609:Sunni
458:(law)
406:Sirah
387:Quran
371:Texts
253:Islam
211:drugs
154:Qibla
5691:Arts
5622:POWs
5556:Diet
5486:Zina
5458:Mahr
5444:Haya
5408:Wudu
5355:Riba
5268:LGBT
5160:Life
5033:Shia
5028:Sufi
4813:Hajj
4799:Sawm
4590:ISBN
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