1513:, meaning no federal laws explicitly barred their access to schools or other public facilities, yet they were still separated from white people. The proponents of Mexican-American segregation were often officials who worked at the state and local school level and often defended the creation and sustaining of separate "Mexican schools". Prior to the 1930s, segregation of Mexican children in schools was a rarity. Following the Great Depression, funding from the New Deal and legislation such as the 1934 Sugar Act enabled the creation of segregated schools for Mexican American children in Wyoming. An example of Mexican-American school segregation is from the city of Oxnard, California. According to the district records, the schools and neighborhoods in Oxnard were segregated based on ethnicity. The number of Latino migrants in Oxnard was climbing, causing overcrowding in the schools, which triggered local officials to "solve" this issue by creating a "school-within-a-school" form of segregation, and eventually by establishing a separate school for Latino students. School segregation occurred due to the residential segregation that was also present in Oxnard. By placing restrictive policies and covenants on properties, officials in Oxnard were able to keep Latino residents in a separate neighborhood from the "American" (or non-Latino residents), which provided a justification for segregating the schools. The segregation of Mexican children occurred throughout much of the U.S. West. During the Depression era in Wyoming, the segregation of Mexican childrenâwhether they were US citizens or notâmirrored Jim Crow laws. The segregation of Mexicans also took place in Colorado, Montana, Nebraska, and Texas. The
1571:
isolation resembled that of the 1960s. A study by The Civil Rights
Project found that in the 2016 to 2017 school year, nearly half of all black and Latino students in the U.S. went to schools where the student population was 90% people of color, while the average white student went to schools that were 69% white. There is some disagreement about trends since the 1980s; while some researchers presented trends as evidence of "resegregation," others argue that changing demographics in school districts, including class and income, are responsible for most of the changes in the racial composition of schools. A 2013 study by Jeremy Fiel found that, "for the most part, compositional changes are to blame for the declining presence of whites in minorities' schools," and that racial balance increased from 1993 to 2010. The study found that minority students became more isolated and less exposed to whites within a school although districts were statistically more integrated. Another 2013 study found that segregation measured increased over the previous 25 years due to changing demographics. The study did not find an increase in racial balance. Racial unevenness remained stable. Researcher Kori Stroub found that the "racial/ethnic resegregation of public schools observed over the 1990s gave way to a period of modest reintegration," but segregation between school districts increased even though within-district segregation is low. Fiel believed that increasing interdistrict segregation would exacerbate racial isolation.
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1857:âmandated the integration of the nationâs schoolchildren but said nothing of the teacher labor force, effectively diminishing the demand for black teachers and thus eliminating these community-supported schools and the teachers who staffed them,â (p. 29). This elimination has perpetuated itself into our current day school system, with statistics showing the number of black teachers as disproportionate to the student population. Drawing on a study done by Pew Research center in 2021, they analyzed three decades of the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) survey data, and Pew found that 79% of âU.S. public school teachers identified as non-Hispanic White during the 2017-18 school year. And additionally, âfewer than one-in-ten teachers were either black (7%), Hispanic (9%) or Asian American (2%)â. This suggests that public elementary school teachers are significantly less racially and ethnically diverse and not keeping up with the diversity within their student body.
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85:. Voluntary segregation by income appears to have increased since 1990. Racial segregation has either increased or stayed constant since 1990, depending on which definition of segregation is used. In general, definitions based on the amount of interaction between black and white students (exposure definitions) show increased racial segregation, while definitions based on the proportion of black and white students in different schools (unevenness definitions) show racial segregation remaining approximately constant.
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that of public schools. Expanding the availability of magnet schoolsâwhich were initially created with school desegregation efforts and civil rights policies in mindâcould also lead to increased integration, especially in those instances when magnet schools can draw students from separate (and segregated) attendance zones and school districts. Alternatively, states could move towards county- or region-level school districting, allowing students to be drawn from larger and more diverse geographic areas.
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rather increased gradually for the next 10 to 12 years. As compared to districts that had never been placed under court supervision, districts that had achieved unitary status and were released from court-ordered desegregation had a subsequent change in segregation patterns that was 10 times as great. The study concludes that "court-ordered desegregation plans are effective in reducing racial school segregation, but ... their effects fade over time in the absence of continued court oversight."
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residential patterns were not responsible for changes in school segregation trends. Rather, the study determined that in 1990, schools showed less segregation than neighborhoods, indicating that local policies were helping to ameliorate the effects of residential segregation on school composition. By 2000, however, racial composition of schools had become more closely correlated to neighborhood composition, indicating that public policies no longer redistributed students as evenly as before.
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1826:, and greater civic engagement. On the other hand, a 2014 study highlights that as segregated schooling increases, the socioeconomic inequalities based on race increases. Billings, Deming, and Rockoff demonstrate how a certain school district focused on the allocation of funds redistributed to schools with a high volume of minority students. Majority-minority schools present areas with high percentages of property that correspond to fewer resources and lower academic capability.
1796:(NCLB), which implemented high-stakes standardized testing across the country in an attempt to address socio-economic disparities in learning outcomes. Schools that were labelled âfailuresâ and faced sanctions under the NCLB Act were typically high poverty schools in segregated districts. Both the standardization of learning outcomes and the implementation of these policies fail to address the structural barriers that created high poverty, highly segregated schools.
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1711:), the court's decision limited schools' ability to use race as a consideration in school assignment plans. In both cases, the Court struck down school assignment plans designed to ensure that the racial composition of schools roughly reflected the composition of the district as a whole, saying that the plans were not "narrowly tailored" to achieve the stated goal and that race-neutral alternatives had not been given adequate consideration.
95:, both historically and currently, have had a considerable effect on school segregation. Not only does the current segregation of neighborhoods and schools in the US affect social issues and practices, but it is considered by some to be a factor in the achievement gap between black and white students. Some authors such as Jerry Roziek and Ta-Nehisi Coates highlight the importance of tackling the root concept of racism instead of
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not experience, because they are more likely to have the capability to attend different schools. A 2013 study corroborated these findings, showing that the relationship between residential and school segregation became stronger between 2000 and 2010. In 2000, segregation of black people in schools was lower than in their neighborhoods; by 2010, the two patterns of segregation were "nearly identical".
1809:. Short-term and long-term benefits of integration are found for minority and white students alike. Students who attend integrated schools are more likely to live in diverse neighborhoods as adults than those students who attended more segregated schools. Integrated schools also reduce the maintenance of stereotypes and prevent the formation of prejudices in both majority and minority students.
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Researcher Peter Katel addressed the resegregation of schools as barriers for poor students in inner-city neighborhoods who are unprepared for higher education. Katel also reported that educational experts viewed high densities of marginalized students as a loss of funding that most white families do
1494:(1976) prohibited racial discrimination in private schools and revoked IRS-granted non-profit status of schools in violation. Desegregation efforts reached their peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when the South transitioned from complete segregation to being the nation's most integrated region.
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Another study targets spatial inequalities and student outcomes based on the physical and social presence in specific neighborhoods. Factors like pollution, perceived safety, proximity to other students, and healthy learning environments can all affect academic outcomes of various student groups. In
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at the expense of poor, marginalized urban residents. Mid-20th century urban divestment and suburban development redirected social services and federal funding to predominantly white residencies. Remaining urban residents witnessed dramatic decreases in quality of living, creating countless barriers
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for age, race, and socioeconomic status. The socioeconomic composition of a school may lead to lower student achievement through its effect on "school processes", such as academic climate and teachers' expectations. If reforms could equalize these school processes across schools, socioeconomic and
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A 1994 study found support for the theory that interracial contact in elementary or secondary school positively affects long-term outcomes in a way that can overcome perpetual segregation against black communities. The study reviewed previous research and determined that, as compared to segregated
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Initially, Catholic schools in the South generally followed the pattern of segregation in public schools, sometimes enforced by law. However, most
Catholic dioceses began moving ahead of public schools to desegregate. In St. Louis, Catholic schools were desegregated in 1947. In Washington, DC, the
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The categorization of âat-riskâ youth typically defines learning differences as disabilities based on a standardized, non-inclusive curriculum; the label âat-riskâ inherently follows students of color and low-income students as a generalized academic failure. National academic standardization also
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from public schools. Furthermore, studies that compare individual students' demographic characteristics to the schools they are leaving (public schools) and the schools they are switching to (charter schools) generally demonstrate that students "leave more diverse public schools and enroll in less
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A 2012 study determined that "half of all districts ever under court-ordered desegregation been released from court oversight, with most of the releases occurring in the last 20 years". The study found that segregation levels in school districts did not rise sharply following court dismissal, but
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enacted housing reforms that focused their benefits on home buying aid to only white
Americans. These restrictions in loans further separated black and white neighborhoods, which introduced the long term effects of residential segregation projects on schooling. The boundaries housing projects were
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Blacks, "Mongolians" (Chinese), Japanese, Latino, and Native
American students were segregated in California. Native American children faced separation from their families and forced assimilation programs at boarding schools. But there were also cases where Native Americans successfully challenged
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Policy regarding school choice can ensure greater integration by adopting "civil rights policies" for charter schools. These could require charter schools to recruit diverse faculty and students, provide transportation poor students, and have a racial composition that does not differ greatly from
1804:
Integration has a small beneficial impact on short-term outcomes for black students, and a beneficial impact on long-term outcomes, such as school attainment. Integrated education is positively related to short-term outcomes such as Kâ12 school performance, cross-racial friendships, acceptance of
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A 2009 study determined that attending school with a high proportion of black students negatively affected black academic achievement, even after controlling for school quality, differences in ability, and family background. The effect of racial composition on white achievement was insignificant.
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Private schools constitute a second important type of school choice. A 2002 study found that private schools continued to contribute to the persistence of school segregation in the South over the course of the 1990s. Enrollment of whites in private schools increased sharply in the 1970s, remained
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From 1968 to 1980, segregation declined. School integration peaked in the 1980s and then gradually declined over the course of the 1990s. In the 1990s and early 2000s, minority students attended schools with a declining proportion of white students, so that the rate of segregation as measured as
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generally foster racial integration rather than hinder it. Such schools were initially presented as an alternative to unpopular busing policies, and included explicit desegregation goals along with provisions for recruiting and providing transportation for diverse populations. Although today's
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In the 2005 Civil Rights
Project conducted at Harvard University, researchers reported that over 80% of high-minority schoolsâwhere the student population is over 90% non-whiteâare high poverty schools as indicated by a large majority qualifying for free and reduced lunch. Additionally, of five
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Other researchers argue that, given restrictive court rulings and the increasingly strong relationship between neighborhood and school segregation, integration efforts instead focus on reducing racial segregation in neighborhoods. This could be achieved, in part, by greater enforcement of the
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and John Yun found that from 1990 to 2000, residential black/white and
Hispanic/white segregation declined by a modest amount in the United States, while public school segregation increased slightly during the same time period. Because the two variables moved in opposite directions, changes in
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courses. Additionally, in recent years, schools have become dependent on the internet for doing and submitting homework. As a result, 25% of black teens and 17% of Latino teens cannot complete their homework due to a lack of reliable internet connection, as opposed to only 13% of White teens.
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limited school districts' ability to take race into account during the school assignment process, the ruling did not prohibit racial considerations altogether. According to the UCLA Civil Rights
Project, a school district may consider race when using: "site selection of new schools; drawing
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composition. Schools with high proportions of minority enrollment are often characterized by "less experienced and less qualified teachers, high levels of teacher turnover, less successful peer groups and inadequate facilities and learning materials." These schools also tend to have less
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declared that once schools districts had made a practicable, "good faith" effort to desegregate, they could be declared to have achieved "unitary" status, releasing them from court oversight. The decision allowed schools to end previous desegregation efforts even in cases where a return to
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the South resisted enforcement of the Court's decision. States and school districts did little to reduce segregation, and schools remained almost completely segregated until 1968, after
Congressional passage of civil rights legislation. In response to pressures to desegregate in the
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Richard
Kahlenberg writes, "Racial integration is a very important aim, but if one's goal is boosting academic achievement, what really matters is economic integration." Kahlenberg refers the low overall socioeconomic status of a school is linked to reduced learning, even after
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Minority students continue to be concentrated in high-poverty, low-achieving schools, while white students are more likely to attend high-achieving, more affluent schools. Resources such as funds and high-quality teachers attach unequally to schools according to racial and
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initially ran the LDF, and focused heavily on proving that black schools were severely unequal to white schools
Eventually, the LDF shifted its leadership to Thurgood Marshall, who became the first director of the LDF and was a leader in significant court battles including
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attendance zones with general recognition of the racial demographics of neighborhoods; allocating resources for special programs; recruiting students and faculty in a targeted manner; tracking enrollments, performance, and other statistics by race." Districts may use
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However, a 2006 study found that white students are more inclined to take higher level courses at integrated schools to decrease exposure to minorities while the black-white test score gap still decreases with movement from a segregated city to an integrated city.
1536:. Both groups challenged discriminatory policies in court, with varying success. The NAACP initially challenged graduate and professional school segregation asserting that desegregation at this level would result in the least backlash and opposition by whites.
1837:
Urban high schools reported significantly greater drop-out rates than their suburban counterparts. Nationwide, high school drop-out rates are centered in a few hundred public schools that are overwhelmingly impoverished, urban, and non-white. The
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Integration is associated with higher educational and occupational attainment across all ethnic groups, better intergroup relations, greater likelihood of living and working in an integrated environment, lower likelihood of involvement with the
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were also passed by state legislatures in the South and parts of the lower Midwest and Southwest, segregating public schools. These stated that schools should be separated by race and offer equal amenities, but conditions were far from
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segregation. Along with educational and social outcomes, the average income and occupational aspirations of minority households that are products of segregated schooling have worse outcomes than the products of desegregated schooling.
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More than half of students in the United States attend school districts with high concentrations of people (over 75%) of their own ethnicity and about 40% of black students attend schools where 90%-100% of students are non-white.
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Black people, desegregated Black people are more likely to set higher occupational aspirations, attend desegregated colleges, have desegregated social and professional networks as adults, gain desegregated employment, and work in
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of black students increased while that of whites remained largely unchanged. Historically, greater access to schools with higher enrollment of white students reduced high school dropout rates for black students, and reduced the
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went further, ruling that districts could be released from oversight in "incremental stages", meaning that courts would continue to supervise only those aspects of integration that had not yet been achieved.
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was the segregation of students based on their ethnicity. While not prohibited from having schools, various minorities were barred from most schools, schools for whites. Segregation was enforced by law in
1620:
to a stable life, including in academic success. Consequently, urban school districts became relatively accurate measures for documenting the increasing educational inequalities among students of color.
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noted that roughly 50% of high school dropouts are employed and earning 35% less than the average national income while college graduates make 131% of the mean national income with 85% employment.
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intentionally drawn so that black neighborhoods had less access to education and jobs. This depletion of resources led to an increase in poverty rates which broadened academic achievement gaps.
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Williams, J.A.; Davis, A.; Butler, B.R. (2020). "Reducing discipline disparities by expanding the Black teacher pipeline: A descriptive analysis of the Charlotte-Mecklenburg School District".
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Houston, Charles H.; Fund, NAACP Legal Defense; White, Walter; Hastie, William; Spingarn, Joel; Spingarn, Arthur; Margold, Nathan R.; Garland, Charles; University, Howard (November 13, 2004).
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decision upheld the denial of citizenship to African Americans and found that descendants of slaves are "so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect."
1214:, which was the subject of public backlash and protests. She converted the boarding school to one for only African American girls, but Crandall was jailed for her efforts for violating a
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form. School segregation declined rapidly during the late 1960s and early 1970s as the government became strict on schools' plans to combat segregation more effectively as a result of
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Catholic schools were desegregated in 1948. Catholic schools in Tennessee were desegregated in 1954, Atlanta in 1962, and Mississippi in 1965, all ahead of the public school systems.
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school assignment policies to try to indirectly achieve racial integration, but in practice such policies are not guaranteed to produce even a modest degree of racial integration.
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Garcia, David G.; Yasso, Tara J. (2013). ""Strictly in the Capacity of Servant": The Interconnection Between Residential and School Segregation in Oxnard, California, 1934-1954".
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and professional jobs in the private sector. In schools with a relatively high average income per students, students are more likely to perform better because they feel safer.
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may increase integration by drawing students from more diverse areas, expanded choice often has the opposite effect. When studies compare the racial and ethnic composition of
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codified segregation. These laws were influenced by the history of slavery and discrimination in the US. Secondary schools for African Americans in the South were called
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unchanged in the 1980s, and increased again over the course of the 1990s. Because the changes over the latter two decades was not substantial, however, researcher
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magnet schools are no longer as explicitly oriented towards integration efforts, they continue to be less racially isolated than other forms of school choice.
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Mickelson, Roslyn Arlin; Mokubung Nkomo (March 2012). "Integrated Schooling, Life Course Outcomes, and Social Cohesion in Multiethnic Democratic Societies".
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correspondence to high poverty environments, students are likely to face various obstacles that prevent effective learning environments including food and
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million enrolled students in two dozen of the largest central cities, 70% are black and Latino students in predominantly minority-majority, urban schools.
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Parents of both African-American and Mexican-American students challenged school segregation in coordination with civil rights organizations such as the
1295:(shaded red) required school segregation, 1877â1954. Other states outside the south prohibited school segregation (green) or allowed local choice (blue)
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was a leader in the fight against schools for African Americans and helped block plans for a college for African Americans in New Haven, Connecticut.
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Blight, David W. (2002). "Charles Hamilton Houston: The Legal Scholar Who Laid the Foundation for Integrated Higher Education in the United States".
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In the late 1950s and early 1960s, when some states (including Alabama, Virginia, and Louisiana) closed their public schools to protest integration,
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Reardon, Sean F.; John T. Yun; Michal Kurlaender (2006). "Implications of Income-Based School Assignment Policies for Racial School Segregation".
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because of the successes being attained during the Civil Rights Movement. Segregation continued longstanding exclusionary policies in much of the
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led to a loss of black teachers. This resulted in racial incongruence between teachers and student population. D'Amico et al. (2017) stated that
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concludes that changes in private school enrollment is not a likely contributor to any changes in schools segregation patterns during that time.
1342:, guaranteeing equal protection under the law, was ratified in 1868, and citizenship was extended to African Americans. Congress also passed the
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Schools without Diversity: Education Management Organizations, Charter Schools and the Demographic Stratification of the American School System"
1346:, banning racial discrimination in public accommodations. But in 1883, the Supreme Court struck down the Civil Rights Act of 1875, finding that
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1588:. Residence and school assignment are linked due to the tradition of locally controlled schools. Residential segregation is related to growing
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1402:(1896), which ruled that separate facilities for black and white people were permissible provided that the facilities were of equal quality.
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to public schools, researchers generally find that charter schools preserve or intensify racial and economic segregation, and/or facilitate
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1640:. Likewise, black, Latino, and Indigenous students experience twice the exposure to poor students than their Asian and white counterparts.
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3486:(2010). Boulder and Tempe: Education and the Public Interest Center & Education Policy Research Unit. (accessed September 24, 2013)
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The deterioration of cities and urban education systems between the 1950-80s was the consequence of several post-war policies like the
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segregation in the United States. The state of Arkansas would experience some of the first successful school integrations below the
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2607:"A Century of Racial Segregation 1849â1950 - Brown v. Board at Fifty: "With an Even Hand" | Exhibitions - Library of Congress"
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as constitutional, but the ruling had no effect on the increasing segregation between school districts. The court's ruling in
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at Columbia University, provided the intellectual underpinning for Jim Crow era discrimination. Segregation continued in
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Wells, Amy Stuart; Robert L. Crain (1994). "Perpetuation Theory and the Long-Term Effects of School Desegregation".
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Madkins, Tia C. (2011). "The Black Teacher Shortage: A Literature Review of Historical and Contemporary Trends".
3563:"New Evidence about Brown v. Board of Education: The Complex Effects of School Racial Composition on Achievement"
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49:, although elsewhere segregation could be informal or customary. Segregation laws were dismantled in 1954 by the
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3263:"Integrating neighborhoods, segregating schools: The retreat from school desegregation in the South, 1990-2000"
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3396:"Brown Fades: The End of Court-Ordered School Desegregation and the Resegregation of American Public Schools."
2442:"How Native American Families Challenged School Desegregation | National Trust for Historic Preservation"
3101:"From Resegregation to Reintegration: Trends in the Racial/Ethnic Segregation of Metropolitan Public School."
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Desegregation in the 1970s and 1980s led to academic gains for black students. As integration increased, the
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4137:"Does Segregation Still Matter? The Impact of Student Composition on Academic Achievement in High School"
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was a boarding school for African American and Native American orphans in Ohio and then Pennsylvania.
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Frankenberg, Erica (2013). "The Role of Residential Segregation in Contemporary School Segregation".
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4036:"America's public school teachers are far less racially and ethnically diverse than their students"
4010:"America's public school teachers are far less racially and ethnically diverse than their students"
3984:"America's public school teachers are far less racially and ethnically diverse than their students"
2863:""Things change you know": Schools as the Architects of the Mexican Race in Depression-Era Wyoming"
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1421:(LDF) in 1939 serves as the foundation of the efforts and funding to challenge school segregation.
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Wei, Yehua Dennis; Xiao, Weiye; Simon, Christopher A.; Liu, Baodong; Ni, Yongmei (March 1, 2018).
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took place at different times in different areas and often met resistance. After the ruling of
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instead of high schools in order to appease racist whites and focused on vocational education.
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1995:"Black Education and Rockefeller Philanthropy from the Jim Crow South to the Civil Rights Era"
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3652:"Troubling notions of risk: dissensus, dissonance, and making sense of students and learning"
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2369:"How Much Wealthier Are White School Districts Than Nonwhite Ones? $ 23 Billion, Report Says"
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were established by some religious groups and philanthropists to educate African Americans.
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3422:"Integrating Suburban Schools: How to Benefit from Growing Diversity and Avoid Segregation"
3130:"Decomposing School Resegregation: Social Closure, Racial Imbalance, and Racial Isolation."
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2519:. Ed. Kelly Rudd, Richard Hanes, and Sarah Hermsen. Vol. 2. Detroit: UXL, 2007. 333-357.
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in Little Rock in Sept. 1957, after the governor of Arkansas tried to enforce segregation
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in the 19th century. The Reconstruction era saw efforts at integration in the South, but
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28:
3869:
3736:
2558:
2032:
4692:
4573:
4210:
3968:
3894:
D'Amico, Diana; Pawlewicz, Robert J.; Earley, Penelope M.; McGeehan, Adam P. (2017).
3873:
3826:
3788:
3740:
3683:
3671:
3318:
3202:
3077:
3066:
2975:
2934:
2896:
2884:
2686:
2376:
2353:
2333:
2295:
2239:
2229:
2208:
2188:
2153:
2133:
2036:
1839:
1554:
1503:
1490:
1396:
The constitutionality of Jim Crow laws was upheld in the Supreme Court's decision in
1323:
1247:
1203:
1196:
604:
493:
472:
4089:
3636:
3597:
3358:"The Segregation and Resegregation of American Public Education: The Court's Role."
4743:
4627:
4568:
4558:
4202:
4151:
4069:
3956:
3907:
3865:
3818:
3776:
3732:
3663:
3624:
3577:
3420:
Tefera, Adai; Erica Frankenberg; Genevieve Siegel-Hawley; Gina Chirichigno (2011).
3310:
3190:
2961:
2922:
2874:
2698:
2676:
2325:
2283:
2180:
2125:
2028:
1819:
1514:
1127:
599:
3701:
3628:
1199:
established schools for African Americans in the decades preceding the Civil War.
562:
4732:
4504:
4393:
3667:
3314:
1956:
1269:
500:
253:
3378:"Segregation 2.0: The New Generation of School Segregation in the 21st Century."
140:
4784:
4702:
4677:
4672:
4585:
4155:
3960:
3911:
3651:
3100:
2534:"Fourteenth Amendment | Definition, Summary, Rights, Significance, & Facts"
1775:
1724:
1363:
1347:
428:
318:
4224:
4073:
3896:"Where Are All the Black Teachers? Discrimination in the Teacher Labor Market"
3589:
2287:
1901:
racial integration policies might not be necessary to close achievement gaps.
1689:
Soldiers from the 101st Airborne Division escort African-American students to
4823:
4767:
4687:
4563:
4448:
4305:
3877:
3830:
3780:
3675:
3322:
3194:
2888:
2690:
2380:
2337:
2329:
2243:
2192:
2184:
2137:
2129:
2040:
1720:
1389:
1373:
1288:
1265:
1259:
1219:
978:
609:
587:
433:
360:
92:
58:
3725:
Has School Desegregation Improved Academic and Economic Outcomes for Blacks?
3394:
Reardon, Sean F., Elena T. Grewal, Demetra Kalogrides, and Erica Greenberg.
2681:
2664:
3854:"60 Years After Brown : Trends and Consequences of School Segregation"
3731:. Handbook of the Economics of Education. Vol. 2. pp. 1019â1049.
3537:"What we know about online learning and the homework gap amid the pandemic"
3503:
3232:
2761:
2498:"Collection: William Morris Maier papers | Archives & Manuscripts"
1737:
1728:
1624:
1616:
1612:
1477:
1351:
1300:
1258:
in Philadelphia. Yale Law School co-founder, judge, and mayor of New Haven
24:
3502:
2223:
276:
4443:
3822:
3508:"E Pluribus...Separation: Deepening Double Segregation for More Students"
1557:
seized the opportunity to open "Christian academies" for white students.
1231:
582:
4281:
Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)
3838:
3806:
3380:
Education and Urban Society. no. 5 (2013). (accessed September 24, 2013)
2966:
2949:
2879:
2862:
2345:
2313:
2200:
2168:
2145:
2113:
4753:
4610:
4605:
4590:
4081:
3562:
2926:
1873:
404:
179:
42:
1868:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
1704:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
4645:
4578:
4433:
2824:"60 Years After Brown: Trends and Consequences of School Segregation"
2017:"60 Years After Brown: Trends and Consequences of School Segregation"
1823:
1806:
619:
409:
340:
335:
330:
269:
213:
3560:
4738:
4206:
4059:
3581:
1611:
practices. The loss of war-time industrial employment perpetuated â
1089:
4199:
The Borderlands of Race: Mexican Segregation in a South Texas Town
3893:
3450:
2766:"Schools More Separate: Consequences of a Decade of Resegregation"
2079:
1502:
While African Americans faced legal segregation in civil society,
4712:
4682:
3147:"What school segregation looks like in the US today, in 4 charts"
2990:"Preserving the Complicated History at a Segregated Texas School"
1497:
1463:
1368:
483:
4707:
4239:
3805:
Billings, Stephen B.; Deming, David J.; Rockoff, Jonah (2014).
3482:
Miron, G., Urschel, J. L., Mathis, W, J., & Tornquist, E. "
2669:
RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences
1885:
1608:
1122:
75:, which banned segregated school laws, school segregation took
27:
to and from school in New Orleans, Louisiana, as she broke the
2314:"Coleman Revisited: School Segregation, Peers, and Frog Ponds"
2056:"Schools Are More Segregated Today Than During the Late 1960s"
3451:
Frankenberg, Erica; Genevieve Siegel-Hawley (November 2009).
3237:"Why Segregation Matters: Poverty and Educational Inequality"
2470:"Emlen Institute | Solebury Township Historical Society"
2080:
Frankenberg, Erica; Genevieve Siegel-Hawley (November 2009).
1525:
1388:
Segregated drinking fountain in the American south under the
174:
3453:"Equity Overlooked: Charter Schools and Civil Rights Policy"
2794:"Before Little Rock: Successful Arkansas School Integration"
2082:"Equity Overlooked: Charter Schools and Civil Rights Policy"
4134:
2456:"BROWN V. BOARD: Timeline of School Integration in the U.S"
1384:
1218:. In 1835, an anti-abolitionist mob attacked and destroyed
3711:– via Education Resources Information Center (ERIC).
3561:
Hanushek, Eric A.; John F. Kain; Steven G. Rivkin (2009).
3506:; John Kucsera; Genevieve Siegel-Hawley (September 2012).
2514:"Racial Segregation in the American South: Jim Crow Laws."
1668:
in 1974 prohibited interdistrict desegregation by busing.
57:(where most African Americans lived) after the Civil War.
4105:"From All Walks of Life: New Hope for School Integration"
2665:"School Segregation and Racial Academic Achievement Gaps"
1455:
was overturned in 1954, when the Supreme Court ruling in
1927:
Education segregation in the Mississippi Red Clay region
3807:"School Segregation, Educational Attainment, and Crime"
3766:
3613:"Racial segregation and the blackâwhite test score gap"
3401:. no. 4 (2012): 876-904. (accessed September 24, 2013)
3106:. no. 3 (2013): 497-531. (accessed September 24, 2013)
1805:
cultural differences, and declines in racial fears and
2821:
2604:
1448:
case, hung at the Historic Site in Topeka, Kansas, USA
1185:
Education during the slave period in the United States
3804:
2576:
1238:
ruled that segregated schools were allowed under the
112:
school segregation and won access to public schools.
2273:
3946:
3721:
3135:. no. 5 (2013): 1-21. (accessed September 24, 2013)
2786:
1206:admitted an African American girl to her all-white
4840:History of racial segregation in the United States
4135:Rumberger, Russell W.; Gregory J. Palardy (2005).
3446:
3444:
3442:
3364:(2003): 1598-1622. (accessed September 24, 2013).
3047:"Most Rev. William Adrian, Ex-Bishop of Tennessee"
4845:African-American segregation in the United States
4187:Brown, Nikki L.M., and Barry M. Stentiford, eds.
2856:
2854:
2269:
2267:
1655:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
4821:
3439:
3299:"Neighborhood, race and educational inequality"
3296:
3260:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2559:"Civil Rights Cases | law cases [1883]"
2517:Prejudice in the Modern World Reference Library
2073:
1709:Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education
1678:segregation was likely. The court's ruling in
1338:was ratified and ended slavery nationwide. The
82:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
3852:Reardon, Sean F.; Owens, Ann (July 30, 2014).
3498:
3496:
3494:
3492:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3352:
3350:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3250:
3175:
3173:
3171:
3169:
3167:
2851:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2264:
1922:Education segregation in the Mississippi Delta
1565:
1517:in Texas is one of the few remaining formerly
1498:Mexican-American segregation during these eras
4266:
3610:
1779:challenging curricula and fewer offerings of
1674:Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell
1658:furthered desegregation efforts by upholding
1156:
662:
99:efforts that arise as a result of the end of
23:In 1960, U.S. marshals were needed to escort
4618:Residential segregation in the United States
4130:
4128:
3851:
3800:
3798:
2808:
2796:. University of Arkansas. September 10, 2007
2014:
1743:In contrast to charter and private schools,
89:Residential segregation in the United States
3489:
3383:
3347:
3247:
3180:
3164:
3144:
3099:Stroub, Kori J., and Meredith P. Richards.
2912:
2749:
1974:Educational inequality in the United States
1560:
1272:was one of the early schools to integrate.
4273:
4259:
4102:
4096:
4062:Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis
4053:
4034:Schaeffer, Katherine (December 10, 2021).
4008:Schaeffer, Katherine (December 10, 2021).
3982:Schaeffer, Katherine (December 10, 2021).
3230:
2256:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1579:
1183:was in New York City in the 18th century.
1163:
1149:
669:
655:
4201:. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
4125:
4033:
4007:
3981:
3795:
3760:
3715:
3534:
3415:
3413:
3411:
3409:
3407:
3399:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
3372:
3370:
3095:
3093:
2965:
2878:
2841:"The Real Origins of the Religious Right"
2822:Sean Reardon; Anne Owens (October 2013).
2714:The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education
2680:
2311:
2111:
1845:
1350:by individuals or private businesses was
1276:also accepted African American students.
730:History of education in the United States
115:
3554:
3478:
3476:
3339:Katel, Peter (2020). "Racial Conflict".
3063:
2736:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
2053:
1684:
1647:
1439:
1419:NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
1383:
1317:
1283:
18:
4855:Race and education in the United States
4830:School segregation in the United States
4245:Racial segregation in the United States
3924:
3722:Hanushek, Eric A.; Finis Welch (2006).
3649:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3118:
3116:
3114:
3112:
2994:National Parks Conservation Association
2760:
2662:
2509:
2507:
2400:
2366:
1947:School integration in the United States
1942:Racial segregation in the United States
1865:Although the Supreme Court's ruling in
1480:system, some white communities started
67:School integration in the United States
38:School segregation in the United States
4822:
4196:
3942:
3940:
3650:Gershon, Walter S. (October 1, 2012).
3611:Card, David; Rothstein, Jesse (2007).
3404:
3367:
3226:
3224:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3214:
3212:
3090:
3007:
2947:
2908:
2906:
2860:
2711:
2663:Reardon, Sean F. (September 1, 2016).
2629:
2627:
2221:
2169:"School segregation: A realist's view"
2166:
1590:income inequality in the United States
4254:
3889:
3887:
3699:
3695:
3693:
3535:Schaeffer, Katherine (October 2021).
3473:
3338:
3334:
3332:
3292:
3290:
3104:American Educational Research Journal
2658:
2656:
2318:American Educational Research Journal
2015:Reardon, Sean F.; Owens, Ann (2014).
1792:extends to federal policies like the
1548:
1521:segregated Mexican school buildings.
1444:Quote from Supreme Court Decision in
1279:
755:History of education in New York City
745:History of education in Massachusetts
4802:
3145:Frankenberg, Erica (July 19, 2019).
3109:
2504:
2367:Mervosh, Sarah (February 27, 2019).
2307:
2305:
2107:
2105:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
1799:
1299:The formal segregation of black and
4623:Segregation academy (United States)
4538:Sex segregation in public restrooms
3937:
3209:
2903:
2724:
2705:
2624:
1932:Education segregation in New Jersey
1539:
1435:
13:
4181:
3918:
3884:
3811:The Quarterly Journal of Economics
3690:
3329:
3287:
2653:
2633:
2428:"Constitutional Rights Foundation"
2403:"School Segregation Is Not a Myth"
2160:
2114:"The myth of de facto segregation"
2047:
1937:Education segregation in Wisconsin
1584:A source of school segregation is
1254:bequeathed money to establish the
1252:Richard Humphreys (philanthropist)
14:
4866:
4232:
3870:10.1146/annurev-soc-071913-043152
2861:GuzmĂĄn, Gonzalo (November 2021).
2302:
2215:
2102:
2054:Richmond, Emily (June 11, 2012).
2033:10.1146/annurev-soc-071913-043152
2001:
1322:Students in a one-room school in
1208:Canterbury Female Boarding School
1175:
4801:
4773:
4772:
4238:
3261:Reardon, Sean; John Yun (2002).
2401:Stancil, Will (March 14, 2018).
1952:School segregation in California
1917:Education segregation in Indiana
1912:American Indian boarding schools
1714:
1132:
1121:
750:History of education in Missouri
740:History of education in Kentucky
287: population exchange
139:
4103:Kahlenberg, Richard D. (2012).
4027:
4001:
3975:
3845:
3769:Review of Research in Education
3643:
3604:
3528:
3138:
3057:
3039:
2982:
2941:
2833:
2598:
2551:
2526:
2490:
2476:
2462:
2448:
2434:
2420:
2394:
2360:
1405:
1357:
1303:began following the end of the
735:History of education in Chicago
4835:Education in the United States
3927:The Journal of Negro Education
2954:History of Education Quarterly
2915:History of Education Quarterly
2867:History of Education Quarterly
2276:Review of Educational Research
1987:
1701:In a pair of rulings in 2007 (
1601:Federal Housing Administration
1597:Home Owners' Loans Corporation
1070:Full-service community schools
1:
3737:10.1016/s1574-0692(06)02017-4
3709:ETC Policy Information Center
3702:"Addressing Achievement Gaps"
3656:Critical Studies in Education
3629:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.03.006
2312:Goldsmith, Pat Rubio (2011).
1240:Constitution of Massachusetts
133:Racial and ethnic segregation
4850:History of Mexican Americans
4197:NĂĄjera, Jennifer R. (2015).
3933:: 417â427 – via JSTOR.
3668:10.1080/17508487.2012.704881
3315:10.1016/j.cities.2017.09.013
3133:American Sociological Review
3068:Writing in an Age of Silence
2773:Harvard Civil Rights Project
2732:"Who Was Thurgood Marshall?"
1980:
1860:
1812:
1756:
16:Racial separation in schools
7:
4480:Brown v. Board of Education
3617:Journal of Public Economics
3243:. Harvard University: 1â47.
3183:Education and Urban Society
3015:"Cardinal Joseph E. Ritter"
2112:Rothstein, Richard (2019).
1904:
1884:and removal of low-density
1855:Brown v. Board of Education
1851:Brown v. Board of Education
1751:
1652:The Court's 1970 ruling in
1566:Segregation since the 1960s
1458:Brown v. Board of Education
1446:Brown v. Board of Education
1429:Brown v. Board of Education
1309:United States Supreme Court
1256:Institute for Colored Youth
1236:Massachusetts Supreme Court
1048:For-profit higher education
72:Brown v. Board of Education
10:
4871:
4389:Czechoslovakia and Hungary
4156:10.1177/016146810510700905
3961:10.1007/s11256-020-00558-y
3912:10.17763/1943-5045-87.1.26
3900:Harvard Educational Review
3858:Annual Review of Sociology
3570:Journal of Labor Economics
3427:. UCLA Civil Right Project
2222:Coates, Ta-Nehisi (2015).
2021:Annual Review of Sociology
1732:diverse charter schools".
1574:
1482:private segregated schools
1471:. In the decade following
1222:, an integrated school in
1001:School corporal punishment
4762:
4636:
4551:
4503:
4434:Apartheid in South Africa
4354:
4286:
4189:The Jim Crow Encyclopedia
4074:10.3102/01623737028001049
3360:North Carolina Law Review
3270:North Carolina Law Review
2288:10.3102/00346543064004531
1417:The establishment of the
1372:form with the passage of
1244:Roberts v. City of Boston
1036:School-to-work transition
3781:10.3102/0091732x11422667
3515:The Civil Rights Project
3460:The Civil Rights Project
3241:The Civil Rights Project
3195:10.1177/0013124513486288
2948:GuzmĂĄn, Gonzalo (2021).
2720:: 107 – via JSTOR.
2523:. Web. October 19, 2013.
2521:Global Issues In Context
2330:10.3102/0002831210392019
2225:Between the world and me
2185:10.1177/0031721719827536
2130:10.1177/0031721719827543
2089:The Civil Rights Project
1794:No Child Left Behind Act
1561:Contemporary Segregation
1423:Charles Hamilton Houston
1344:Civil Rights Act of 1875
1139:United States portal
685:This article is part of
490:West Bank settlement law
4658:Anti-miscegenation laws
4493:Anti-miscegenation laws
4144:Teachers College Record
3700:Yaffe, Deborah (2009).
3064:Paretsky, Sara (2007).
2682:10.7758/RSF.2016.2.5.03
2586:. National Park Service
2563:Encyclopedia Britannica
2538:Encyclopedia Britannica
1968:The Shame of the Nation
1820:criminal justice system
1586:residential segregation
1580:Residential segregation
1212:Canterbury, Connecticut
857:Education policy issues
826:Environmental education
265:French colonial empire
158:Anti-miscegenation laws
4749:White Australia policy
4668:Corporative federalism
2829:. Stanford University.
2636:"What Is 'Redlining'?"
2167:Rosiek, Jerry (2019).
1846:Public school teachers
1763:educational attainment
1694:
1605:Interstate Highway Act
1449:
1393:
1327:
1313:Dred Scott v. Sandford
1296:
1293:Southern United States
1193:Samuel Powers Emlen Jr
994:Standards-based reform
969:Gender achievement gap
959:Racial achievement gap
892:Educational attainment
294: in Europe
204:Housing discrimination
116:Historical segregation
55:Southern United States
47:Southern United States
32:
4718:Religious intolerance
1688:
1671:The 1990 decision in
1648:Supreme Court rulings
1623:A study conducted by
1607:, and discriminatory
1443:
1411:Franklin D. Roosevelt
1387:
1321:
1287:
1224:Canaan, New Hampshire
1060:Research universities
927:Student financial aid
922:Graduate unemployment
897:Post-secondary issues
873:Primary and secondary
836:Mathematics education
625:Racial discrimination
449:South Asian labourers
382:Contemporary examples
22:
4728:Second-class citizen
4723:Reservation in India
4449:United Arab Emirates
4379:Bulgaria and Romania
4247:at Wikimedia Commons
3623:(11â12): 2158â2184.
3356:Chemerinsky, Erwin.
3053:. February 15, 1972.
2173:The Phi Delta Kappan
2118:The Phi Delta Kappan
1340:Fourteenth Amendment
1336:Thirteenth Amendment
1128:Education portal
964:Desegregation busing
917:Elite overproduction
846:Vocational education
478:Palestinian enclaves
309:Portugal & Spain
189:Institutional racism
31:'s segregation rules
4596:Exclusionary zoning
4543:Separatist feminism
4321:Partition of Bengal
4165:on December 4, 2010
4040:Pew Reaserch Center
4014:Pew Reaserch Center
3988:Pew Reaserch Center
3541:Pew Research Center
3179:Frankenberg, Erica.
2967:10.1017/heq.2021.37
2880:10.1017/heq.2021.37
1962:Segregation academy
1691:Central High School
1665:Milliken v. Bradley
1378:discriminatory laws
1181:African Free School
1081:Levels of education
1053:For-profit colleges
1021:Foreign involvement
595:Forced assimilation
229:Historical examples
209:Exclusionary zoning
199:Forced displacement
4486:Massive resistance
4474:School segregation
4469:Separate but equal
4394:Dominican Republic
4296:Partition of India
3823:10.1093/qje/qjt026
3072:. Verso. pp.
3051:The New York Times
2937:– via JSTOR.
2927:10.1111/hoeq.12003
2373:The New York Times
1781:Advanced Placement
1695:
1638:housing insecurity
1549:Protestant schools
1453:Plessy v. Ferguson
1450:
1399:Plessy v. Ferguson
1394:
1332:American Civil War
1328:
1305:Reconstruction Era
1297:
1280:Reconstruction era
1274:Lowell High School
1043:Community colleges
989:School segregation
907:Cost and financing
831:Language education
417:BosniaâHerzegovina
366:Separate but equal
304:Partition of India
299:Pale of Settlement
194:Ethnic nationalism
163:Crime of apartheid
51:U.S. Supreme Court
33:
29:State of Louisiana
4817:
4816:
4693:Majority minority
4574:Ethnic federalism
4356:Ethnic and racial
4316:Greece and Turkey
4243:Media related to
4216:978-1-4773-1129-5
4191:(Greenwood, 2008)
4112:American Educator
3020:Marian University
2845:POLITICO Magazine
2472:. August 7, 2015.
2235:978-0-8129-9354-7
1824:democratic values
1800:Social well-being
1555:Jerry Falwell Sr.
1506:often dealt with
1504:Mexican Americans
1491:Runyon v. McCrary
1486:Green v. Connally
1484:, but rulings in
1324:Waldorf, Maryland
1248:Emlen Institution
1204:Prudence Crandall
1197:Prudence Crandall
1189:Richard Humphreys
1173:
1172:
1026:Special education
1016:Sexual harassment
809:Medical education
763:Curriculum topics
699:
679:
678:
605:Income inequality
45:primarily in the
4862:
4805:
4804:
4776:
4775:
4744:Social apartheid
4628:Social exclusion
4601:Forced migration
4569:Ethnic cleansing
4559:Auto-segregation
4301:Northern Ireland
4275:
4268:
4261:
4252:
4251:
4242:
4228:
4175:
4174:
4172:
4170:
4164:
4158:. Archived from
4150:(9): 1999â2045.
4141:
4132:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4109:
4100:
4094:
4093:
4057:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4046:
4031:
4025:
4024:
4022:
4020:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3996:
3994:
3979:
3973:
3972:
3949:The Urban Review
3944:
3935:
3934:
3922:
3916:
3915:
3891:
3882:
3881:
3849:
3843:
3842:
3802:
3793:
3792:
3764:
3758:
3757:
3755:
3753:
3730:
3719:
3713:
3712:
3706:
3697:
3688:
3687:
3647:
3641:
3640:
3608:
3602:
3601:
3567:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3532:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3521:
3512:
3500:
3487:
3480:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3457:
3448:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3432:
3426:
3417:
3402:
3392:
3381:
3376:Dorsey, Dana N.
3374:
3365:
3354:
3345:
3344:
3336:
3327:
3326:
3294:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3280:
3267:
3258:
3245:
3244:
3228:
3207:
3206:
3177:
3162:
3161:
3159:
3157:
3151:The Conversation
3142:
3136:
3128:Fiel, Jeremy E.
3126:
3107:
3097:
3088:
3087:
3071:
3061:
3055:
3054:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3032:
3023:. Archived from
3011:
3005:
3004:
3002:
3000:
2986:
2980:
2979:
2969:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2910:
2901:
2900:
2882:
2858:
2849:
2848:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2819:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2801:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2770:
2758:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2742:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2684:
2660:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2631:
2622:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2580:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2530:
2524:
2511:
2502:
2501:
2494:
2488:
2487:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2413:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2309:
2300:
2299:
2271:
2262:
2261:
2255:
2247:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2109:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2086:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2066:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2012:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1882:Fair Housing Act
1680:Freeman v. Pitts
1540:Catholic schools
1515:Blackwell School
1469:MasonâDixon line
1436:Civil Rights era
1165:
1158:
1151:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1126:
1125:
1065:Community school
984:Racial diversity
954:Achievement gaps
858:
720:in insular areas
702:
698:Education in the
697:
681:
680:
671:
664:
657:
600:Gender apartheid
521:Northern Ireland
383:
293:
286:
254:Indian hospitals
249:Separate schools
143:
120:
119:
63:training schools
4870:
4869:
4865:
4864:
4863:
4861:
4860:
4859:
4820:
4819:
4818:
4813:
4758:
4733:Separate school
4638:
4632:
4547:
4499:
4350:
4282:
4279:
4235:
4217:
4184:
4182:Further reading
4179:
4178:
4168:
4166:
4162:
4139:
4133:
4126:
4116:
4114:
4107:
4101:
4097:
4058:
4054:
4044:
4042:
4032:
4028:
4018:
4016:
4006:
4002:
3992:
3990:
3980:
3976:
3945:
3938:
3923:
3919:
3892:
3885:
3850:
3846:
3803:
3796:
3765:
3761:
3751:
3749:
3747:
3728:
3720:
3716:
3704:
3698:
3691:
3648:
3644:
3609:
3605:
3565:
3559:
3555:
3545:
3543:
3533:
3529:
3519:
3517:
3510:
3501:
3490:
3481:
3474:
3464:
3462:
3455:
3449:
3440:
3430:
3428:
3424:
3418:
3405:
3393:
3384:
3375:
3368:
3355:
3348:
3337:
3330:
3295:
3288:
3278:
3276:
3265:
3259:
3248:
3231:Lee, Chungmei;
3229:
3210:
3178:
3165:
3155:
3153:
3143:
3139:
3127:
3110:
3098:
3091:
3084:
3062:
3058:
3045:
3044:
3040:
3030:
3028:
3027:on May 27, 2010
3013:
3012:
3008:
2998:
2996:
2988:
2987:
2983:
2946:
2942:
2911:
2904:
2859:
2852:
2847:. May 27, 2014.
2839:
2838:
2834:
2826:
2820:
2809:
2799:
2797:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2777:
2775:
2768:
2759:
2750:
2740:
2738:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2710:
2706:
2661:
2654:
2644:
2642:
2634:Little, Becky.
2632:
2625:
2615:
2613:
2603:
2599:
2589:
2587:
2584:"Jim Crow Laws"
2582:
2581:
2577:
2567:
2565:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2542:
2540:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2512:
2505:
2496:
2495:
2491:
2482:
2481:
2477:
2468:
2467:
2463:
2454:
2453:
2449:
2440:
2439:
2435:
2426:
2425:
2421:
2411:
2409:
2399:
2395:
2385:
2383:
2365:
2361:
2310:
2303:
2272:
2265:
2249:
2248:
2236:
2220:
2216:
2165:
2161:
2110:
2103:
2093:
2091:
2084:
2078:
2074:
2064:
2062:
2052:
2048:
2013:
2002:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1957:Segregated prom
1907:
1863:
1848:
1815:
1802:
1759:
1754:
1725:charter schools
1717:
1650:
1617:suburban sprawl
1582:
1577:
1568:
1563:
1551:
1542:
1500:
1438:
1408:
1360:
1282:
1270:Oberlin Academy
1234:. In 1849, the
1178:
1169:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1120:
1094:Early childhood
1076:
1011:School violence
944:Charter schools
856:
850:
819:Nursing degrees
797:Legal education
792:Music education
787:Civic education
725:By subject area
700:
696:
675:
630:
629:
578:
577:
568:
567:
385:
384:
381:
373:
372:
231:
230:
221:
220:
153:
152:
118:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4868:
4858:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4815:
4814:
4812:
4811:
4799:
4798:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4770:
4763:
4760:
4759:
4757:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4703:Nuremberg Laws
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4678:Ghetto benches
4675:
4673:Discrimination
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4654:
4653:
4642:
4640:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4614:
4613:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4586:Ethnopluralism
4583:
4582:
4581:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4555:
4553:
4549:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4509:
4507:
4501:
4500:
4498:
4497:
4496:
4495:
4490:
4489:
4488:
4483:
4471:
4466:
4456:
4454:United Kingdom
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4360:
4358:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4292:
4290:
4284:
4283:
4278:
4277:
4270:
4263:
4255:
4249:
4248:
4234:
4233:External links
4231:
4230:
4229:
4225:10.7560/767553
4215:
4207:10.7560/767553
4193:
4192:
4183:
4180:
4177:
4176:
4124:
4095:
4052:
4026:
4000:
3974:
3955:(3): 505â520.
3936:
3917:
3883:
3864:(1): 199â218.
3844:
3817:(1): 435â476.
3794:
3775:(1): 197â238.
3759:
3745:
3714:
3689:
3662:(3): 361â373.
3642:
3603:
3590:10.1086/600386
3582:10.1086/600386
3576:(3): 349â383.
3553:
3527:
3488:
3472:
3438:
3403:
3382:
3366:
3346:
3328:
3286:
3246:
3208:
3189:(5): 548â570.
3163:
3137:
3108:
3089:
3082:
3056:
3038:
3006:
2981:
2960:(4): 392â422.
2940:
2902:
2873:(4): 392â422.
2850:
2832:
2807:
2785:
2748:
2723:
2704:
2652:
2623:
2597:
2575:
2550:
2525:
2503:
2489:
2475:
2461:
2447:
2433:
2419:
2393:
2359:
2324:(3): 508â535.
2301:
2282:(4): 531â555.
2263:
2234:
2214:
2159:
2101:
2072:
2046:
2027:(1): 199â218.
2000:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1862:
1859:
1847:
1844:
1822:, espousal of
1814:
1811:
1801:
1798:
1768:test score gap
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1745:magnet schools
1719:While greater
1716:
1713:
1649:
1646:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1550:
1547:
1541:
1538:
1499:
1496:
1437:
1434:
1407:
1404:
1364:Dunning School
1359:
1356:
1352:constitutional
1348:discrimination
1330:Following the
1281:
1278:
1177:
1176:Antebellum era
1174:
1171:
1170:
1168:
1167:
1160:
1153:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1106:Post-secondary
1083:
1082:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1062:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1045:
1040:
1039:
1038:
1031:Apprenticeship
1028:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
998:
997:
996:
991:
986:
981:
976:
971:
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946:
936:
935:
934:
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919:
914:
909:
904:
894:
889:
882:
881:
880:
878:Post-secondary
875:
864:
861:
860:
852:
851:
849:
848:
843:
838:
833:
828:
823:
822:
821:
816:
814:Medical school
806:
805:
804:
794:
789:
784:
779:
777:Normal schools
774:
768:
765:
764:
760:
759:
758:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
710:
709:
705:
704:
692:
691:
677:
676:
674:
673:
666:
659:
651:
648:
647:
646:
645:
640:
632:
631:
628:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
602:
597:
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590:
579:
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548:
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451:
446:
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426:
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424:
414:
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412:
407:
402:
397:
390:Anti-Romanyism
386:
380:
379:
378:
375:
374:
371:
370:
369:
368:
363:
358:
352:United States
350:
348:United Kingdom
345:
344:
343:
338:
328:
323:
322:
321:
319:Nuremberg Laws
311:
306:
301:
296:
292:Jewish ghettos
289:
282:
281:
280:
273:
263:
258:
257:
256:
251:
246:
238:
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228:
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196:
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182:
177:
172:
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170:
160:
154:
150:
149:
148:
145:
144:
136:
135:
129:
128:
127:of articles on
117:
114:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4867:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
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4833:
4831:
4828:
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4825:
4810:
4809:
4800:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4782:
4781:
4780:
4771:
4769:
4768:Pillarisation
4765:
4764:
4761:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
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4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4688:Jim Crow laws
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
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4629:
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4612:
4609:
4608:
4607:
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4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4580:
4577:
4576:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4564:Balkanization
4562:
4560:
4557:
4556:
4554:
4550:
4544:
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4534:
4531:
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4472:
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4467:
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4462:
4461:
4460:
4459:United States
4457:
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4309:
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3808:
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3778:
3774:
3770:
3763:
3748:
3746:9780444528193
3742:
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3727:
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3718:
3710:
3703:
3696:
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3685:
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3557:
3542:
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3531:
3516:
3509:
3505:
3504:Orfield, Gary
3499:
3497:
3495:
3493:
3485:
3479:
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3251:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3233:Orfield, Gary
3227:
3225:
3223:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
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3119:
3117:
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3113:
3105:
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3096:
3094:
3085:
3083:9781844671229
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2800:September 13,
2795:
2789:
2778:September 24,
2774:
2767:
2763:
2762:Orfield, Gary
2757:
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2458:. April 2004.
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2083:
2076:
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2042:
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2034:
2030:
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2018:
2011:
2009:
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2005:
1996:
1990:
1986:
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1827:
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1810:
1808:
1797:
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1789:
1785:
1782:
1777:
1776:socioeconomic
1771:
1769:
1764:
1749:
1746:
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1733:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1721:school choice
1715:School choice
1712:
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1505:
1495:
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1487:
1483:
1479:
1478:public school
1474:
1470:
1466:
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1460:
1459:
1454:
1447:
1442:
1433:
1431:
1430:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1412:
1403:
1401:
1400:
1391:
1390:Jim Crow Laws
1386:
1382:
1379:
1375:
1374:Jim Crow laws
1371:
1370:
1365:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1307:in 1877. The
1306:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1289:Jim Crow laws
1286:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1266:Black schools
1263:
1261:
1260:David Daggett
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1228:abolitionists
1225:
1221:
1220:Noyes Academy
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1187:was limited.
1186:
1182:
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1161:
1159:
1154:
1152:
1147:
1146:
1144:
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1140:
1129:
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1119:
1118:
1113:
1112:Organizations
1110:
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1103:
1099:
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1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
995:
992:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
979:School choice
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
941:
940:
937:
933:
932:Student loans
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
912:Credentialism
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
899:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
887:
883:
879:
876:
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871:
870:
869:
868:Accreditation
866:
865:
863:
862:
859:
854:
853:
847:
844:
842:
841:Sex education
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
820:
817:
815:
812:
811:
810:
807:
803:
800:
799:
798:
795:
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790:
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783:
782:Art education
780:
778:
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761:
756:
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751:
748:
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701:United States
694:
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688:
683:
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644:
641:
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623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
610:One-drop rule
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
589:
588:Statelessness
586:
585:
584:
581:
580:
572:
571:
564:
561:
559:
556:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
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531:United States
529:
527:
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403:
401:
398:
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392:
391:
388:
387:
377:
376:
367:
364:
362:
361:Jim Crow laws
359:
357:
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351:
349:
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342:
339:
337:
334:
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329:
327:
324:
320:
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297:
295:
290:
288:
285:GreekâTurkish
283:
279:
278:
274:
272:
271:
267:
266:
264:
262:
261:Fascist Italy
259:
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225:
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186:
185:Environmental
183:
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169:
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159:
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155:
147:
146:
142:
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113:
109:
105:
102:
98:
97:desegregation
94:
93:school choice
90:
86:
84:
83:
78:
74:
73:
68:
64:
60:
59:Jim Crow laws
56:
52:
48:
44:
39:
35:
30:
26:
21:
4806:
4777:
4528:Saudi Arabia
4478:
4473:
4444:Saudi Arabia
4331:Saudi Arabia
4198:
4188:
4169:November 24,
4167:. Retrieved
4160:the original
4147:
4143:
4117:November 21,
4115:. Retrieved
4111:
4098:
4068:(1): 49â75.
4065:
4061:
4055:
4043:. Retrieved
4039:
4029:
4017:. Retrieved
4013:
4003:
3991:. Retrieved
3987:
3977:
3952:
3948:
3930:
3926:
3920:
3903:
3899:
3861:
3857:
3847:
3814:
3810:
3772:
3768:
3762:
3752:November 19,
3750:. Retrieved
3724:
3717:
3708:
3659:
3655:
3645:
3620:
3616:
3606:
3573:
3569:
3556:
3544:. Retrieved
3540:
3530:
3518:. Retrieved
3514:
3463:. Retrieved
3459:
3429:. Retrieved
3398:
3359:
3340:
3306:
3302:
3277:. Retrieved
3273:
3269:
3240:
3186:
3182:
3154:. Retrieved
3150:
3140:
3132:
3103:
3067:
3059:
3050:
3041:
3029:. Retrieved
3025:the original
3018:
3009:
2997:. Retrieved
2993:
2984:
2957:
2953:
2943:
2918:
2914:
2870:
2866:
2844:
2835:
2798:. Retrieved
2788:
2776:. Retrieved
2772:
2739:. Retrieved
2735:
2726:
2717:
2713:
2707:
2675:(5): 34â57.
2672:
2668:
2643:. Retrieved
2639:
2614:. Retrieved
2610:
2600:
2588:. Retrieved
2578:
2566:. Retrieved
2562:
2553:
2541:. Retrieved
2537:
2528:
2520:
2516:
2492:
2478:
2464:
2450:
2436:
2422:
2410:. Retrieved
2407:The Atlantic
2406:
2396:
2384:. Retrieved
2372:
2362:
2321:
2317:
2279:
2275:
2228:. New York.
2224:
2217:
2176:
2172:
2162:
2124:(5): 35â38.
2121:
2117:
2092:. Retrieved
2088:
2075:
2063:. Retrieved
2060:The Atlantic
2059:
2049:
2024:
2020:
1989:
1966:
1894:
1890:
1878:
1874:income-based
1866:
1864:
1854:
1850:
1849:
1836:
1832:white-collar
1828:
1816:
1803:
1790:
1786:
1772:
1760:
1742:
1738:Sean Reardon
1734:
1729:white flight
1718:
1708:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1679:
1672:
1670:
1663:
1653:
1651:
1642:
1634:
1630:
1625:Sean Reardon
1622:
1613:white flight
1594:
1583:
1569:
1552:
1543:
1523:
1518:
1510:
1507:
1501:
1489:
1485:
1472:
1462:
1456:
1452:
1451:
1427:
1416:
1409:
1406:New Deal era
1397:
1395:
1367:
1361:
1358:Jim Crow era
1329:
1301:white people
1298:
1264:
1201:
1179:
1088:
1006:School meals
988:
884:
684:
545:
492: /
482:
439:Saudi Arabia
331:South Africa
314:Nazi Germany
275:
268:
187: /
110:
106:
87:
80:
76:
70:
37:
36:
34:
25:Ruby Bridges
4663:Black Codes
4611:labor camps
4518:Afghanistan
3520:November 1,
3465:November 4,
3431:October 19,
3279:October 19,
3031:January 22,
2999:October 24,
2741:October 19,
2645:October 15,
2616:October 18,
2611:www.loc.gov
2590:November 1,
2568:October 17,
2543:October 17,
2179:(5): 8â13.
2094:November 4,
1898:controlling
1886:zoning laws
1840:2000 Census
1511:segregation
1488:(1971) and
1232:New England
1226:founded by
583:Citizenship
551:Residential
434:Gulf states
356:Black Codes
244:Pass system
168:Allegations
43:U.S. states
4824:Categories
4766:See also:
4754:Xenophobia
4606:Internment
4591:Ethnocracy
2412:January 4,
2386:January 4,
2065:January 4,
974:Head Start
949:Inequality
802:Law school
506:Mauritania
410:Roma walls
336:Bantustans
180:Xenophobia
4646:Apartheid
4579:Bantustan
4464:Civil War
4288:Religious
4045:March 30,
4019:March 30,
3993:March 30,
3969:214186454
3906:: 26â49.
3878:0360-0572
3831:0033-5533
3789:143278881
3684:143536577
3676:1750-8487
3546:March 31,
3323:0264-2751
3203:143706769
3156:March 31,
2976:240357463
2935:142762356
2921:: 64â89.
2897:240357463
2889:0018-2680
2691:2377-8253
2381:0362-4331
2354:145549866
2338:0002-8312
2296:145441194
2252:cite book
2244:912045191
2209:150138749
2193:0031-7217
2154:151100046
2138:0031-7217
2041:0360-0572
1981:Footnotes
1861:Proposals
1813:Economics
1807:prejudice
1757:Education
1216:Black Law
1202:In 1832,
1102:Secondary
886:Financing
620:Ethnicity
536:Academies
461:Uthapuram
341:Pass laws
277:Indigénat
270:Code Noir
236:Australia
214:Redlining
4779:Category
4739:Shunning
4735:(Canada)
4698:Nativism
4552:Dynamics
4429:Rhodesia
4424:Portugal
4419:Malaysia
4384:Bulgaria
4326:Portugal
4090:20367573
3839:26372552
3637:13468169
3598:32967483
3341:CQ Press
3309:: 1â13.
3235:(2005).
2764:(2001).
2346:27975300
2201:26614874
2146:26614879
1905:See also
1752:Outcomes
1519:de facto
1508:de facto
772:Literacy
716:By state
687:a series
638:Category
558:Xinjiang
501:Malaysia
494:barriers
405:Slovenia
326:Rhodesia
151:Overview
125:a series
123:Part of
77:de facto
4808:Commons
4713:Rankism
4683:Hafrada
4637:Related
4533:Judaism
4409:Germany
4369:Bahrain
4346:Myanmar
4341:Bahrain
4082:3699542
2699:4671848
2640:HISTORY
1575:Sources
1464:de jure
1369:de jure
1291:in the
1098:Primary
708:Summary
643:Commons
576:Related
546:Schools
541:Housing
516:Myanmar
511:Morocco
484:Hafrada
466:Muslims
422:Schools
400:Romania
240:Canada
101:de jure
4795:racial
4790:gender
4708:Racism
4639:topics
4505:Gender
4414:Israel
4404:France
4374:Brazil
4364:Canada
4311:Serbia
4306:Israel
4223:
4213:
4088:
4080:
3967:
3876:
3837:
3829:
3787:
3743:
3682:
3674:
3635:
3596:
3588:
3321:
3303:Cities
3201:
3080:
2974:
2933:
2895:
2887:
2697:
2689:
2379:
2352:
2344:
2336:
2294:
2242:
2232:
2207:
2199:
2191:
2152:
2144:
2136:
2039:
1660:busing
1615:â and
1609:zoning
1532:, and
1473:Brown,
1461:ended
1381:equal.
1334:, the
1326:(1941)
1195:, and
939:Reform
902:Bubble
473:Israel
429:Cyprus
4785:caste
4513:Islam
4439:Spain
4336:Spain
4221:JSTOR
4163:(PDF)
4140:(PDF)
4108:(PDF)
4086:S2CID
4078:JSTOR
3965:S2CID
3835:JSTOR
3785:S2CID
3729:(PDF)
3705:(PDF)
3680:S2CID
3633:S2CID
3594:S2CID
3586:JSTOR
3566:(PDF)
3511:(PDF)
3456:(PDF)
3425:(PDF)
3266:(PDF)
3199:S2CID
2972:S2CID
2931:S2CID
2893:S2CID
2827:(PDF)
2769:(PDF)
2695:S2CID
2350:S2CID
2342:JSTOR
2292:S2CID
2205:S2CID
2197:JSTOR
2150:S2CID
2142:JSTOR
2085:(PDF)
1534:LULAC
1526:NAACP
563:Yemen
526:Sudan
456:India
395:Italy
175:Caste
4651:laws
4523:Iran
4399:Fiji
4211:ISBN
4171:2013
4119:2013
4047:2023
4021:2023
3995:2023
3874:ISSN
3827:ISSN
3754:2013
3741:ISBN
3672:ISSN
3548:2023
3522:2013
3467:2013
3433:2013
3319:ISSN
3281:2013
3158:2023
3078:ISBN
3033:2019
3001:2022
2885:ISSN
2802:2020
2780:2013
2743:2021
2687:ISSN
2647:2021
2618:2021
2592:2013
2570:2021
2545:2021
2414:2022
2388:2022
2377:ISSN
2334:ISSN
2258:link
2240:OCLC
2230:ISBN
2189:ISSN
2134:ISSN
2096:2013
2067:2022
2037:ISSN
1707:and
1530:ACLU
1362:The
1104:) â
1090:Kâ12
718:and
615:Race
91:and
4203:doi
4152:doi
4148:107
4070:doi
3957:doi
3908:doi
3866:doi
3819:doi
3815:129
3777:doi
3733:doi
3664:doi
3625:doi
3578:doi
3311:doi
3191:doi
2962:doi
2923:doi
2875:doi
2677:doi
2326:doi
2284:doi
2181:doi
2177:100
2126:doi
2122:100
2029:doi
1311:'s
1246:).
1230:in
1210:in
444:UAE
4826::
4219:.
4209:.
4146:.
4142:.
4127:^
4110:.
4084:.
4076:.
4066:28
4064:.
4038:.
4012:.
3986:.
3963:.
3953:52
3951:.
3939:^
3931:80
3929:.
3904:87
3902:.
3898:.
3886:^
3872:.
3862:40
3860:.
3856:.
3833:.
3825:.
3813:.
3809:.
3797:^
3783:.
3773:36
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