Shoaling and schooling

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There must be very fast response systems to allow the fish to do this. Young fish practice schooling techniques in pairs, and then in larger groups as their techniques and senses mature. The schooling behaviour develops instinctively and is not learned from older fish. To school the way they do, fish require sensory systems which can respond with great speed to small changes in their position relative to their neighbour. Most schools lose their schooling abilities after dark, and just shoal. This indicates that vision is important to schooling. The importance of vision is also indicated by the behaviour of fish who have been temporarily blinded. Schooling species have eyes on the sides of their heads, which means they can easily see their neighbours. Also, schooling species often have "schooling marks" on their shoulders or the base of their tails, or visually prominent stripes, which provide reference marks when schooling, similar in function to

880:, and interacts with the confusion effect. A given predator attack will eat a smaller proportion of a large shoal than a small shoal. Hamilton proposed that animals aggregate because of a "selfish" avoidance of a predator and was thus a form of cover-seeking. Another formulation of the theory was given by Turner and Pitcher and was viewed as a combination of detection and attack probabilities. In the detection component of the theory, it was suggested that potential prey might benefit by living together since a predator is less likely to chance upon a single group than a scattered distribution. In the attack component, it was thought that an attacking predator is less likely to eat a particular fish when a greater number of fish are present. In sum, a fish has an advantage if it is in the larger of two groups, assuming that the probability of detection and attack does not increase disproportionately with the size of the group. 942:(OLS) had developed, the risk of predation would have been limited and mainly due to invertebrate predators. Hence, at that time, safety in numbers was probably not a major incentive for gathering in shoals or schools. The development of vision and the OLS would have permitted detection of potential prey. This could have led to an increased potential for cannibalism within the shoal. On the other hand, increased quality of perception would give small individuals a chance to escape or to never join a shoal with larger fish. It has been shown that small fish avoid joining a group with larger fish, although big fish do not avoid joining small conspecifics. This sorting mechanism based on increased quality of perception could have resulted in homogeneity of size of fish in shoals, which would increase the capacity for moving in synchrony. 1694:. A quorum response has been defined as "a steep increase in the probability of group members performing a given behaviour once a threshold minimum number of their group mates already performing that behaviour is exceeded". A recent investigation showed that small groups of fish used consensus decision-making when deciding which fish model to follow. The fish did this by a simple quorum rule such that individuals watched the decisions of others before making their own decisions. This technique generally resulted in the 'correct' decision but occasionally cascaded into the 'incorrect' decision. In addition, as the group size increased, the fish made more accurate decisions in following the more attractive fish model. Consensus decision-making, a form of 1042: 1327: 1410: 1315: 826: 951: 802:

gains do occur in the wild. More recent experiments with groups of fish swimming in flumes support this, with fish reducing their swimming costs by as much as 20% as compared to when the same fish are swimming in isolation. Landa (1998) argued that the leader of a school constantly changes, because while being in the body of a school gives a hydrodynamic advantage, the leader will be the first to the food. More recent work suggests that, after individuals at the front of the school encounter and ingest more food, they then relocate further back within the school due to the locomotor constraints generated during meal digestion.

61: 9993: 251: 1376:– The packing fraction is a parameter borrowed from physics to define the organization (or state i.e. solid, liquid, or gas) of 3D fish groups. It is an alternative measure to density. In this parameter, the aggregation is idealized as an ensemble of solid spheres, with each fish at the center of a sphere. The packing fraction is defined as the ratio of the total volume occupied by all individual spheres divided by the global volume of the aggregation. Values range from zero to one, where a small packing fraction represents a dilute system like a gas. 654: 834: 622: 1028: 1717:) found they formed shoals which were led by a small number of experienced individuals who knew when and where food was available. If all golden shiners in a shoal have similar knowledge of food availability, there are a few individuals that still emerge as natural leaders (being at the front more often) and behavioural tests suggest they are naturally bolder. Smaller golden shiners appear more willing than larger ones to be near the front of the shoal, perhaps because they are hungrier. Observations on the 670: 1351: 992: 9383: 83: 1189: 1177: 1165: 8188: 1016: 1004: 1216: 1456: 1446: 9180: 9162: 1339: 811: 10247: 1844: 348: 919: 865:

confuse the lateral line perception. The LLO is essential in the final stages of a predator attack. Electro-receptive animals may localize a field source by using spatial non-uniformities. To produce separate signals, individual prey must be about five body widths apart. If objects are too close together to be distinguished, they will form a blurred image. Based on this it was suggested that schooling may confuse the ESS of predators.

1480: 1232: 708: 152: 934:. Bait balls can be up to 20 metres (66 ft) in diameter. They are short lived, seldom lasting longer than 20 minutes. The fish eggs, left behind at the Agulhas Banks, drift north west with the current into waters off the west coast, where the larvae develop into juvenile fish. When they are old enough, they aggregate into dense shoals and migrate southwards, returning to the Agulhas banks to restart the cycle. 9192: 356: 486: 1731: 231:. Although shoaling fish can relate to each other in a loose way, with each fish swimming and foraging somewhat independently, they are nonetheless aware of the other members of the group as shown by the way they adjust behaviour such as swimming, so as to remain close to the other fish in the group. Shoaling groups can include fish of disparate sizes and can include mixed-species subgroups. 1921:, and hunt for their prey in a cooperative fashion, the first observation of such behaviour in invertebrates. The Humboldt squid is also known to quickly devour larger prey when cooperatively hunting in groups. Humboldt squid are known for their speed in feasting on hooked fish, sharks, and squid, even from their own species and shoal, and have been known to attack fishermen and divers. 1204: 550:. These can transport nutrients which plankton thrive on. The result can be rich feeding grounds attractive to the plankton feeding forage fish. In turn, the forage fish themselves become a feeding ground for larger predator fish. Most upwellings are coastal, and many of them support some of the most productive fisheries in the world. Regions of notable upwelling include coastal 638: 473:

effect has been attributed to stress, and the effect of being with conspecifics therefore appears to be a calming one and a powerful social motivation for remaining in an aggregation. Herring, for instance, will become very agitated if they are isolated from conspecifics. Because of their adaptation to schooling behaviour they are rarely displayed in

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Milinski and Heller's findings have been corroborated both in experiment and computer simulations. "Shoaling fish are the same size and silvery, so it is difficult for a visually oriented predator to pick an individual out of a mass of twisting, flashing fish and then have enough time to grab its prey before it disappears into the shoal."

1385:– This parameter is usually used in physics to characterize the degree of spatial order in a system of particles. It also describes the density, but this measure describes the density at a distance away from a given point. Cavagna et al. found that flocks of starlings exhibited more structure than a gas but less than a liquid. 1100:, as many as 18,000 dolphins, behaving like sheepdogs, herd the sardines into bait balls, or corral them in shallow water. Once the bait balls are rounded up, the dolphins and other predators take turns ploughing through them, gorging on the fish as they sweep through. Seabirds also attack them from above, flocks of 456:"Shoaling behaviour is generally described as a trade-off between the anti-predator benefits of living in groups and the costs of increased foraging competition." Landa (1998) argues that the cumulative advantages of shoaling, as elaborated below, are strong selective inducements for fish to join shoals. Parrish 1434: 1746:

Fish generally prefer larger shoals. This makes sense, as larger shoal usually provide better protection against predators. Indeed, the preference for larger shoals seems stronger when predators are nearby, or in species that rely more on shoaling than body armour against predation. Larger shoals may

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Experimental studies of shoal preference are relatively easy to perform. An aquarium containing a choosing fish is sandwiched between two aquaria containing different shoals, and the choosing fish is assumed to spend more time next to the shoal it prefers. Studies of this kind have identified several

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travelling around a sport stadium. A rapid transition then occurs, and the fish become highly polarised and synchronized in the manner of schooling fish. After the transition, the schools start migrating, extending up to 40 kilometres (25 mi) across the ocean, to shallow parts of the bank. There

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A third proposed benefit of fish groups is that they serve a reproductive function. They provide increased access to potential mates, since finding a mate in a shoal does not take much energy. And for migrating fish that navigate long distances to spawn, it is likely that the navigation of the shoal,

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When schooling fish stop to feed, they break ranks and become shoals. Shoals are more vulnerable to predator attack. The shape a shoal or school takes depends on the type of fish and what the fish are doing. Schools that are travelling can form long thin lines, or squares or ovals or amoeboid shapes.

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can discriminate between shoals composed of good versus poor competitors, even in the absence of obvious cues such as differences in aggressiveness, size, or feeding rate; they prefer to associate with the poor competitors. All of this suggests a strategy to obtain food, as bolder individuals should

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Fish schools swim in disciplined phalanxes, with some species, such as herrings, able to stream up and down at impressive speeds, twisting this way and that, and making startling changes in the shape of the school, without collisions. It is as if their motions are choreographed, though they are not.

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use their long tails to stun shoaling fishes. Before striking, the sharks compact schools of prey by swimming around them and splashing the water with their tails, often in pairs or small groups. Threshers swim in circles to drive schooling prey into a compact mass, before striking them sharply with

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is a line running along each side of the fish from the gill covers to the base of the tail. In laboratory experiments the lateral lines of schooling fish have been removed. They swam closer, leading to a theory that the lateral lines provide additional stimuli input when the fish get too close. The

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are known to engage in interspecific cooperative fishing with human fishermen. The dolphins drive a school of fish towards the shore where humans await with their nets. In the confusion of casting nets, the dolphins catch a large number of fish as well. Intraspecific cooperative foraging techniques

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system (ESS) of predators. Fin movements of a single fish act as a point-shaped wave source, emitting a gradient by which predators might localize it. Since fields of many fish will overlap, schooling should obscure this gradient, perhaps mimicking pressure waves of a larger animal, and more likely

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It would seem reasonable to think that the regular spacing and size uniformity of fish in schools would result in hydrodynamic efficiencies. While early laboratory-based experiments failed to detect hydrodynamic benefits created by the neighbours of a fish in a school, it is thought that efficiency

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have been observed using another technique. One dolphin acts as a "driver" and herds a school of fish towards several other dolphins who form a barrier. The driver dolphin slaps its fluke which makes the fish leap into the air. As the fish leap, the driver dolphin moves with the barrier dolphins

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the pressure-wave of an approaching herring and react with a fast escape jump. The length of the jump is fairly constant. The fish align themselves in a grid with this characteristic jump length. A copepod can dart about 80 times before it tires. After a jump, it takes it 60 milliseconds to spread

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and goldfish to find a patch of food was quantified. The number of fishes in the groups was varied, and a statistically significant decrease in the amount of time necessary for larger groups to find food was established. Further support for an enhanced foraging capability of schools is seen in the

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on bait balls. Lunge feeding is an extreme feeding method, in which the whale accelerates from below a bait ball to a high velocity and then opens its mouth to a large gape angle. This generates the water pressure required to expand its mouth and engulf and filter a huge amount of water and fish.

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Support for the social and genetic function of aggregations, especially those formed by fish, can be seen in several aspects of their behaviour. For instance, experiments have shown that individual fish removed from a school will have a higher respiratory rate than those found in the school. This

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fish per cubic yard), totalling about three billion fish in a single school. These schools move along coastlines and traverse the open oceans. Herring schools in general have very precise arrangements which allow the school to maintain relatively constant cruising speeds. Herrings have excellent

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Fish tend to prefer shoals made up of individuals that match their own size. This makes sense as predators have an easier time catching individuals that stand out in a shoal. Some fish may even prefer shoals of another species if this means a better match in current body size. As for shoal size

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Nearest neighbour distance – The nearest neighbour distance (NND) describes the distance between the centroid of one fish (the focal fish) and the centroid of the fish nearest to the focal fish. This parameter can be found for each fish in an aggregation and then averaged. Care must be taken to

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is the "predator confusion effect" proposed and demonstrated by Milinski and Heller (1978). This theory is based on the idea that it becomes difficult for predators to choose individual prey from groups because the many moving targets create a sensory overload of the predator's visual channel.

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of fish is the general term for any collection of fish that have gathered together in some locality. Fish aggregations can be structured or unstructured. An unstructured aggregation might be a group of mixed species and sizes that have gathered randomly near some local resource, such as food or

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fish live in loose shoals. They have a symbiotic relationship with the parasite eating senorita fish. When they encounter a shoal of senorita fish, they stop and form a tight ball and hang upside down (pictured), each fish waiting its turn to be cleaned. The senorita fish pick dead tissues and

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have a reputation as fearless fish that hunt in ferocious packs. However, recent research, which "started off with the premise that they school as a means of cooperative hunting", discovered that they were in fact rather fearful fish, like other fish, which schooled for protection from their

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Polarity – The group polarity describes the extent to which the fish are all pointing in the same direction. In order to determine this parameter, the average orientation of all animals in the group is determined. For each animal, the angular difference between its orientation and the group

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Sticklebacks and killifish have been shown to prefer shoals made up of healthy individuals over parasitized ones, on the basis of visual signs of parasitism and abnormal behaviour by the parasitized fish. Zebrafish prefer shoals that consist of well-fed (greater stomach width) fish over

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hunting, predator confusion and reduced risk of being found. Schooling also has disadvantages, such as excretion buildup in the breathing media and oxygen and food depletion. The way the fish array in the school probably gives energy saving advantages, though this is controversial.

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A third potential anti-predator effect of animal aggregations is the "many eyes" hypothesis. This theory states that as the size of the group increases, the task of scanning the environment for predators can be spread out over many individuals. Not only does this

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Fish prefer to shoal with their own species. Sometimes, several species may become mingled in one shoal, but when a predator is presented to such shoals, the fish reorganize themselves so that each individual ends up being closer to members of its own species.

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have shown that food-deprived individuals tend to be at the front of a shoal, where they obtain more food but where they may also be more vulnerable to ambush predators. Individuals that are wary of predation tend to seek more central positions within shoals.

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structure of schools of predatory fish. Partridge and others analysed the school structure of Atlantic bluefin tuna from aerial photographs and found that the school assumed a parabolic shape, a fact that was suggestive of cooperative hunting in this species.

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are among the more spectacular schooling fish. They aggregate together in huge numbers. The largest schools are often formed during migrations by merging with smaller schools. "Chains" of schools one hundred kilometres (60 miles) long have been observed of

361: 1931: 603:(see photo below left). When they spread their antennae they can sense the pressure wave from an approaching fish and jump with great speed over a few centimeters. If copepod concentrations reach high levels, schooling herrings adopt a method called 1933: 238:. Schooling fish are usually of the same species and the same age/size. Fish schools move with the individual members precisely spaced from each other. The schools undertake complicated manoeuvres, as though the schools have minds of their own. 1747:

also find food faster, though that food would have to be shared amongst more individuals. Competition may mean that hungry individuals might prefer smaller shoals or exhibit a lesser preference for very large shoals, as shown in sticklebacks.

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Density – The density of a fish shoal is the number of fish divided by the volume occupied by the shoal. Density is not necessarily a constant throughout the group. Fish in schools typically have a density of about one fish per cube of body

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posits that any shoal member that stands out in appearance will be preferentially targeted by predators. This may explain why fish prefer to shoal with individuals that resemble themselves. The oddity effect thus tends to homogenize shoals.

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account for the fish located at the edge of a fish aggregation, since these fish have no neighbour in one direction. The NND is also related to the packing density. For schooling fish the NND is usually between one-half and one body length.

519:"The reason for this is the presence of many eyes searching for the food. Fish in shoals "share" information by monitoring each other's behaviour closely. Feeding behaviour in one fish quickly stimulates food-searching behaviour in others. 3963:

Proceedings and Recommendations from a Workshop held in Beaufort, North Carolina, 13 September 1993 – 14 September 1993. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. pp.

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hearing, and their schools react very rapidly to a predator. The herrings keep a certain distance from a moving scuba diver or a cruising predator like a killer whale, forming a vacuole which looks like a doughnut from a spotter plane.

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Fish schools are faced with decisions they must make if they are to remain together. For example, a decision might be which direction to swim when confronted by a predator, which areas to stop and forage, or when and where to migrate.

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In a masters thesis published in 2008, Moshi Charnell produced schooling behaviour without using the alignment matching component of an individual's behaviour. His model reduces the three basic rules to the following two rules:

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Shoaling fish can shift into a disciplined and coordinated school, then shift back to an amorphous shoal within seconds. Such shifts are triggered by changes of activity from feeding, resting, travelling or avoiding predators.

774:. Around Iceland maturing capelin make large northward feeding migrations in spring and summer. The return migration takes place in September to November. The spawning migration starts north of Iceland in December or January. 937:

The development of schooling behavior was probably associated with an increased quality of perception, predatory lifestyle and size sorting mechanisms to avoid cannibalism. In filter-feeding ancestors, before vision and the

1934: 1291:– The number of fish in the shoal. A remote sensing technique has been used near the edge of the continental shelf off the east coast of North America to take images of fish shoals. The shoals – most likely made up of 1904:

which bring them closer to the surface from dusk to dawn. They hunt near the surface at night, taking advantage of the dark to use their keen vision to feed on more plentiful prey. The squid feed primarily on small

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however, hunger can affect the preference for similarly sized fish; large fish, for example, might prefer to associate with smaller ones because of the competitive advantage they will gain over these shoalmates. In

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In a paper published in 2009, researchers from Iceland recount their application of an interacting particle model to the capelin stock around Iceland, successfully predicting the spawning migration route for 2008.

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its antennae again, and this time delay becomes its undoing, as the almost endless stream of herrings allows a herring to eventually snap the copepod. A single juvenile herring could never catch a large copepod.

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researchers observed for "the first time the formation and subsequent migration of a huge shoal of fish." The results provide the first field confirmation of general theories about how large groups behave, from

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Fish use many traits to choose shoalmates. Generally they prefer larger shoals, shoalmates of their own species, shoalmates similar in size and appearance to themselves, healthy fish, and kin (when recognized).

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The intricacies of schooling are far from fully understood, especially the swimming and feeding energetics. Many hypotheses to explain the function of schooling have been suggested, such as better orientation,

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are large carnivorous marine invertebrates that move in schools of up to 1,200 individuals. They swim at speeds of up to 24 kilometres per hour (15 mph or 13 kn) propelled by water ejected through a

1263:, typically 0.1 to 0.2 mm long. The hair cells in the lateral line are similar to the hair cells inside the vertebrate inner ear, indicating that the lateral line and the inner ear share a common origin. 719:

between their spawning, feeding and nursery grounds. Schools of a particular stock usually travel in a triangle between these grounds. For example, one stock of herrings have their spawning ground in southern

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Makris, NC; Ratilal, P; Jagannathan, S; Gong, Z; Andrews, M; Bertsatos, I; Godø, OR; Nero, RW; Jech, M; et al. (2009). "Critical Population Density Triggers Rapid Formation of Vast Oceanic Fish Shoals".

464:, where there are properties that are possessed by the school but not by the individual fish. Emergent properties give an evolutionary advantage to members of the school which non members do not receive. 1675:

they spawn during the night. In the morning, the fish school back to deeper water again and then disband. Small groups of leaders were also discovered that significantly influenced much larger groups.

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charge vertically through the school, spinning on their axis with their mouths open and snapping all around. The shark's momentum at the end of these spiralling runs often carries it into the air.

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where they spawn during spring and summer, releasing tens of thousands of eggs into the water. The adult sardines then make their way in hundreds of shoals towards the sub-tropical waters of the

360: 1670:. They found that the fish come together from deeper water in the evening, shoaling in a disordered way. A chain reaction triggers when the population density reaches a critical value, like an 1277:

It is difficult to observe and describe the three dimensional structure of real world fish shoals because of the large number of fish involved. Techniques include the use of recent advances in

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have also been observed, and some propose that these behaviours are transmitted through cultural means. Rendell & Whitehead have proposed a structure for the study of culture in cetaceans.

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The fish swim in a grid where the distance between them is the same as the jump length of their prey, as indicated in the animation above right. In the animation, juvenile herring hunt the

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Krause, J.; Godin, J.-G.J.; Rubenstein, D. (1998). "Group choice as a function of group size differences and assessment time in fish: the influence of species vulnerability to predation".

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The observational approach is complemented by the mathematical modelling of schools. The most common mathematical models of schools instruct the individual animals to follow three rules:

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If the shoal becomes more tightly organised, with the fish synchronising their swimming so they all move at the same speed and in the same direction, then the fish may be said to be

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Shoaling is a special case of aggregating, and schooling is a special case of shoaling. While schooling and shoaling mean different things within biology, they are often treated as

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Fish derive many benefits from shoaling behaviour including defence against predators (through better predator detection and by diluting the chance of individual capture), enhanced

2350: 1932: 728:, and their nursery ground in northern Norway. Wide triangular journeys such as these may be important because forage fish, when feeding, cannot distinguish their own offspring. 507:

It has also been proposed that swimming in groups enhances foraging success. This ability was demonstrated by Pitcher and others in their study of foraging behaviour in shoaling

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Makris, N.C.; Ratilal, P.; Symonds, D.T.; Jagannathan, S.; Lee, S.; Nero, R.W. (2006). "Fish Population and Behavior Revealed by Instantaneous Continental Shelf-Scale Imaging".

1062:, where a pod will control a school of fish while individual members take turns ploughing through and feeding on the more tightly packed school (a formation commonly known as a 907:. A larger shoal might be 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) long, 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) wide and 30 metres (98 ft) deep. Huge numbers of sharks, dolphins, tuna, sailfish, 595:. Copepods are typically one millimetre (0.04 in) to two millimetres (0.08 in) long, with a teardrop shaped body. Some scientists say they form the largest animal 1698:, thus effectively uses information from multiple sources to generally reach the correct conclusion. Such behaviour has also been demonstrated in the shoaling behaviour of 1379:

Integrated conditional density – This parameter measures the density at various length scales and therefore describes the homogeneity of density throughout an animal group.

409:. Radakov estimated herring schools in the North Atlantic can occupy up to 4.8 cubic kilometres (1.2 cubic miles) with fish densities between 0.5 and 1.0 fish/cubic metre ( 390:). Forage fish are short-lived, and go mostly unnoticed by humans. The predators are keenly focused on the shoals, acutely aware of their numbers and whereabouts, and make 10236: 115:. In common usage, the terms are sometimes used rather loosely. About one quarter of fish species shoal all their lives, and about one half shoal for part of their lives. 4957:

Makris, NC; Ratilal, P; Symonds, DT; Jagannathan, S; Lee, S; Nero, RW (2006). "Fish Population and Behavior Revealed by Instantaneous Continental Shelf-Scale Imaging".

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can also detect the anticipatory activity of shoals that expect to be fed soon, and preferentially join such shoals. Zebrafish also choose shoals that are more active.

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The shape of these zones will necessarily be affected by the sensory capabilities of the fish. Fish rely on both vision and on hydrodynamic signals relayed through its

1116:. Some of these seabirds plummet from heights of 30 metres (100 feet), plunging through the water leaving vapour-like trails, similar to that of fighter planes. 3374:

New, JG; Fewkes, LA; Khan, AN (2001). "Strike feeding behavior in the muskellunge, Esox masquinongy: Contributions of the lateral line and visual sensory systems".

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Nearest neighbour position – In a polar coordinate system, the nearest neighbour position describes the angle and distance of the nearest neighbour to a focal fish.

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Cavagna, A.; Cimarelli, Giardina; Orlandi, Parisi; Procaccini, Santagati; Stefanini (2008). "New statistical tools for analyzing the structure of animal groups".

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vessels use spotter planes to locate schooling fish, such as tuna, cod, mackerel and forage fish. They can capture huge schools by rapidly encircling them with

336:. Forage fish compensate for their small size by forming schools. Some swim in synchronised grids with their mouths open so they can efficiently filter feed on 9977: 1575:

In the outmost zone of attraction, which extends as far away from the focal fish as it is able to sense, the focal fish will seek to move towards a neighbour.

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Harcourt, J.L.; Sweetman, G.; Johnstone, R.A.; Manica, A. (2009). "Personality counts: the effect of boldness on shoal choice in three-spined sticklebacks".

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bear suckers lined with sharp teeth with which they grasp prey and drag it towards a large, sharp beak. During the day the Humboldt squid behave similar to

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Krause, J.; Bumann, D.; Todt, D. (1992). "Relationship between the position preference and nutritional state of individuals in schools of juvenile roach (

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over many generations in the model. These studies have investigated a number of hypotheses explaining why animals evolve swarming behaviour, such as the

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in 1995 Many current models use variations on these rules. For instance, many models implement these three rules through layered zones around each fish.

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Webster, M.M.; Adams, E.L.; Laland, K.N. (2008). "Diet-specific chemical cues influence association preferences and prey patch use in a shoaling fish".

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charge at high speed through forage fish schools, slashing with their swords to kill or stun prey. They then turn and return to consume their "catch".

1440:↑ Large schools, like this one, still follow positional evaluation and are regulated by the same density and volume characteristics as smaller schools 5611:

Ashley, E.J.; Kats, L.B.; Wolfe, J.W. (1993). "Balancing trade-offs between risk and changing shoal size in northern red-belly dace (Phoxinus eos)".

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Other open questions of shoaling behaviour include identifying which individuals are responsible for the direction of shoal movement. In the case of

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Gilly, W.F.; Markaida, U.; Baxter, C.H.; Block, B.A.; Boustany, A.; Zeidberg, L.; Reisenbichler, K.; Robison, B.; Bazzino, G.; Salinas, C. (2006).

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plunge into the water at up to 100 kilometres per hour (60 mph). They have air sacs under their skin in their face and chest which act like

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Magurran, A.E.; Seghers, B.H.; Shaw, P.W.; Carvalho, G.R. (1994). "Schooling preferences for familiar fish in the guppy, Poecilia reticulata".

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In the zone of repulsion very close to the fish, the focal fish will seek to distance itself from its neighbours in order to avoid a collision.

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in artificial motion capture. However fish without these markers will still engage in schooling behaviour, though perhaps not as efficiently.

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A fourth hypothesis for an anti-predatory effect of fish schools is the "encounter dilution" effect. The dilution effect is an elaboration of

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takes this one step further with what has become known as strand feeding, where the fish are driven onto mud banks and retrieved from there.

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Lachlan, RF; Crooks, L; Laland, KN (1998). "Who follows whom? Shoaling preferences and social learning of foraging information in guppies".

1874:. This may function to advertise their presence, drive the predator from the area, or aid in cultural transmission of predator recognition. 6644:

Pitcher, T.J.; House, A.C. (1987). "Foraging rules for group feeders: forage area copying depends upon food density in shoaling goldfish".

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generated by the previous animal in the formation. Increased efficiencies in swimming in groups have been proposed for schools of fish and

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Bumann, D.; Krause, J.; Rubenstein, D. (1997). "Mortality risk of spatial positions in animal groups: the danger of being in the front".

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Ward, A.J.W.; Duff, A.J.; Krause, J.; Barber, I. (2005). "Shoaling behaviour of sticklebacks infected with the microsporidian parasite,

2752: 2313: 477:. Even with the best facilities aquaria can offer they become fragile and sluggish compared to their quivering energy in wild schools. 6977: 8634: 7397: 6702:

Reebs, S.G.; Gallant, B.Y. (1997). "Food-anticipatory activity as a cue for local enhancement in golden shiners (Pisces: Cyprinidae,

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It is commonly observed that schooling fish are particularly in danger of being eaten if they are separated from the school. Several

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Krakauer DC (1995). "Groups confuse predators by exploiting perceptual bottlenecks: a connectionist model of the confusion effect".

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Farmer, N.A.; Ribble, D.O.; Miller, III (2004). "Influence of familiarity on shoaling behaviour in Texas and blacktailed shiners".

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Tedeger, R.W.; Krause, J. (1995). "Density dependence and numerosity in fright stimulated aggregation behaviour of shoaling fish".

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Olson RS; Knoester DB; Adami C (2013). "Critical interplay between density-dependent predation and evolution of the selfish herd".

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van Havre, N.; FitzGerald, G J (1988). "Shoaling and kin recognition in the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.)".

1497: 883:

Schooling forage fish are subject to constant attacks by predators. An example is the attacks that take place during the African

286:, spend all of their time shoaling or schooling, and become agitated if separated from the group. Facultative shoalers, such as 169: 2373: 968:

Predators have devised various countermeasures to undermine the defensive shoaling and schooling manoeuvres of forage fish. The

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Sikkel, P.C.; Fuller, C.A. (2010). "Shoaling preference and evidence for maintenance of sibling groups by juvenile black perch

4423:; Czirok, A; Ben-Jacob, E; Cohen, I; Shochet, O (1995). "Novel type of phase transition in a system of self-driven particles". 1326: 9333: 7985: 7940: 7877: 7861: 7781: 7765: 7740: 7538: 7519: 7503: 7390: 7374: 7358: 7208: 7194: 7101: 7083: 7030: 6671:

Krause, J (1992). "Ideal free distribution and the mechanism of patch profitability assessment in three-spined sticklebacks (

4106: 3861: 2881:

Marras, Stefano; Killen, Shaun S.; Lindström, Jan; McKenzie, David J.; Steffensen, John F.; Domenici, Paolo (February 2015).

2337: 2223: 2197: 1619:, scientists have turned to evolutionary models that simulate populations of evolving animals. Typically these studies use a 1459: 758:. The capelin move inshore in large schools to spawn and migrate in spring and summer to feed in plankton rich areas between 1572:

In the slightly further away zone of alignment, a focal fish will seek to align its direction of motion with its neighbours.

1250:

Other senses are also used. Pheromones or sound may also play a part but supporting evidence has not been found so far. The

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success, and higher success in finding a mate. It is also likely that fish benefit from shoal membership through increased

6322:

Dugatkin, L.A.; FitzGerald, G.J.; Lavoie, J. (1994). "Juvenile three-spined sticklebacks avoid parasitized conspecifics".

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Krause, J.; Ruxton, G.; Rubenstein, D. (1998). "Is there always an influence of shoal size on predator hunting success?".

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themselves, often in schools of their own, that can span thousands of miles to connect with, or stay connected with them.

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Krause, J. (1994). "The influence of food competition and predation risk on size-assortative shoaling in juvenile chub (

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Krause, J. (1993). "The influence of hunger on shoal size choice by three-spined sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus".

2591:

Abrahams, M.; Colgan, P. (1985). "Risk of predation, hydrodynamic efficiency, and their influence on school structure".

1255:

lateral-line system is very sensitive to changes in water currents and vibration in the water. It uses receptors called

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movement, most members of a shoal seem to know where they are going. Observations on the foraging behaviour of captive

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Fish prefer to shoal with individuals with which the choosing fish is already familiar. This has been demonstrated in

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cooperate to make schooling fish jump in the air. In this vulnerable position the fish are easy prey for the dolphins.

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Turner, G.; Pitcher, T. (1986). "Attack abatement: a model for group protection by combined avoidance and dilution".

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Delcourt, J; Poncin, P (2012). "Shoals and schools: back to the heuristic definitions and quantitative references".

6480:

Krause, J.; Hartmann, N.; Pritchard, V.L. (1999). "The influence of nutritional state on shoal choice in zebrafish,

1900:, living at depths of 200 to 700 m (660 to 2,300 ft). Electronic tagging has shown that they also undergo 1215: 1015: 9807: 8056: 5805:

Ranta, E.; Juvonen, S.-K.; Peuhkuri, N. (1992). "Further evidence for size-assortative schooling in sticklebacks".

4500:

Barbaro A, Einarsson B, Birnir B, Sigurðsson S, Valdimarsson S, Pálsson ÓK, Sveinbjörnsson S, Sigurðsson P (2009).

2669:

Partridge, B.; Johansson, J.; Kalish, J. (1983). "The structure of schools of giant bluefin tuna in Cape Cod Bay".

1789:

has also found that choosing fish prefer to shoal with individuals that have consumed the same diet as themselves.

1759:, large satiated fish prefer to associate with other large individuals, but hungry ones prefer smaller shoalmates. 782:

This theory states that groups of fish may save energy when swimming together, much in the way that bicyclists may

2295:

Kils, U. (1992). "The ecoSCOPE and dynIMAGE: Microscale tools for in situ studies of predator-prey interactions".

1881:

predators, such as cormorants, caimans and dolphins. Piranhas are "basically like regular fish with large teeth".

991: 10528: 10384: 9744: 9433: 8145: 8082: 7456: 6562:

Gomez-Laplaza, L.M. (2005). "The influence of social status on shoaling preferences in the freshwater angelfish (

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Nadler, Lauren E.; Killen, Shaun S.; McClure, Eva C.; Munday, Philip L.; McCormick, Mark I. (15 September 2016).

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Landa, J. T. (1998). "Bioeconomics of schooling fishes: selfish fish, quasi-free riders, and other fishy tales".

1058:

Some predators, such as dolphins, hunt in groups of their own. One technique employed by many dolphin species is

7323:"Studies on the Schooling Behavior of Fish—III Mutual Relationship between Speed and Form in Schooling Behavior" 7244: 9862: 5910:

Reebs, S.G.; Saulnier, N. (1997). "The effect of hunger on shoal choice in golden shiners (Pisces: Cyprinidae,

1501: 173: 74:. They are swimming somewhat independently, but in such a way that they stay connected, forming a social group. 17: 5883:, Teleostei, Cyprinodontidae): effects of predation risk, fish size, species composition and size of shoals". 2257:

Partridge, B.; Pitcher, T.; Cullen, M.; Wilson, J. (1980). "The three-dimensional structure of fish schools".

1003: 10497: 10487: 10394: 9892: 5576:

Hager, M.C.; Helfman, G.S. (1991). "Safety in numbers: shoal size choice by minnows under predatory threat".

3035:

Milinski, H.; Heller, R. (1978). "Influence of a predator on the optimal foraging behavior of sticklebacks".

3000:

Hoare, D. J.; Couzin, I. D.; Godin, J. G.; Krause, J. (2004). "Context-dependent group size choice in fish".

2479:; Viscedo, S. C.; Grunbaum, D. (2002). "Self organised fish-schools: An examination of emergent properties". 8003: 6396:

Barber, I.; Downey, L.C.; Braithwaite, V.A. (1998). "Parasitism, oddity and the mechanism of shoal choice".

10568: 10477: 9972: 9927: 9304: 9255: 9196: 8230: 7822:

Seno, H; Nakai, K (1995). "Mathematical analysis on fish shoaling by a density-dependent diffusion model".

5770:

Ranta, E.; Lindstrom, K.; Peuhkuri, N. (1992). "Size matters when three-spined sticklebacks go to school".

3078:

Jeschke JM, Tollrian R; Tollrian, Ralph (2007). "Prey swarming: which predators become confused and why?".

1303:, and black sea bass – were said to contain "tens of millions" of fish and stretched for "many kilometers". 675:

Animation showing how herrings hunting in a synchronised way can capture the very alert and evasive copepod

9982: 6064:

Lee-Jenkins, S.S.Y.; Godin, J.-G. J. (2010). "Social familiarity and shoal formation in juvenile fishes".

5735:

Allan, J.R.; Pitcher, T.J. (1986). "Species segregation during predator evasion in cyprinid fish shoals".

5218:

Reebs, SG (2000). "Can a minority of informed leaders determine the foraging movements of a fish shoal?".

1738:, usually prefer to join larger schools which contain members of their own species matching their own size 1259:, each of which is composed of a group of hair cells. The hairs are surrounded by a protruding jelly-like 899:

have a short life-cycle, living only two or three years. Adult sardines, about two years old, mass on the

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Hager, MC; Helfman, GS (1991). "Safety in numbers: shoal size choice by minnows under predatory threat".

1786: 1409: 1395: 1081:

and catches the fish in the air. This type of cooperative role specialization seems to be more common in

1066:). Corralling is a method where fish are chased to shallow water where they are more easily captured. In 8045: 4488: 4371:

Proceedings of the 14th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques - SIGGRAPH '87

887:. The African sardine run is a spectacular migration by millions of silvery sardines along the southern 631:

has its antenna spread (click to enlarge). The antenna detects the pressure wave of an approaching fish.

10706: 10523: 10412: 9260: 8882: 8609: 8579: 8466: 8075: 4121: 2934:"Metabolic Costs of Feeding Predictively Alter the Spatial Distribution of Individuals in Fish Schools" 2728: 1835:

with the help of fast auxiliary boats and sophisticated sonar, which can track the shape of the shoal.

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Fast moving schools usually form a wedge shape, while shoals that are feeding tend to become circular.

7645: 4760: 4676:"Evolving the selfish herd: emergence of distinct aggregating strategies in an individual-based model" 3960: 2317: 1808:

be more likely to find food, while subordinates would offer less competition for the discovered food.

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presumably provide a higher level of vigilance, it could also allow more time for individual feeding.

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are small fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other larger fish,

227:

If, in addition, the aggregation comes together in an interactive, social way, they may be said to be

10677: 10672: 10649: 10558: 10389: 10364: 9438: 9409: 9309: 9247: 9155: 9148: 9115: 8857: 8529: 8210: 4262:"Individual behavior and emergent properties of fish schools: a comparison of observation and theory" 2159:

Helfman G., Collette B., & Facey D.: The Diversity of Fishes, Blackwell Publishing, p 375, 1997,

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Krause, J. (1993). "The relationship between foraging and shoal position in a mixed shoal of roach (

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in Parallel Processing and Applied Mathematics: 5th International Conference, PPAM 2003, Springer.

6199:"Fathead minnows use chemical cues to discriminate natural shoalmates from unfamiliar conspecifics" 1350: 963: 842: 6601:

Metcalfe, N.B.; Thomson, B.C. (1995). "Fish recognize and prefer to shoal with poor competitors".

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Leblond, C.; Reebs, S.G. (2006). "Individual leadership and boldness in shoals of golden shiners (

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Passive versus active engulfment: verdict from trajectory simulations of lunge-feeding fin whales

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Hoare, D. J.; Krause, J.; Peuhkuri, N.; Godin, J. G. J. (2000). "Body size and shoaling in fish".

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When threatened, sardines (and other forage fish) instinctively group together and create massive

790:. Geese flying in a Vee formation are also thought to save energy by flying in the updraft of the 10654: 10316: 10209: 9887: 9842: 9827: 9670: 9455: 9143: 9125: 8687: 8436: 8187: 8031:

Current status and new directions for studying schooling and aggregation behavior of pelagic fish

7789:"Acoustic detection of the spatial and temporal distribution of fish shoals in the Bay of Biscay" 7433: 7402: 4892:"Exploring the evolution of a trade-off between vigilance and foraging in group-living organisms" 1977: 1952: 1901: 1695: 1555: 1490: 950: 162: 67: 35: 7999:

Collective Animal Behavior website organized around David Sumpter's book (2008) by the same name

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with an input from all the shoal members, will be better than that taken by an individual fish.

534:. Wind-driven surface currents interact with these gyres and the underwater topography, such as 60: 10578: 10438: 9690: 9223: 9105: 8929: 8914: 8456: 8345: 7771: 7563: 7200: 6444: 4587: 4374: 3477: 3174: 2795:

Fish, F. E. (1995). "Kinematics of ducklings swimming in formation: consequences of position".

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across open oceans. The shoals are concentrated food resources for the great marine predators.

31: 9992: 7975: 7930: 7867: 7685: 7364: 7348: 7279:

Hoare, DJ; Krause, J (2003). "Social organisation, shoal structure and information transfer".

7073: 7020: 6957: 6828: 4631:

Reluga TC, Viscido S; Viscido, Steven (2005). "Simulated evolution of selfish herd behavior".

2213: 833: 250: 10462: 10336: 9962: 9857: 9499: 9404: 9135: 9120: 8629: 8446: 7851: 7747: 7509: 7493: 4261: 1998: 434: 7105: 6788:

Dominey, Wallace J. (1983). "Mobbing in Colonially Nesting Fishes, Especially the Bluegill,

6749:

Pritchard, V.L.; Lawrence, J.; Butlin, R.K.; Krause, J. (2001). "Shoal choice in zebrafish,

6365:

Krause, J.; Godin (2010). "Influence of parasitism on shoal choice in the banded killifish (

10711: 10321: 10301: 10261: 10231: 10178: 9710: 9675: 9513: 9460: 9367: 9130: 8426: 7902: 7831: 7800: 7621: 7465: 7288: 7259: 7149: 7045: 6992: 6873: 6854: 6715: 6610: 6436: 6331: 6261: 6210: 6120: 6073: 5923: 5853: 5814: 5744: 5709: 5655: 5550: 5348: 5174: 5115: 5018: 4966: 4913: 4846: 4799: 4739: 4640: 4442: 4276: 4222: 4171: 3806: 3592: 3422: 3261: 3044: 2945: 2680: 2600: 2442: 2402: 2142: 2031:

of fish. Collective nouns used for specific fish or marine animal species groups include a

1855: 1848: 1691: 7036:

Breder, CM (1954). "Equations Descriptive of Fish Schools and Other Animal Aggregations".

3854:

Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date

2634:

Pitcher, T.; Magurran, A.; Winfield, I. (1982). "Fish in larger shoals find food faster".

2332:

Israel Program for Scientific Translation, translated by Mill H. Halsted Press, New York.

502: 8: 10482: 10472: 10405: 10374: 10359: 10186: 10182: 10146: 9902: 9872: 9720: 9695: 9685: 9275: 8919: 8862: 8662: 8549: 8338: 3513:

Lima, S (1995). "Back to the basics of anti-predatory vigilance: the group-size effect".

2741: 1653: 1628: 1288: 1278: 1192: 1086: 9523: 7906: 7835: 7804: 7625: 7469: 7292: 7263: 7153: 7049: 6996: 6877: 6719: 6614: 6440: 6335: 6265: 6214: 6124: 6077: 5927: 5857: 5818: 5748: 5713: 5659: 5554: 5352: 5178: 5119: 5022: 4970: 4917: 4850: 4803: 4743: 4644: 4446: 4280: 4226: 4175: 3810: 3596: 3426: 3265: 3048: 2949: 2684: 2604: 2446: 2406: 2146: 1859:

external parasites, like parasitic copecods and isocods, from the skin of other fishes.

1338: 972:

raises its sail to make it appear much larger so it can herd a school of fish or squid.

10667: 10443: 10286: 10066: 9700: 9561: 9556: 8501: 7963: 7918: 7892: 7716: 7673: 7633: 7597: 7581: 7481: 7446: 7415: 7231: 7165: 7128: 7061: 6809: 6770: 6731: 6727: 6657: 6626: 6583: 6544: 6509: 6462: 6382: 6347: 6304: 6234: 6179: 6041: 6016: 5997: 5935: 5896: 5865: 5826: 5787: 5756: 5721: 5667: 5628: 5593: 5523: 5500: 5481: 5411: 5372: 5300:

Reebs, S.G. (2001). "Influence of body size on leadership in shoals of golden shiners,

5282: 5243: 5200: 5138: 5103: 5042: 4990: 4934: 4903: 4891: 4872: 4765: 4700: 4675: 4613: 4556: 4466: 4432: 4402: 4238: 4195: 4070: 4041: 3999: 3938: 3909: 3829: 3794: 3758: 3643: 3565: 3530: 3495: 3445: 3410: 3313: 3288: 3220: 3197: 3185: 3163: 3095: 3060: 3017: 2909: 2882: 2812: 2696: 2651: 2616: 2568: 2541: 2522: 2506: 2458: 2414: 2274: 2133: 1982: 1972: 1967: 1957: 1824: 1616: 1399: 1128: 1071: 955: 870: 111:, and if the group is swimming in the same direction in a coordinated manner, they are 89: 7669: 7111:

Evans, SR; Finniea, M; Manica, A (2007). "Shoaling preferences in decapod crustacea".

5783: 4834: 3548:

Morse, DH (1977). "Feeding behavior and predator avoidance in heterospecific groups".

2858: 2831: 10548: 10533: 10016: 9937: 9867: 9812: 9797: 9781: 9665: 9584: 9571: 9531: 9372: 9216: 8847: 8752: 8657: 8569: 8564: 8511: 8318: 8125: 8115: 7981: 7936: 7922: 7873: 7857: 7843: 7777: 7761: 7753: 7736: 7637: 7589: 7534: 7515: 7499: 7386: 7370: 7354: 7300: 7271: 7204: 7190: 7097: 7079: 7026: 7008: 6587: 6501: 6273: 6226: 6136: 6132: 6089: 6085: 6046: 5364: 5235: 5192: 5143: 5034: 4994: 4982: 4939: 4864: 4815: 4785:"Which conditions promote negative density dependent selection on prey aggregations?" 4705: 4656: 4605: 4546: 4458: 4392: 4326: 4199: 4187: 4102: 4075: 4023: 3991: 3943: 3910:"A division of labour with role specialization in group-hunting bottlenose dolphins ( 3857: 3834: 3750: 3608: 3604: 3526: 3450: 3391: 3318: 3273: 3225: 2963: 2914: 2863: 2573: 2514: 2333: 2219: 2193: 2160: 1863: 1620: 1584: 877: 783: 685: 600: 592: 543: 291: 7967: 7677: 7548: 7485: 7235: 7169: 7132: 6774: 6735: 6630: 6548: 6513: 6466: 6351: 6308: 6238: 6183: 6001: 5791: 5597: 5527: 5485: 5415: 5376: 5286: 5204: 4876: 4769: 4751: 4617: 4560: 4470: 4242: 4003: 3762: 3647: 3534: 3499: 3167: 3099: 2816: 2620: 2462: 386:, which means they form their schools in open water, and not on or near the bottom ( 10629: 10433: 10428: 10136: 10056: 9852: 9837: 9832: 9546: 9494: 9477: 9399: 9391: 8589: 8534: 8496: 8451: 8409: 8333: 8120: 8060: 7955: 7910: 7839: 7808: 7720: 7708: 7665: 7629: 7573: 7473: 7442: 7411: 7334: 7296: 7267: 7223: 7177: 7157: 7120: 7053: 7000: 6881: 6801: 6762: 6723: 6684: 6653: 6618: 6575: 6536: 6493: 6454: 6405: 6378: 6339: 6296: 6269: 6218: 6171: 6128: 6081: 6036: 6028: 5989: 5958: 5931: 5892: 5861: 5822: 5779: 5752: 5717: 5663: 5620: 5585: 5558: 5515: 5473: 5438: 5403: 5356: 5313: 5274: 5247: 5227: 5182: 5133: 5123: 5046: 5026: 4974: 4929: 4921: 4854: 4807: 4755: 4747: 4695: 4687: 4648: 4597: 4538: 4513: 4450: 4384: 4318: 4284: 4230: 4179: 4065: 4057: 3983: 3933: 3925: 3824: 3814: 3742: 3670: 3635: 3600: 3557: 3522: 3487: 3440: 3430: 3383: 3354: 3308: 3300: 3269: 3215: 3207: 3155: 3126: 3087: 3064: 3052: 3021: 3009: 2953: 2904: 2894: 2853: 2843: 2804: 2781: 2777: 2700: 2688: 2655: 2643: 2608: 2563: 2553: 2498: 2450: 2410: 2365: 2278: 2266: 2089: 1897: 1771: 1663: 1292: 815: 791: 660: 644: 612: 8050: 7914: 7601: 7454:

Litvak, MK (1993). "Response of shoaling fish to the threat of aerial predation".

7124: 6540: 6300: 5462:

on the shoaling behaviour of the minnow: a test of Hamilton's selfish herd theory"

4406: 4369:

Reynolds, CW (1987). "Flocks, herds and schools: A distributed behavioral model".

3091: 3013: 2526: 1363:

orientation is then found. The group polarity is the average of these differences.

449:

such as dolphins, porpoises and whales, operate in organised social groups called

10716: 10634: 10492: 10281: 10071: 10026: 10011: 9912: 9362: 9239: 8806: 8786: 8614: 8601: 8584: 8539: 8421: 8360: 8284: 8279: 8215: 8202: 8172: 8023: 7728: 7696: 7528: 7380: 7184: 7089: 5128: 4535:

Proceedings of the 15th annual conference on Genetic and evolutionary computation

4117: 4096: 4017: 3819: 3435: 2748: 2085: 1992: 1939: 1804: 1660: 1583:. Antarctic krill rely on vision and on hydrodynamic signals relayed through its 1373: 892: 795: 531: 368: 263: 243: 7998: 5085: 4454: 4420: 3961:"Coastal Stock(s) of Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin: Status Review and Management," 3468:

Roberts, G (1996). "Why individual vigilance declines as group size increases".

1631:, the predator confusion effect, the dilution effect, and the many eyes theory. 1559: 891:

of Africa. In terms of biomass, the sardine run could rival East Africa's great

10624: 10553: 10467: 10116: 10096: 10076: 10051: 10001: 9932: 9922: 9882: 9822: 9785: 9705: 9639: 9616: 9450: 9445: 9428: 9421: 9314: 9082: 9055: 8947: 8939: 8872: 8842: 8781: 8763: 8717: 8707: 8311: 8264: 7699:; Magurran, AE; Winfield, IJ (1982). "Fish in larger shoals find food faster". 6198: 5980:) are based on familiarity rather than kin recognition by phenotype matching". 5317: 5278: 4811: 4652: 4601: 2932:

McLean, Stephanie; Persson, Anna; Norin, Tommy; Killen, Shaun S. (April 2018).

1884: 1706: 1687: 1067: 977: 912: 861: 739: 716: 698: 527: 391: 379: 372: 341: 42: 10173: 9382: 8013: 7161: 7004: 6458: 6017:"The importance of stable schooling: do familiar sticklebacks stick together?" 5187: 5162: 4322: 3987: 3359: 3342: 3304: 2958: 2933: 2899: 2454: 2088:

tending to use "shoaling" to describe any grouping of fish, while speakers of

10700: 10644: 10639: 10543: 10306: 10204: 10174: 10061: 10046: 10031: 9907: 9579: 9321: 9292: 9270: 9184: 9087: 9001: 8821: 8796: 8791: 8747: 8742: 8697: 8692: 8672: 8544: 8323: 8242: 7544: 7524: 6579: 4518: 4501: 4257: 2476: 2209: 1812: 1782: 1756: 1710: 1671: 1082: 982: 908: 771: 512: 387: 321: 317: 6688: 5519: 5442: 5063: 5030: 4978: 4859: 4542: 4183: 3131: 3114: 10126: 10041: 10021: 9967: 9877: 9847: 9660: 9634: 9624: 9601: 9482: 9077: 8901: 8816: 8776: 8677: 8619: 8559: 8486: 8481: 8471: 8387: 8377: 8306: 8289: 8196: 8157: 8150: 7593: 6766: 6622: 6505: 6497: 6409: 6230: 6140: 6093: 6050: 6032: 5962: 5562: 5477: 5457: 5368: 5239: 5231: 5196: 5147: 5038: 4986: 4943: 4868: 4819: 4709: 4691: 4660: 4609: 4575: 4462: 4330: 4191: 4079: 4061: 3995: 3947: 3929: 3838: 3746: 3674: 3491: 3454: 3395: 3387: 3322: 3229: 3211: 2967: 2918: 2883:"Fish swimming in schools save energy regardless of their spatial position" 2867: 2808: 2577: 2518: 1987: 1947: 1828: 1823:

The schooling behaviour of fish is exploited on an industrial scale by the

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Wolf, NG (1985). "Odd fish abandon mixed-species groups when threatened".

7813: 7788: 7641: 7339: 7322: 7012: 5993: 4722: 4485:"Individual-based modelling of ecological systems and social aggregations" 3877: 3754: 3612: 2764:

Gjøsæter, H. (1998). "The population biology and exploitation of capelin (

1799:

prefer to join a shoal made up of bold individuals rather than shy ones.

522:

Fertile feeding grounds for forage fish are provided by ocean upwellings.

82: 10379: 10291: 10141: 10121: 10106: 10091: 10086: 10036: 9817: 9736: 9680: 9629: 9470: 9326: 9060: 9048: 8974: 8732: 8727: 8702: 8682: 8624: 8519: 8414: 8392: 8382: 8355: 8225: 8177: 7429:"Is there always an influence of shoal size on predator hunting success?" 5976:

Griffiths, S.W.; Magurran, A.E. (1999). "Schooling decisions in guppies (

4835:"Predatory Fish Select for Coordinated Collective Motion in Virtual Prey" 4437: 2542:"Shoaling reduces metabolic rate in a gregarious coral reef fish species" 1914: 1910: 1832: 1121: 1097: 884: 604: 589: 581: 567: 559: 494: 406: 309: 255: 4925: 4388: 3793:

Oliver, SP; Turner, JR; Gann, K; Silvosa, M; D'Urban Jackson, T (2013).

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Pitcher, TJ (1983). "Heuristic definitions of fish shoaling behavior".

7585: 7477: 7227: 7065: 6928:"The Curious Case of the Cannibal Squid – National Wildlife Federation" 6886: 6813: 6343: 6222: 6175: 5632: 5589: 5407: 5360: 4289: 4234: 3569: 3159: 2692: 2647: 2612: 2558: 2510: 2270: 1803:

prefer shoals made up of subordinate rather than dominant individuals.

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This article is about shoaling and schooling fish. For other uses, see

10246: 1962: 1089:, perhaps because the oceans have more variability in prey diversity, 810: 584:, are a major item on the forage fish menu. They are a group of small 10573: 10538: 10151: 10131: 9715: 9355: 8867: 8852: 8837: 8667: 8328: 8274: 8259: 8237: 8220: 8167: 7245:"Emergence of Oblong School Shape: Models and Empirical Data of Fish" 7242: 4213:

Pitcher, TJ; Partridge, TL (1979). "Fish School density and volume".

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Rendell, L.; Whitehead, H. (2001). "Culture in whales and dolphins".

3115:"The confusion effect—from neural networks to reduced predation risk" 3056: 1843: 1776: 1640: 1624: 1236: 1105: 1063: 973: 931: 923: 888: 767: 763: 547: 490: 461: 347: 329: 7577: 7549:"Self-Organized Fish Schools: An Examination of Emergent Properties" 7057: 6805: 5624: 4725:"Simulating predator attacks on schools: Evolving composite tactics" 3561: 3250:"Possible functions of the octavolateralis system in fish schooling" 2832:"Hitching a lift hydrodynamically - in swimming, flying and cycling" 2502: 2369: 1479: 1433: 1231: 918: 911:

and even killer whales congregate and follow the shoals, creating a

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on the planet. Copepods are very alert and evasive. They have large

151: 41:"School of fish" redirects here. For the alternative rock band, see 10423: 9957: 9947: 9897: 9644: 9606: 9338: 9280: 9070: 9011: 8957: 8952: 8771: 8639: 8301: 8247: 8162: 4141: 3639: 3249: 2848: 2235:

Breder, C. M. Jr. (1967). "On the survival value of fish schools".

1893: 1889: 1867: 969: 849: 747: 535: 508: 485: 474: 446: 337: 333: 295: 271: 259: 119: 96:. They are all swimming in the same direction in a coordinated way. 27:

In biology, any group of fish that stay together for social reasons

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Hemelrijk, CK; Hildenbrandt, H; Reinders, J; Stamhuis, EJ (2010).

4908: 4484: 3202: 3183: 3112: 2351:"Herring schooling manoeuvres in response to killer whale attacks" 1449: 707: 298:, shoal only some of the time, perhaps for reproductive purposes. 10619: 10588: 10518: 10418: 9952: 9767: 9265: 9043: 9038: 9016: 8989: 8984: 8979: 8524: 8476: 8370: 8140: 8135: 5879:

Krause, J.; Godin (2010). "Shoal choice in the banded killifish (

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Many species of large predatory fish also school, including many

397: 325: 313: 283: 279: 209: 204: 8018: 6978:"Possible universality in the size distribution of fish schools" 5161:

Sumpter, D.; Krause, J; James, R.; Couzin, I.; Ward, A. (2008).

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A school of fish has many eyes that can scan for food or threats

9299: 8962: 7398:"Positioning behaviour in fish shoals: a cost–benefit analysis" 6526: 6154:

De Fraipont, M.; Thines, G. (1986). "Responses of the cavefish

4956: 4161: 3186:"Predator confusion is sufficient to evolve swarming behaviour" 1714: 1117: 1101: 721: 274:

or facultative (optional) shoalers. Obligate shoalers, such as

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Key behavioural factors in a self-organised fish school model.

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Demsar J; Hemelrijk CK; Hildenbrandt H & Bajec IL (2015).

3856:. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization. pp. 466–468. 3077: 1209:

A pair of humpback whales, a species of rorqual, lunge feeding

460:(2002) argue similarly that schooling is a classic example of 9541: 9065: 8994: 8404: 6748: 4019:

National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World

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School of herrings ram-feeding on a school of copepods, with

555: 442: 402: 340:. These schools can become huge, moving along coastlines and 5007: 4502:"Modelling and simulations of the migration of pelagic fish" 2256: 1690:

can function as a collective decision-making process in any

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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B

4832: 4630: 3411:"Spatial acuity and prey detection in weakly electric fish" 1906: 1300: 1296: 1113: 1109: 643:

Copepods are a major food source for forage fish like this

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Website of Julia Parrish, an animal aggregation researcher

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STARFLAG project: Description of starling flocking project

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Olson RS; Hintze A; Dyer FC; Knoester DB; Adami C (2013).

493:(red) provide plankton-rich feeding grounds for shoals of 9006: 8574: 4138:"One fish, two fish: New MIT sensor improves fish counts" 3583:

Hamilton, W. D. (1971). "Geometry for the selfish herd".

2729:"Wind Driven Surface Currents: Upwelling and Downwelling" 2539: 1644: 212:

migrating at high speed to their spawning grounds in the

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Fish schools: PDES simulation and real-time 3D animation

7530:

Animal Groups in Three Dimensions: How Species Aggregate

7327:

Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries

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Reeves RR, Stewart BS, Clapham PJ and Powell J A (2002)

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One potential method by which fish schools might thwart

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in this synchronised way. The copepods sense with their

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Center for Biologically Inspired Design at Georgia Tech

7695: 7543: 6855:"Vertical and horizontal migrations by the jumbo squid 6479: 6395: 4576:"Evolving collective behavior in an artificial ecology" 4573: 4039: 3792: 3716:"Sardine Run Shark Feeding Frenzy Phenomenon in Africa" 2633: 1811:

Fish prefer to join shoals that are actively feeding.

7426: 5769: 5428: 4255: 3795:"Thresher sharks use tail-slaps as a hunting strategy" 3660: 2999: 2475: 750:

at the edge of the ice shelf. Larger capelin also eat

607:. In the photo below, herring ram feed on a school of 258:

often accompany large predator fish. Here a school of

5645: 3289:"Incidental sounds of locomotion in animal cognition" 7883:

Vicsek, A; Zafeiris, A (2012). "Collective motion".

6422: 5804: 5064:"Scientists IDs genesis of animal behavior patterns" 3973: 3908:

Gazda, S K; Connor, R C; Edgar, R K; Cox, F (2005).

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Design for Networked Information Technology Systems

5680: 3907: 3732: 1634: 9726:Task allocation and partitioning of social insects 7176:Gautrais, J., Jost, C. & Theraulaz, G. (2008) 7110: 6286: 6251: 6162:) to the odor of known and unknown conspecifics". 4890:Olson RS; Haley PB; Dyer FC & Adami C (2015). 4040:Potvin, J; Goldbogen, JA; Shadwick, R. E. (2009). 1460:Interactive simulation of self-propelled particles 7022:On the Move: How and why Animals Travel in Groups 6153: 5975: 5501:"Some aspects of the schooling behaviour in fish" 5101: 3113:Ioannou CC; Tosh CR; Neville L; Krause J (2008). 2383: 1870:form large nesting colonies and sometimes attack 1678: 746:oceans. In summer, they graze on dense swarms of 611:. They swim with their mouth wide open and their 10698: 7731:In: Steele JH, Thorpe SA and Turekian KK (Eds.) 6063: 5389: 5104:"Quorum decision-making in foraging fish shoals" 4212: 3851: 2348: 2184: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2172: 511:. In this study, the time it took for groups of 10594:International Seafood Sustainability Foundation 10220:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 7620:. Vol. 246, no. 6. pp. 114–123. 6600: 5610: 3689:"Marine Scientists Scratch Heads Over Sardines" 2714: 2712: 2710: 2252: 2250: 2019:Other collective nouns used for fish include a 7882: 7786: 7139: 6975: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3034: 2985:Mockingbird Tales: Readings in Animal Behavior 2590: 1416:↑ Diagram illustrating the difference between 9752: 9224: 8083: 7686:"Functions of shoaling behaviour in teleosts" 7427:Krause, J; Ruxton, GD; Rubenstein, D (2005). 7092:, Sneyd J, Theraulaz G and Bonabeau E (2003) 6753:: the influence of shoal size and activity". 6561: 5909: 5540: 3625: 3373: 2979: 2977: 2757: 2290: 2288: 2169: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2109: 1389: 1266: 829:Many eyes provide a higher level of vigilance 497:, which in turn attract larger predator fish. 7611:"The structure and function of fish schools" 7213: 6701: 6643: 6603:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 6106: 6021:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 6014: 5734: 5575: 5260: 3967: 3903: 3901: 3899: 2707: 2247: 2212:(1993) Behaviour of Teleost Fishes, Chp 12: 1536:Move in the same direction as your neighbour 378:These sometimes immense gatherings fuel the 10370:List of commercially important fish species 10215:Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing 7278: 6364: 5878: 5498: 5097: 5095: 4674:Wood AJ, Ackland GJ; Ackland, G. J (2007). 4124:, 09:54 GMT, Thursday, 1 July 2010 10:54 UK 3710: 3708: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3409:Babineau, D; Lewis, JE; Longtin, A (2007). 3329: 3236: 3145: 2215:Functions of shoaling behaviour in teleosts 945: 837:Schooling response time in face of predator 9766: 9759: 9745: 9231: 9217: 8090: 8076: 8028:Pelagic Fisheries Research Program (2002) 7749:Dolphin Societies: Discoveries and Puzzles 6900: 6894: 6196: 5058: 5056: 4761:11370/0bfcbb69-a101-4ec1-833a-df301e49d8ef 4413: 4304: 4302: 4300: 2974: 2753:Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg 2314:National Coalition for Marine Conservation 2285: 2106: 1284:Parameters defining a fish shoal include: 777: 692: 107:that stay together for social reasons are 8635:Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water 7896: 7821: 7812: 7608: 7567: 7363:Kennedy J, Eberhart, RC and Shi Y (2001) 7338: 7321:Inagaki, T; Sakamoto, W; Aoki, I (1976). 6885: 6448: 6040: 5186: 5137: 5127: 5102:Ward, AJ; Krause, J; Sumpter, DJ (2012). 4933: 4907: 4858: 4759: 4699: 4591: 4517: 4436: 4378: 4288: 4132: 4130: 4101:pp. 418–422, Taylor & Francis Group. 4069: 3937: 3896: 3870: 3828: 3818: 3481: 3444: 3434: 3358: 3312: 3219: 3201: 3130: 2957: 2908: 2898: 2857: 2847: 2567: 2557: 2492: 1785:, and various minnows. A study with the 1520:Learn how and when to remove this message 981:the upper lobe of its tail to stun them. 192:Learn how and when to remove this message 10342:Regional fishery management organisation 7866:Suppi R, Fernandez D and Luque E (2003) 7692:. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp 363–440 7094:Self-Organization in Biological Systems. 6826: 6781: 5092: 4833:Ioannou CC; Guttal V; Couzin ID (2012). 4368: 3845: 3699: 3582: 2763: 2426: 2424: 2092:tend to use "schooling" just as loosely. 1928: 1842: 1743:factors important for shoal preference. 1729: 1639:In 2009, building on recent advances in 1230: 1124:, cushioning the impact with the water. 1021:Thresher sharks strike with their tails. 949: 917: 832: 824: 809: 706: 484: 354: 346: 249: 203: 7655: 6787: 5053: 4782: 4297: 4111: 4091: 4089: 3467: 3340: 3286: 3247: 2190:Fishes, An Introduction to Ichthyology. 1546:An example of such a simulation is the 1033:Spinner sharks spin on their long axis. 663:expanded so their red gills are visible 320:. Typical ocean forage fish are small, 14: 10699: 8039:Fish can count to four – but no higher 7453: 7395: 7180:Annales Zoologici Fennici 45: 415–428. 7035: 6947: 6846: 6829:"Red-Bellied Piranha Is Really Yellow" 6670: 5839: 5699: 5455: 5330: 5001: 4127: 2349:Nøttestad, L.; Axelsen, B. E. (1999). 2234: 1606: 1469: 480: 10172: 9779: 9740: 9334:Patterns of self-organization in ants 9212: 8071: 7850:Simmonds EJ and MacLennan, DN (2005) 7350:Bio-mechanisms of Swimming and Flying 7186:Behavioural Ecology of Teleost Fishes 7142:Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 5299: 5217: 3769: 3547: 2430: 2421: 2084:by non-specialists, with speakers of 1851:being cleaned by parasite eating fish 1818: 1598:Avoid collisions with your neighbours 1542:Avoid collisions with your neighbours 805: 467: 208:Underwater video loop of a school of 10225:United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement 7945: 7547:; Viscido, SV; Grunbaumb, D (2002). 7309:"Steering mechanism of fish schools" 4574:Ward CR; Gobet F; Kendall G (2001). 4122:Robofish accepted by wild fish shoal 4086: 3512: 2794: 2307: 2294: 2131:Shaw, E (1978). "Schooling fishes". 2130: 1502:adding citations to reliable sources 1473: 845:of fish schools have been proposed. 174:adding citations to reliable sources 145: 10400:Future of Marine Animal Populations 10277:Fishery Resources Monitoring System 10267:Monitoring control and surveillance 9191: 8462:Electroreception and electrogenesis 7948:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 7701:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 7216:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 6197:Brown, G.E.; Smith, R.J.F. (1994). 5982:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 5578:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 5396:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 5163:"Consensus decision making by fish" 5083: 3148:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 2887:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 2546:The Journal of Experimental Biology 1838: 503:Forage fish § Hunting copepods 24: 9344:symmetry breaking of escaping ants 7634:10.1038/scientificamerican0682-114 7447:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1998.tb02012.x 7416:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1993.tb01194.x 7199:Ghosh S and Ramamoorthy CV (2004) 6968: 6728:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1997.tb00148.x 6658:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1987.tb00681.x 6383:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1996.tb01102.x 5936:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1997.tb00175.x 5897:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1994.tb01063.x 5866:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1994.tb00886.x 5827:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1992.tb02689.x 5757:10.1111/j.1365-2427.1986.tb01007.x 5722:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1993.tb01154.x 5668:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1998.tb00030.x 3918:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 3781:Florida Museum of Natural History. 2415:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2000.tb02217.x 2121:Pitcher and Parish 1993, page 365. 1892:and by two triangular fins. Their 1226: 1009:Swordfish slash with their swords. 926:swirling around a loose kelp stipe 371:school reacting to attention from 25: 10728: 10599:Sea Shepherd Conservation Society 10332:National Marine Fisheries Service 10327:European Fisheries Control Agency 7992: 6015:Barber, I.; Ruxton, G.D. (2000). 2330:Schooling in the ecology of fish. 856:Schooling behaviour confuses the 10245: 9991: 9808:Population dynamics of fisheries 9381: 9190: 9179: 9178: 9161: 9160: 8186: 8014:David Sumpter's research website 7752:University of California Press. 7684:Pitcher TJ and Parish JK (1993) 7514:University of California Press. 7508:Moyle PB and Van Dyck CM (1995) 7301:10.1046/j.1467-2979.2003.00130.x 7272:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01818.x 7075:Mechanics of Swimming and Flying 6941: 6920: 6820: 6742: 6695: 6664: 6637: 6594: 6555: 6520: 6473: 6416: 6389: 6369:, Teleostei, Cyprinodontidae)". 6358: 6315: 6280: 6274:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2004.00332.x 6245: 6190: 6147: 6133:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02607.x 6100: 6086:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2009.02512.x 6057: 6008: 5969: 5942: 5903: 5872: 5833: 5798: 5763: 4373:. Vol. 21. pp. 25–34. 3274:10.1111/j.1467-2979.2009.00330.x 1635:Mapping the formation of schools 1478: 1454: 1444: 1432: 1408: 1349: 1337: 1325: 1313: 1221:Gannets "divebomb" at high speed 1214: 1202: 1193:Cooperative hunting by Sailfish. 1187: 1175: 1163: 1040: 1026: 1014: 1002: 990: 668: 652: 636: 620: 150: 81: 59: 10529:Aquaculture Stewardship Council 10385:Environmental impact of fishing 8146:Environmental impact of fishing 8051:Example of schooling simulation 7787:Scalabrin, C; Massé, J (1993). 7735:Academic Press, pages 337–349. 7457:Environmental Biology of Fishes 7019:Boinski S and Garber PA (2000) 6976:Bonabeau, E; Dagorn, L (1995). 6859:revealed by electronic tagging" 6827:Fountain, Henry (24 May 2005). 6429:Environmental Biology of Fishes 6324:Environmental Biology of Fishes 5728: 5693: 5674: 5639: 5604: 5569: 5534: 5492: 5449: 5422: 5383: 5324: 5293: 5254: 5211: 5154: 5077: 4950: 4883: 4826: 4776: 4752:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.02.018 4716: 4667: 4624: 4567: 4526: 4493: 4477: 4362: 4337: 4249: 4206: 4155: 4033: 4010: 3954: 3786: 3783:Retrieved on December 22, 2008. 3726: 3681: 3654: 3619: 3576: 3541: 3506: 3461: 3402: 3367: 3280: 3139: 3106: 3071: 3028: 2993: 2925: 2874: 2823: 2797:Journal of Experimental Zoology 2788: 2735: 2721: 2672:Environmental Biology of Fishes 2662: 2627: 2593:Environmental Biology of Fishes 2584: 2533: 2469: 2434:Environmental Biology of Fishes 2342: 2322: 1725: 1595:Remain close to your neighbours 1539:Remain close to your neighbours 1489:needs additional citations for 997:Sailfish herd with their sails. 770:. The migration is affected by 161:needs additional citations for 10503:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 9863:Otolith microchemical analysis 8019:Iain Couzin's research website 6948:Thomas, Pete (26 March 2007). 6866:Marine Ecology Progress Series 4792:Journal of Theoretical Biology 4633:Journal of Theoretical Biology 4506:ICES Journal of Marine Science 4269:Marine Ecology Progress Series 2782:10.1080/00364827.1998.10420445 2228: 2202: 2188:Moyle, PB and Cech, JJ (2003) 2153: 2124: 2074: 2013: 1679:Leadership and decision-making 1611:In order to gain insight into 711:Migration of Icelandic capelin 546:, to produce downwellings and 13: 1: 10498:European Environmental Agency 10488:Grey nurse shark conservation 10395:Destructive fishing practices 9893:Pop-up satellite archival tag 7915:10.1016/j.physrep.2012.03.004 7746:Pryor K and Norris KS (1998) 7670:10.1016/s0003-3472(83)80087-6 7125:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.03.017 7025:University of Chicago Press. 6901:Zimmermann, Tim (July 2006). 6541:10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.03.004 6301:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.12.010 5784:10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80082-x 3976:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3092:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.08.020 3014:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.04.004 2830:Alexander, R McNeill (2004). 2099: 715:Forage fish often make great 10478:Marine conservation activism 9928:Climate change and fisheries 9305:Mixed-species foraging flock 9256:Agent-based model in biology 9238: 8231:intramembranous ossification 7844:10.1016/0304-3800(93)E0143-Q 7533:Cambridge University Press. 7096:Princeton University Press. 7078:Cambridge University Press. 5499:Keenleyside, M.H.A. (1955). 5129:10.1371/journal.pone.0032411 4345:"Self driven particle model" 3820:10.1371/journal.pone.0067380 3605:10.1016/0022-5193(71)90189-5 3527:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80149-9 3436:10.1371/journal.pcbi.0030038 1424:in reference to fish schools 1181:Gannets "divebomb" sardines. 7: 9552:Particle swarm optimization 8046:Herring Migratory Behaviour 7690:Behaviour of teleost fishes 7511:Fish: An Enthusiast's Guide 7088:Camazine S, Deneubourg JL, 6950:"Warning lights of the sea" 6903:"Behold the Humboldt squid" 6203:Journal of Chemical Ecology 4455:10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.1226 4095:Bone Q and Moore RH (2008) 2358:Canadian Journal of Zoology 2192:5th Ed, Benjamin Cummings. 1924: 1787:White Cloud Mountain minnow 1396:Collective animal behaviour 141: 10: 10733: 10524:Marine Stewardship Council 10317:EU Common Fisheries Policy 9261:Collective animal behavior 8610:Fin and flipper locomotion 8580:Sequential hermaphroditism 8467:Jamming avoidance response 8184: 7347:Kato N and Ayers J (2004) 5318:10.1163/156853901753172656 5279:10.1163/156853906778691603 4896:Royal Society Open Science 4812:10.1016/j.jtbi.2011.04.014 4653:10.1016/j.jtbi.2004.11.035 4602:10.1162/106454601753139005 1393: 1390:Modelling school behaviour 1383:Pair distribution function 1273:Collective animal behavior 1270: 1267:Describing shoal structure 1148:is said to be the largest 1144:Lunge feeding by the huge 1078:Common bottlenose dolphins 1050:common bottlenose dolphins 961: 724:, their feeding ground in 696: 500: 40: 29: 10678:Glossary of fishery terms 10673:Index of fishing articles 10663: 10612: 10511: 10455: 10390:Fishing down the food web 10365:Maximum sustainable yield 10352: 10254: 10243: 10197: 10193: 10168: 10000: 9989: 9923:Match/mismatch hypothesis 9796: 9792: 9775: 9653: 9615: 9570: 9522: 9390: 9379: 9246: 9174: 9098: 9031: 8938: 8900: 8891: 8830: 8761: 8648: 8600: 8510: 8435: 8195: 8105: 7977:Ecology of Teleost Fishes 7385:Oxford University Press. 7189:Oxford University Press. 7162:10.1007/s11160-012-9260-z 7005:10.1103/physreve.51.r5220 6459:10.1007/s10641-004-9078-1 5188:10.1016/j.cub.2008.09.064 4323:10.1016/j.mbs.2008.05.006 3988:10.1017/S0140525X0100396X 3914:) off Cedar Key, Florida" 3852:Compagno, L.J.V. (1984). 3305:10.1007/s10071-011-0433-2 2959:10.1016/j.cub.2018.02.043 2900:10.1007/s00265-014-1834-4 1235:A "tornado" of schooling 1186: 1174: 1162: 1157: 1093:, and predator mobility. 734:are a forage fish of the 103:In biology, any group of 10564:Save Our Seas Foundation 10297:Individual fishing quota 10272:Vessel monitoring system 9918:Hydrographic containment 9590:Self-propelled particles 8097: 7793:Aquatic Living Resources 7312:Complexity International 6580:10.1163/1568539054729141 4311:Mathematical Biosciences 2006: 1902:diel vertical migrations 1554:in 1986. Another is the 964:Antipredator adaptations 946:Predator countermeasures 858:lateral line organ (LLO) 10210:Exclusive economic zone 9888:GIS and aquatic science 9843:Standard weight in fish 9671:Collective intelligence 9537:Ant colony optimization 9126:Glossary of ichthyology 8688:Diel vertical migration 8064:. Updated 16 July 2010. 8055:Bhaduri, Aparna (2010) 8036:Clover, Charles (2008) 7434:Journal of Fish Biology 7403:Journal of Fish Biology 6704:Notemigonus crysoleucas 6689:10.1163/156853992x00093 6398:Journal of Fish Biology 6254:Journal of Fish Biology 6113:Journal of Fish Biology 6066:Journal of Fish Biology 5951:Journal of Fish Biology 5912:Notemigonus crysoleucas 5807:Journal of Fish Biology 5702:Journal of Fish Biology 5520:10.1163/156853955x00229 5443:10.1163/156853997x00403 5302:Notemigonus crysoleucas 5263:Notemigonus crysoleucas 5031:10.1126/science.1169441 4979:10.1126/science.1121756 4860:10.1126/science.1218919 4543:10.1145/2463372.2463394 4425:Physical Review Letters 4260:; Grunbaum, D. (2004). 4184:10.1126/science.1121756 3880:Carcharhinus brevipinna 3663:Journal of Fish Biology 3360:10.1093/czoolo/58.1.116 2983:Aparna, Bhaduri (2011) 2768:) in the Barents Sea". 2718:Pitcher and Parish 1993 2455:10.1023/A:1007414603324 2395:Journal of Fish Biology 1978:Optimal foraging theory 1953:Antipredator adaptation 1700:threespine sticklebacks 1696:collective intelligence 1659:The researchers imaged 1556:self-propelled particle 1169:Dolphins herd sardines. 958:lined up in attack mode 843:anti-predator functions 778:Hydrodynamic efficiency 693:Reproductive advantages 382:. Most forage fish are 36:School (disambiguation) 10439:Turtle excluder device 10112:Shoaling and schooling 9691:Microbial intelligence 9351:Shoaling and schooling 8492:Surface wave detection 8457:Hydrodynamic reception 8131:Diseases and parasites 8042:Telegraph Media Group. 7935:Blackwell Publishing. 7932:In Defense of Dolphins 7856:Blackwell Publishing. 7609:Partridge, BL (1982). 6767:10.1006/anbe.2001.1858 6673:Gasterosteus aculeatus 6623:10.1098/rspb.1995.0030 6498:10.1006/anbe.1998.1010 6410:10.1006/jfbi.1998.0788 6160:Anoptichthys antrobius 6033:10.1098/rspb.2000.0980 5963:10.1006/jfbi.1994.1142 5563:10.1098/rstb.1995.0172 5478:10.1006/anbe.1993.1119 5232:10.1006/anbe.1999.1314 4692:10.1098/rspb.2007.0306 4519:10.1093/icesjms/fsp067 4062:10.1098/rsif.2008.0492 4046:Balaenoptera physalus" 3930:10.1098/rspb.2004.2937 3747:10.1006/anbe.1998.0760 3675:10.1006/jfbi.1997.0595 3492:10.1006/anbe.1996.0109 3388:10.1242/jeb.204.6.1207 3212:10.1098/rsif.2013.0305 2809:10.1002/jez.1402730102 2636:Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol 1942: 1862:Some shoals engage in 1852: 1797:Threespine stickleback 1768:threespine stickleback 1739: 1239: 959: 940:octavolateralis system 927: 838: 830: 822: 712: 498: 375: 352: 267: 216: 53:Shoaling and schooling 32:Shoal (disambiguation) 10463:Marine protected area 10337:Regional fishery body 9963:Census of Marine Life 9858:Catch per unit effort 8630:Undulatory locomotion 8447:Ampullae of Lorenzini 7773:The Fisherman's Ocean 7527:and Hamner WM (1997) 7340:10.2331/suisan.42.629 5994:10.1007/s002650050582 5086:"Collective Behavior" 3695:on 25 September 2004. 3343:"Why do fish school?" 3132:10.1093/beheco/arm109 1999:The Shoals of Herring 1937: 1846: 1733: 1394:Further information: 1271:Further information: 1234: 962:Further information: 953: 921: 915:along the coastline. 836: 828: 813: 710: 697:Further information: 501:Further information: 488: 435:highly migratory fish 367: 350: 253: 207: 10302:Minimum landing size 10262:Fisheries management 10237:Magnuson–Stevens Act 10232:Fisheries Convention 9983:Fisheries scientists 9711:Spatial organization 9676:Decentralised system 9514:Sea turtle migration 9368:Swarming (honey bee) 8858:Genetically modified 7824:Ecological Modelling 7688:In: Pitcher TJ (ed) 7495:Underwater Acoustics 6564:Pterophyllum scalare 5683:Biology of Behaviour 4732:Ecological Modelling 4537:. pp. 247–254. 4050:J. 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(1993). 5353:1993Oecol..93..356K 5339:): a field study". 5337:Leuciscus leuciscus 5179:2008CBio...18.1773S 5120:2012PLoSO...732411W 5023:2009Sci...323.1734M 5017:(5922): 1734–1737. 4971:2006Sci...311..660M 4926:10.1098/rsos.150135 4918:2015RSOS....250135O 4851:2012Sci...337.1212I 4845:(6099): 1212–1215. 4804:2011JThBi.281...24T 4744:2015EcMod.304...22D 4686:(1618): 1637–1642. 4645:2005JThBi.234..213R 4483:Charnell, M. (2008) 4447:1995PhRvL..75.1226V 4389:10.1145/37401.37406 4281:2004MEPS..273..239V 4227:1979MarBi..54..383P 4176:2006Sci...311..660M 4022:Chanticleer Press. 3811:2013PLoSO...867380O 3722:on 2 December 2008. 3628:American Naturalist 3597:1971JThBi..31..295H 3427:2007PLSCB...3...38B 3341:Larsson, M (2012). 3287:Larsson, M (2011). 3266:2009AqFF...10..344L 3248:Larsson, M (2009). 3049:1978Natur.275..642M 2950:2018CBio...28E1144M 2944:(7): 1144–1149.e4. 2742:Biology of Copepods 2685:1983EnvBF...9..253P 2605:1985EnvBF..13..195A 2481:Biological Bulletin 2447:1998EnvBF..53..353L 2407:2000JFBio..57.1351H 2297:Arch Hydrobiol Beih 2147:1978AmSci..66..166S 1629:selfish herd theory 1607:Evolutionary models 1550:program created by 1470:Mathematical models 1279:fisheries acoustics 1087:terrestrial animals 814:Schooling predator 588:found in ocean and 544:continental shelves 481:Foraging advantages 10668:Outline of fishing 10287:Fisheries observer 9938:Aquatic ecosystems 9701:Predator satiation 9562:Swarm (simulation) 9557:Swarm intelligence 9532:Agent-based models 9363:Swarming behaviour 8502:Weberian apparatus 7960:10.1007/bf00299428 7727:Pitcher TJ (2010) 7713:10.1007/BF00300175 7478:10.1007/BF00002798 7422:on 5 January 2013. 7396:Krause, J (2005). 7366:Swarm Intelligence 7314:, Vol 8, Paper ID 7281:Fish and Fisheries 7228:10.1007/BF00163984 6991:(6): R5220–R5223. 6887:10.3354/meps324001 6367:Fundulus diaphanus 6344:10.1007/bf00004940 6223:10.1007/bf02033710 6176:10.1007/bf01940729 6156:Astyanax mexicanus 6109:Embiotoca jacksoni 5881:Fundulus diaphanus 5842:Leuciscus cephalus 5737:Freshwater Biology 5590:10.1007/bf00163984 5408:10.1007/bf00166700 5361:10.1007/bf00317878 4290:10.3354/meps273239 4235:10.1007/BF00395444 3912:Tursiops truncatus 3254:Fish and Fisheries 3160:10.1007/BF00177338 3119:Behavioral Ecology 2836:Journal of Biology 2747:2009-01-01 at the 2693:10.1007/BF00692374 2648:10.1007/BF00300175 2613:10.1007/BF00000931 2559:10.1242/jeb.139493 2328:Radakov DV (1973) 2271:10.1007/BF00292770 2134:American Scientist 1983:Predator satiation 1973:Mobile Bay jubilee 1968:Lek (mating arena) 1958:Cellular automaton 1943: 1853: 1825:commercial fishing 1819:Commercial fishing 1740: 1617:swarming behaviour 1400:Swarm intelligence 1240: 1129:bottlenose dolphin 1072:bottlenose dolphin 1048:↑ A team of 960: 956:blackfin barracuda 928: 871:mass collaboration 839: 831: 823: 818:size up schooling 806:Predator avoidance 713: 542:, and the edge of 499: 468:Social interaction 376: 353: 268: 217: 90:bluestripe snapper 10707:Fisheries science 10694: 10693: 10690: 10689: 10686: 10685: 10650:Threatened sharks 10549:Ocean Conservancy 10534:Friend of the Sea 10164: 10163: 10160: 10159: 10072:Lobster fisheries 10017:Diversity of fish 9813:Shifting baseline 9782:Fisheries science 9734: 9733: 9721:Military swarming 9666:Animal navigation 9585:Collective motion 9572:Collective motion 9439:reverse migration 9373:Swarming motility 9206: 9205: 9116:Fish common names 9027: 9026: 8658:Aquatic predation 8482:Capacity for pain 8211:Age determination 8057:Schooling in Fish 7986:978-0-412-64200-5 7941:978-1-4051-5779-7 7878:978-3-540-21946-0 7862:978-0-632-05994-2 7782:978-0-8117-2771-6 7776:Stackpole Books. 7766:978-0-520-21656-3 7741:978-0-08-096480-5 7539:978-0-521-46024-8 7520:978-0-520-20165-1 7504:978-3-540-42967-8 7391:978-0-19-850818-2 7379:Krause, J (2005) 7375:978-1-55860-595-4 7369:Morgan Kaufmann. 7359:978-4-431-22211-8 7209:978-0-387-95544-5 7195:978-0-19-850503-7 7183:Godin, JJ (1997) 7102:978-0-691-11624-2 7084:978-0-521-28071-6 7031:978-0-226-06339-3 6954:Los Angeles Times 6714:(12): 1060–1069. 6609:(1355): 207–210. 6209:(12): 3051–3061. 6027:(1439): 151–155. 5549:(1334): 381–390. 5437:(13): 1063–1076. 5273:(10): 1263–1280. 5173:(22): 1773–1777. 4965:(5761): 660–663. 4170:(5761): 660–663. 4107:978-0-415-37562-7 4098:Biology of Fishes 4056:(40): 1005–1025. 3924:(1559): 135–140. 3863:978-92-5-101384-7 3043:(5681): 642–644. 2766:Mallotus villosus 2552:(18): 2802–2805. 2364:(10): 1540–1546. 2338:978-0-7065-1351-6 2224:978-0-412-42930-9 2198:978-0-13-100847-2 1935: 1864:mobbing behaviour 1774:, the surfperch 1621:genetic algorithm 1530: 1529: 1522: 1198: 1197: 878:safety in numbers 786:one another in a 405:migrating in the 365: 202: 201: 194: 68:powder blue tangs 16:(Redirected from 10724: 10630:Marine pollution 10434:Cetacean bycatch 10429:Incidental catch 10249: 10195: 10194: 10170: 10169: 10137:Humboldt current 9995: 9913:Trophic cascades 9853:Data storage tag 9838:Fish measurement 9833:Stock assessment 9794: 9793: 9777: 9776: 9761: 9754: 9747: 9738: 9737: 9547:Crowd simulation 9524:Swarm algorithms 9495:Insect migration 9400:Animal migration 9392:Animal migration 9385: 9310:Mobbing behavior 9233: 9226: 9219: 9210: 9209: 9194: 9193: 9182: 9181: 9164: 9163: 8898: 8897: 8190: 8121:Ethnoichthyology 8092: 8085: 8078: 8069: 8068: 8061:OpenStax College 7971: 7929:White TI (2007) 7926: 7900: 7847: 7818: 7816: 7729:"Fish schooling" 7724: 7681: 7658:Animal Behaviour 7652: 7650: 7644:. Archived from 7615: 7605: 7571: 7553: 7492:Lurton X (2003) 7489: 7450: 7423: 7418:. Archived from 7382:Living in Groups 7344: 7342: 7304: 7275: 7249: 7239: 7173: 7136: 7119:(6): 1691–1696. 7113:Animal Behaviour 7069: 7016: 6982: 6962: 6961: 6956:. Archived from 6945: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6934: 6924: 6918: 6917: 6915: 6913: 6898: 6892: 6891: 6889: 6863: 6850: 6844: 6843: 6841: 6839: 6824: 6818: 6817: 6800:(4): 1086–1088. 6785: 6779: 6778: 6761:(6): 1085–1088. 6755:Animal Behaviour 6746: 6740: 6739: 6699: 6693: 6692: 6668: 6662: 6661: 6641: 6635: 6634: 6598: 6592: 6591: 6559: 6553: 6552: 6535:(6): 1501–1505. 6529:Animal Behaviour 6524: 6518: 6517: 6486:Animal Behaviour 6477: 6471: 6470: 6452: 6420: 6414: 6413: 6404:(6): 1365–1368. 6393: 6387: 6386: 6362: 6356: 6355: 6319: 6313: 6312: 6289:Animal Behaviour 6284: 6278: 6277: 6249: 6243: 6242: 6194: 6188: 6187: 6170:(9): 1053–1054. 6151: 6145: 6144: 6119:(7): 1671–1681. 6104: 6098: 6097: 6061: 6055: 6054: 6044: 6012: 6006: 6005: 5973: 5967: 5966: 5946: 5940: 5939: 5907: 5901: 5900: 5876: 5870: 5869: 5837: 5831: 5830: 5802: 5796: 5795: 5772:Animal Behaviour 5767: 5761: 5760: 5732: 5726: 5725: 5697: 5691: 5690: 5678: 5672: 5671: 5643: 5637: 5636: 5608: 5602: 5601: 5573: 5567: 5566: 5538: 5532: 5531: 5505: 5496: 5490: 5489: 5472:(5): 1019–1024. 5466:Animal Behaviour 5453: 5447: 5446: 5426: 5420: 5419: 5402:(3–4): 177–180. 5387: 5381: 5380: 5328: 5322: 5321: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5258: 5252: 5251: 5220:Animal Behaviour 5215: 5209: 5208: 5190: 5158: 5152: 5151: 5141: 5131: 5099: 5090: 5089: 5081: 5075: 5074: 5072: 5070: 5060: 5051: 5050: 5005: 4999: 4998: 4954: 4948: 4947: 4937: 4911: 4887: 4881: 4880: 4862: 4830: 4824: 4823: 4789: 4783:Tosh CR (2011). 4780: 4774: 4773: 4763: 4729: 4720: 4714: 4713: 4703: 4671: 4665: 4664: 4628: 4622: 4621: 4595: 4571: 4565: 4564: 4530: 4524: 4523: 4521: 4497: 4491: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4440: 4438:cond-mat/0611743 4431:(6): 1226–1229. 4417: 4411: 4410: 4382: 4366: 4360: 4359: 4357: 4355: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4306: 4295: 4294: 4292: 4266: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4210: 4204: 4203: 4159: 4153: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4134: 4125: 4115: 4109: 4093: 4084: 4083: 4073: 4037: 4031: 4014: 4008: 4007: 3971: 3965: 3958: 3952: 3951: 3941: 3905: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3882:, Spinner Shark" 3874: 3868: 3867: 3849: 3843: 3842: 3832: 3822: 3790: 3784: 3777:Pelagic Thresher 3773: 3767: 3766: 3735:Animal Behaviour 3730: 3724: 3723: 3718:. Archived from 3712: 3697: 3696: 3691:. Archived from 3685: 3679: 3678: 3658: 3652: 3651: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3585:J. Theor Biology 3580: 3574: 3573: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3515:Animal Behaviour 3510: 3504: 3503: 3485: 3476:(5): 1077–1086. 3465: 3459: 3458: 3448: 3438: 3415:PLOS Comput Biol 3406: 3400: 3399: 3382:(6): 1207–1221. 3371: 3365: 3364: 3362: 3338: 3327: 3326: 3316: 3293:Animal Cognition 3284: 3278: 3277: 3245: 3234: 3233: 3223: 3205: 3196:(85): 20130305. 3181: 3172: 3171: 3143: 3137: 3136: 3134: 3110: 3104: 3103: 3080:Animal Behaviour 3075: 3069: 3068: 3057:10.1038/275642a0 3032: 3026: 3025: 3002:Animal Behaviour 2997: 2991: 2988:OpenStax College 2981: 2972: 2971: 2961: 2929: 2923: 2922: 2912: 2902: 2878: 2872: 2871: 2861: 2851: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2792: 2786: 2785: 2761: 2755: 2739: 2733: 2732: 2725: 2719: 2716: 2705: 2704: 2679:(3–4): 253–262. 2666: 2660: 2659: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2588: 2582: 2581: 2571: 2561: 2537: 2531: 2530: 2496: 2473: 2467: 2466: 2428: 2419: 2418: 2401:(6): 1351–1366. 2390: 2381: 2380: 2378: 2372:. Archived from 2355: 2346: 2340: 2326: 2320: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2292: 2283: 2282: 2254: 2245: 2244: 2232: 2226: 2208:Pitcher, TJ and 2206: 2200: 2186: 2167: 2157: 2151: 2150: 2128: 2122: 2119: 2093: 2090:American English 2078: 2072: 2035:of blackfish, a 2017: 1936: 1898:mesopelagic fish 1872:snapping turtles 1839:Further examples 1833:purse seine nets 1772:banded killifish 1664:Atlantic herring 1525: 1518: 1514: 1511: 1505: 1482: 1474: 1458: 1450:Boids simulation 1448: 1436: 1412: 1374:Packing fraction 1353: 1341: 1329: 1317: 1293:Atlantic herring 1218: 1206: 1191: 1190: 1179: 1178: 1167: 1166: 1155: 1154: 1152:event on Earth. 1044: 1030: 1018: 1006: 994: 816:bluefin trevally 672: 656: 645:Atlantic herring 640: 624: 615:fully expanded. 526:are large-scale 428: 427: 423: 418: 417: 413: 366: 197: 190: 186: 183: 177: 154: 146: 85: 63: 21: 10732: 10731: 10727: 10726: 10725: 10723: 10722: 10721: 10697: 10696: 10695: 10682: 10659: 10655:Threatened rays 10635:Mercury in fish 10608: 10507: 10493:Shark sanctuary 10451: 10348: 10282:Catch reporting 10250: 10241: 10189: 10156: 10062:Krill fisheries 10027:Coral reef fish 10012:Ocean fisheries 10003: 9996: 9987: 9828:Condition index 9799: 9788: 9771: 9765: 9735: 9730: 9649: 9611: 9566: 9518: 9386: 9377: 9242: 9237: 9207: 9202: 9170: 9094: 9023: 8934: 8887: 8826: 8757: 8650: 8644: 8596: 8540:Ichthyoplankton 8506: 8438: 8431: 8427:Digital Library 8422:Teleost leptins 8361:Shark cartilage 8285:pharyngeal slit 8280:pharyngeal arch 8216:Anguilliformity 8201: 8199: 8191: 8182: 8101: 8096: 7995: 7990: 7891:(3–4): 71–140. 7885:Physics Reports 7770:Ross DA (2000) 7733:Marine Biology, 7651:on 3 July 2011. 7648: 7613: 7578:10.2307/1543482 7569:10.1.1.116.1548 7551: 7307:Inada Y (2001) 7247: 7058:10.2307/1930099 6985:Physical Review 6980: 6971: 6969:Further reading 6966: 6965: 6946: 6942: 6932: 6930: 6926: 6925: 6921: 6911: 6909: 6899: 6895: 6861: 6857:Dosidicus gigas 6851: 6847: 6837: 6835: 6825: 6821: 6806:10.2307/1445113 6786: 6782: 6747: 6743: 6700: 6696: 6669: 6665: 6642: 6638: 6599: 6595: 6560: 6556: 6525: 6521: 6478: 6474: 6450:10.1.1.460.7259 6421: 6417: 6394: 6390: 6363: 6359: 6320: 6316: 6285: 6281: 6250: 6246: 6195: 6191: 6152: 6148: 6105: 6101: 6062: 6058: 6013: 6009: 5974: 5970: 5947: 5943: 5908: 5904: 5877: 5873: 5838: 5834: 5803: 5799: 5768: 5764: 5733: 5729: 5698: 5694: 5679: 5675: 5644: 5640: 5625:10.2307/1447157 5609: 5605: 5574: 5570: 5539: 5535: 5503: 5497: 5493: 5458:"The effect of 5454: 5450: 5427: 5423: 5392:Rutilus rutilus 5388: 5384: 5333:Rutilus rutilus 5329: 5325: 5298: 5294: 5259: 5255: 5216: 5212: 5167:Current Biology 5159: 5155: 5100: 5093: 5082: 5078: 5068: 5066: 5062: 5061: 5054: 5006: 5002: 4955: 4951: 4888: 4884: 4831: 4827: 4787: 4781: 4777: 4727: 4721: 4717: 4672: 4668: 4629: 4625: 4593:10.1.1.108.3956 4580:Artificial Life 4572: 4568: 4553: 4531: 4527: 4498: 4494: 4482: 4478: 4418: 4414: 4399: 4380:10.1.1.103.7187 4367: 4363: 4353: 4351: 4343: 4342: 4338: 4307: 4298: 4264: 4254: 4250: 4211: 4207: 4160: 4156: 4146: 4144: 4136: 4135: 4128: 4118:BBC News Online 4116: 4112: 4094: 4087: 4038: 4034: 4015: 4011: 3972: 3968: 3959: 3955: 3906: 3897: 3887: 3885: 3884:. MarineBio.org 3876: 3875: 3871: 3864: 3850: 3846: 3791: 3787: 3774: 3770: 3731: 3727: 3714: 3713: 3700: 3687: 3686: 3682: 3659: 3655: 3624: 3620: 3581: 3577: 3562:10.2307/1297632 3546: 3542: 3511: 3507: 3483:10.1.1.472.7279 3466: 3462: 3407: 3403: 3372: 3368: 3347:Current Zoology 3339: 3330: 3285: 3281: 3246: 3237: 3182: 3175: 3144: 3140: 3111: 3107: 3076: 3072: 3033: 3029: 2998: 2994: 2982: 2975: 2938:Current Biology 2930: 2926: 2879: 2875: 2828: 2824: 2793: 2789: 2762: 2758: 2749:Wayback Machine 2740: 2736: 2727: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2708: 2667: 2663: 2632: 2628: 2589: 2585: 2538: 2534: 2503:10.2307/1543482 2494:10.1.1.116.1548 2474: 2470: 2429: 2422: 2391: 2384: 2376: 2370:10.1139/z99-124 2353: 2347: 2343: 2327: 2323: 2312: 2308: 2293: 2286: 2255: 2248: 2233: 2229: 2207: 2203: 2187: 2170: 2158: 2154: 2129: 2125: 2120: 2107: 2102: 2097: 2096: 2086:British English 2079: 2075: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2004: 1993:The Blue Planet 1940:bigeye trevally 1929: 1927: 1866:. For example, 1841: 1827:industry. Huge 1821: 1805:European minnow 1728: 1681: 1637: 1615:animals evolve 1609: 1526: 1515: 1509: 1506: 1495: 1483: 1472: 1467: 1466: 1465: 1464: 1463: 1442: 1441: 1437: 1428: 1427: 1426: 1425: 1418:metric distance 1413: 1402: 1392: 1357: 1354: 1345: 1342: 1333: 1330: 1321: 1318: 1275: 1269: 1245:passive markers 1229: 1227:How fish school 1222: 1219: 1210: 1207: 1188: 1176: 1164: 1158:External videos 1131:populations in 1070:, the Atlantic 1054: 1053: 1045: 1034: 1031: 1022: 1019: 1010: 1007: 998: 995: 978:Thresher sharks 966: 948: 860:as well as the 808: 796:Antarctic krill 780: 701: 695: 676: 673: 664: 657: 648: 641: 632: 625: 532:Coriolis effect 505: 483: 470: 425: 421: 420: 415: 411: 410: 369:Pacific sardine 355: 264:great barracuda 224:nesting sites. 198: 187: 181: 178: 167: 155: 144: 101: 100: 99: 98: 97: 86: 77: 76: 75: 64: 55: 54: 46: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10730: 10720: 10719: 10714: 10709: 10692: 10691: 10688: 10687: 10684: 10683: 10681: 10680: 10675: 10670: 10664: 10661: 10660: 10658: 10657: 10652: 10647: 10642: 10637: 10632: 10627: 10625:Fish slaughter 10622: 10616: 10614: 10613:Related issues 10610: 10609: 10607: 10606: 10601: 10596: 10591: 10586: 10581: 10576: 10571: 10566: 10561: 10556: 10554:Ocean Outcomes 10551: 10546: 10541: 10536: 10531: 10526: 10521: 10515: 10513: 10509: 10508: 10506: 10505: 10500: 10495: 10490: 10485: 10480: 10475: 10470: 10468:Marine reserve 10465: 10459: 10457: 10453: 10452: 10450: 10449: 10441: 10436: 10431: 10426: 10421: 10416: 10409: 10402: 10397: 10392: 10387: 10382: 10377: 10372: 10367: 10362: 10356: 10354: 10353:Sustainability 10350: 10349: 10347: 10346: 10345: 10344: 10334: 10329: 10324: 10319: 10314: 10309: 10304: 10299: 10294: 10289: 10284: 10279: 10274: 10269: 10264: 10258: 10256: 10252: 10251: 10244: 10242: 10240: 10239: 10234: 10229: 10228: 10227: 10217: 10212: 10207: 10201: 10199: 10191: 10190: 10183:sustainability 10166: 10165: 10162: 10161: 10158: 10157: 10155: 10154: 10149: 10144: 10139: 10134: 10129: 10124: 10119: 10117:Marine habitat 10114: 10109: 10104: 10099: 10094: 10089: 10084: 10079: 10077:Shrimp fishery 10074: 10069: 10067:Kelp fisheries 10064: 10059: 10054: 10052:Crab fisheries 10049: 10044: 10039: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10019: 10014: 10008: 10006: 9998: 9997: 9990: 9988: 9986: 9985: 9980: 9975: 9970: 9965: 9960: 9955: 9950: 9945: 9940: 9935: 9933:Marine biology 9930: 9925: 9920: 9915: 9910: 9905: 9900: 9895: 9890: 9885: 9883:Coded wire tag 9880: 9875: 9870: 9865: 9860: 9855: 9850: 9845: 9840: 9835: 9830: 9825: 9823:Fish mortality 9820: 9815: 9810: 9804: 9802: 9790: 9789: 9786:wild fisheries 9773: 9772: 9770:science topics 9764: 9763: 9756: 9749: 9741: 9732: 9731: 9729: 9728: 9723: 9718: 9713: 9708: 9706:Quorum sensing 9703: 9698: 9693: 9688: 9683: 9678: 9673: 9668: 9663: 9657: 9655: 9654:Related topics 9651: 9650: 9648: 9647: 9642: 9640:Swarm robotics 9637: 9632: 9627: 9621: 9619: 9617:Swarm robotics 9613: 9612: 9610: 9609: 9604: 9599: 9598: 9597: 9587: 9582: 9576: 9574: 9568: 9567: 9565: 9564: 9559: 9554: 9549: 9544: 9539: 9534: 9528: 9526: 9520: 9519: 9517: 9516: 9511: 9510: 9509: 9508: 9507: 9492: 9491: 9490: 9485: 9475: 9474: 9473: 9468: 9463: 9458: 9451:Fish migration 9448: 9446:Cell migration 9443: 9442: 9441: 9436: 9429:Bird migration 9426: 9425: 9424: 9422:coded wire tag 9419: 9418: 9417: 9407: 9396: 9394: 9388: 9387: 9380: 9378: 9376: 9375: 9370: 9365: 9360: 9359: 9358: 9348: 9347: 9346: 9341: 9331: 9330: 9329: 9319: 9318: 9317: 9315:feeding frenzy 9307: 9302: 9297: 9296: 9295: 9285: 9284: 9283: 9278: 9268: 9263: 9258: 9252: 9250: 9244: 9243: 9236: 9235: 9228: 9221: 9213: 9204: 9203: 9201: 9200: 9188: 9175: 9172: 9171: 9169: 9168: 9158: 9153: 9152: 9151: 9146: 9138: 9133: 9128: 9123: 9118: 9113: 9108: 9102: 9100: 9096: 9095: 9093: 9092: 9091: 9090: 9085: 9075: 9074: 9073: 9068: 9063: 9053: 9052: 9051: 9046: 9035: 9033: 9029: 9028: 9025: 9024: 9022: 9021: 9020: 9019: 9014: 9009: 8999: 8998: 8997: 8992: 8987: 8982: 8972: 8971: 8970: 8965: 8960: 8955: 8944: 8942: 8940:Wild fisheries 8936: 8935: 8933: 8932: 8927: 8922: 8917: 8912: 8906: 8904: 8895: 8889: 8888: 8886: 8885: 8880: 8875: 8870: 8865: 8863:Hallucinogenic 8860: 8855: 8850: 8845: 8840: 8834: 8832: 8828: 8827: 8825: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8794: 8789: 8784: 8779: 8774: 8768: 8766: 8759: 8758: 8756: 8755: 8750: 8745: 8740: 8738:Schooling fish 8735: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8705: 8700: 8698:Filter feeders 8695: 8690: 8685: 8680: 8675: 8673:Bottom feeders 8670: 8665: 8660: 8654: 8652: 8646: 8645: 8643: 8642: 8637: 8632: 8627: 8622: 8617: 8612: 8606: 8604: 8598: 8597: 8595: 8594: 8593: 8592: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8567: 8562: 8557: 8552: 8547: 8542: 8537: 8532: 8527: 8522: 8516: 8514: 8508: 8507: 8505: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8489: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8469: 8464: 8459: 8454: 8449: 8443: 8441: 8433: 8432: 8430: 8429: 8424: 8419: 8418: 8417: 8412: 8402: 8401: 8400: 8395: 8385: 8380: 8375: 8374: 8373: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8342: 8341: 8331: 8326: 8321: 8319:Leydig's organ 8316: 8315: 8314: 8312:pharyngeal jaw 8309: 8299: 8294: 8293: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8265:branchial arch 8257: 8256: 8255: 8245: 8240: 8235: 8234: 8233: 8228: 8218: 8213: 8207: 8205: 8193: 8192: 8185: 8183: 8181: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8154: 8153: 8148: 8143: 8133: 8128: 8123: 8118: 8112: 8110: 8103: 8102: 8095: 8094: 8087: 8080: 8072: 8066: 8065: 8053: 8048: 8043: 8034: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8011: 8006: 8001: 7994: 7993:External links 7991: 7989: 7988: 7972: 7943: 7927: 7880: 7864: 7848: 7830:(3): 149–157. 7819: 7799:(3): 269–283. 7784: 7768: 7744: 7725: 7707:(2): 149–151. 7693: 7682: 7664:(2): 611–613. 7653: 7606: 7562:(3): 296–305. 7541: 7522: 7506: 7490: 7464:(2): 183–192. 7451: 7441:(3): 494–501. 7424: 7393: 7377: 7361: 7345: 7333:(6): 629–635. 7318: 7305: 7287:(3): 269–279. 7276: 7240: 7222:(4): 271–276. 7211: 7197: 7181: 7174: 7148:(3): 595–619. 7137: 7108: 7086: 7070: 7044:(3): 361–370. 7033: 7017: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6964: 6963: 6940: 6919: 6907:Outside Online 6893: 6845: 6833:New York Times 6819: 6780: 6741: 6694: 6683:(1–2): 27–37. 6663: 6652:(2): 161–167. 6636: 6593: 6574:(6): 827–844. 6554: 6519: 6492:(4): 771–775. 6472: 6435:(2): 155–160. 6425:Glutea anomala 6415: 6388: 6357: 6330:(2): 215–218. 6314: 6279: 6260:(3): 776–782. 6244: 6189: 6146: 6099: 6072:(3): 580–590. 6056: 6007: 5988:(6): 437–443. 5968: 5957:(3): 401–406. 5941: 5922:(8): 642–652. 5902: 5891:(2): 128–136. 5871: 5852:(2): 105–116. 5832: 5813:(4): 627–630. 5797: 5762: 5743:(5): 653–659. 5727: 5708:(5): 775–780. 5692: 5673: 5638: 5619:(2): 540–542. 5603: 5584:(4): 271–276. 5568: 5533: 5491: 5448: 5421: 5382: 5347:(3): 356–359. 5323: 5312:(7): 797–809. 5292: 5253: 5226:(2): 403–409. 5210: 5153: 5091: 5076: 5052: 5000: 4949: 4882: 4825: 4775: 4715: 4666: 4639:(2): 213–225. 4623: 4586:(2): 191–209. 4566: 4551: 4525: 4512:(5): 826–838. 4492: 4476: 4412: 4398:978-0897912273 4397: 4361: 4336: 4317:(1–2): 32–37. 4296: 4248: 4221:(4): 383–394. 4205: 4154: 4126: 4110: 4085: 4032: 4009: 3982:(2): 309–382. 3966: 3953: 3895: 3869: 3862: 3844: 3785: 3768: 3741:(1): 181–190. 3725: 3698: 3680: 3669:(3): 494–501. 3653: 3640:10.1086/284556 3634:(2): 228–240. 3618: 3591:(2): 295–311. 3575: 3556:(5): 332–339. 3540: 3505: 3460: 3421:(3): 402–411. 3401: 3366: 3353:(1): 116–128. 3328: 3279: 3260:(3): 344–355. 3235: 3173: 3154:(6): 421–429. 3138: 3125:(1): 126–130. 3105: 3086:(3): 387–393. 3070: 3027: 3008:(1): 155–164. 2992: 2973: 2924: 2893:(2): 219–226. 2873: 2849:10.1186/jbiol5 2822: 2787: 2776:(6): 453–496. 2756: 2734: 2720: 2706: 2661: 2642:(2): 149–151. 2626: 2599:(3): 195–202. 2583: 2532: 2487:(3): 296–305. 2477:Parrish, J. K. 2468: 2441:(4): 353–364. 2420: 2382: 2341: 2321: 2306: 2284: 2265:(4): 277–288. 2246: 2227: 2201: 2168: 2152: 2141:(2): 166–175. 2123: 2104: 2103: 2101: 2098: 2095: 2094: 2073: 2067:of trouts and 2059:of stingrays, 2027:of fish, or a 2011: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2002: 1995: 1990: 1985: 1980: 1975: 1970: 1965: 1963:Krill#Swarming 1960: 1955: 1950: 1944: 1926: 1923: 1885:Humboldt squid 1840: 1837: 1820: 1817: 1727: 1724: 1688:Quorum sensing 1680: 1677: 1636: 1633: 1608: 1605: 1600: 1599: 1596: 1577: 1576: 1573: 1570: 1552:Craig Reynolds 1544: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1528: 1527: 1486: 1484: 1477: 1471: 1468: 1439: 1438: 1431: 1430: 1429: 1415: 1414: 1407: 1406: 1405: 1404: 1403: 1391: 1388: 1387: 1386: 1380: 1377: 1371: 1368: 1364: 1359: 1358: 1355: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1304: 1268: 1265: 1228: 1225: 1224: 1223: 1220: 1213: 1211: 1208: 1201: 1196: 1195: 1184: 1183: 1172: 1171: 1160: 1159: 1083:marine animals 1068:South Carolina 1056: 1055: 1047: 1046: 1039: 1036: 1035: 1032: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1001: 999: 996: 989: 983:Spinner sharks 947: 944: 913:feeding frenzy 909:Cape fur seals 862:electrosensory 807: 804: 792:wingtip vortex 779: 776: 772:ocean currents 699:Fish migration 694: 691: 678: 677: 674: 667: 665: 658: 651: 649: 642: 635: 633: 626: 619: 580:, the primary 530:caused by the 528:ocean currents 482: 479: 469: 466: 380:ocean food web 373:yellowfin tuna 322:filter-feeding 318:marine mammals 200: 199: 158: 156: 149: 143: 140: 87: 80: 79: 78: 65: 58: 57: 56: 52: 51: 50: 49: 43:School of Fish 26: 18:School of fish 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10729: 10718: 10715: 10713: 10710: 10708: 10705: 10704: 10702: 10679: 10676: 10674: 10671: 10669: 10666: 10665: 10662: 10656: 10653: 10651: 10648: 10646: 10645:Shark finning 10643: 10641: 10640:Shark culling 10638: 10636: 10633: 10631: 10628: 10626: 10623: 10621: 10618: 10617: 10615: 10611: 10605: 10602: 10600: 10597: 10595: 10592: 10590: 10587: 10585: 10582: 10580: 10577: 10575: 10572: 10570: 10569:Sea Around Us 10567: 10565: 10562: 10560: 10557: 10555: 10552: 10550: 10547: 10545: 10544:Seafood Watch 10542: 10540: 10537: 10535: 10532: 10530: 10527: 10525: 10522: 10520: 10517: 10516: 10514: 10510: 10504: 10501: 10499: 10496: 10494: 10491: 10489: 10486: 10484: 10481: 10479: 10476: 10474: 10471: 10469: 10466: 10464: 10461: 10460: 10458: 10454: 10448: 10446: 10445:Shrimp-Turtle 10442: 10440: 10437: 10435: 10432: 10430: 10427: 10425: 10422: 10420: 10417: 10415: 10414: 10410: 10408: 10407: 10403: 10401: 10398: 10396: 10393: 10391: 10388: 10386: 10383: 10381: 10378: 10376: 10373: 10371: 10368: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10357: 10355: 10351: 10343: 10340: 10339: 10338: 10335: 10333: 10330: 10328: 10325: 10323: 10320: 10318: 10315: 10313: 10310: 10308: 10307:Pulse fishing 10305: 10303: 10300: 10298: 10295: 10293: 10290: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10280: 10278: 10275: 10273: 10270: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10259: 10257: 10253: 10248: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10226: 10223: 10222: 10221: 10218: 10216: 10213: 10211: 10208: 10206: 10205:Fisheries law 10203: 10202: 10200: 10196: 10192: 10188: 10184: 10180: 10176: 10175:Fisheries law 10171: 10167: 10153: 10150: 10148: 10145: 10143: 10140: 10138: 10135: 10133: 10130: 10128: 10125: 10123: 10120: 10118: 10115: 10113: 10110: 10108: 10105: 10103: 10100: 10098: 10095: 10093: 10090: 10088: 10085: 10083: 10080: 10078: 10075: 10073: 10070: 10068: 10065: 10063: 10060: 10058: 10057:Eel fisheries 10055: 10053: 10050: 10048: 10047:Cod fisheries 10045: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10035: 10033: 10032:Demersal fish 10030: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10018: 10015: 10013: 10010: 10009: 10007: 10005: 9999: 9994: 9984: 9981: 9979: 9976: 9974: 9971: 9969: 9966: 9964: 9961: 9959: 9956: 9954: 9951: 9949: 9946: 9944: 9941: 9939: 9936: 9934: 9931: 9929: 9926: 9924: 9921: 9919: 9916: 9914: 9911: 9909: 9908:Trophic level 9906: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9896: 9894: 9891: 9889: 9886: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9876: 9874: 9871: 9869: 9866: 9864: 9861: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9851: 9849: 9846: 9844: 9841: 9839: 9836: 9834: 9831: 9829: 9826: 9824: 9821: 9819: 9816: 9814: 9811: 9809: 9806: 9805: 9803: 9801: 9795: 9791: 9787: 9783: 9778: 9774: 9769: 9762: 9757: 9755: 9750: 9748: 9743: 9742: 9739: 9727: 9724: 9722: 9719: 9717: 9714: 9712: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9699: 9697: 9694: 9692: 9689: 9687: 9684: 9682: 9679: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9667: 9664: 9662: 9659: 9658: 9656: 9652: 9646: 9643: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9631: 9628: 9626: 9623: 9622: 9620: 9618: 9614: 9608: 9605: 9603: 9600: 9596: 9593: 9592: 9591: 9588: 9586: 9583: 9581: 9580:Active matter 9578: 9577: 9575: 9573: 9569: 9563: 9560: 9558: 9555: 9553: 9550: 9548: 9545: 9543: 9540: 9538: 9535: 9533: 9530: 9529: 9527: 9525: 9521: 9515: 9512: 9506: 9503: 9502: 9501: 9498: 9497: 9496: 9493: 9489: 9486: 9484: 9481: 9480: 9479: 9476: 9472: 9469: 9467: 9464: 9462: 9459: 9457: 9456:diel vertical 9454: 9453: 9452: 9449: 9447: 9444: 9440: 9437: 9435: 9432: 9431: 9430: 9427: 9423: 9420: 9416: 9413: 9412: 9411: 9408: 9406: 9403: 9402: 9401: 9398: 9397: 9395: 9393: 9389: 9384: 9374: 9371: 9369: 9366: 9364: 9361: 9357: 9354: 9353: 9352: 9349: 9345: 9342: 9340: 9337: 9336: 9335: 9332: 9328: 9325: 9324: 9323: 9320: 9316: 9313: 9312: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9294: 9293:herd behavior 9291: 9290: 9289: 9286: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9273: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9264: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9253: 9251: 9249: 9245: 9241: 9234: 9229: 9227: 9222: 9220: 9215: 9214: 9211: 9199: 9198: 9189: 9187: 9186: 9177: 9176: 9173: 9167: 9166:more lists... 9159: 9157: 9154: 9150: 9147: 9145: 9142: 9141: 9139: 9137: 9134: 9132: 9129: 9127: 9124: 9122: 9121:Fish families 9119: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9107: 9106:Aquarium life 9104: 9103: 9101: 9097: 9089: 9088:fleshy-finned 9086: 9084: 9081: 9080: 9079: 9076: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9058: 9057: 9056:Cartilaginous 9054: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9041: 9040: 9037: 9036: 9034: 9030: 9018: 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9004: 9003: 9000: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8988: 8986: 8983: 8981: 8978: 8977: 8976: 8973: 8969: 8966: 8964: 8961: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8950: 8949: 8946: 8945: 8943: 8941: 8937: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8911: 8908: 8907: 8905: 8903: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8890: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8851: 8849: 8846: 8844: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8835: 8833: 8829: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8788: 8785: 8783: 8780: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8769: 8767: 8765: 8760: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8693:Electric fish 8691: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8664: 8661: 8659: 8656: 8655: 8653: 8647: 8641: 8638: 8636: 8633: 8631: 8628: 8626: 8623: 8621: 8618: 8616: 8613: 8611: 8608: 8607: 8605: 8603: 8599: 8591: 8588: 8587: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8533: 8531: 8528: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8517: 8515: 8513: 8509: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8493: 8490: 8488: 8485: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8465: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8444: 8442: 8440: 8434: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8407: 8406: 8403: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8390: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8376: 8372: 8369: 8368: 8367: 8364: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8354: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8340: 8337: 8336: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8324:Mauthner cell 8322: 8320: 8317: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8304: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8262: 8261: 8258: 8254: 8251: 8250: 8249: 8246: 8244: 8243:Chromatophore 8241: 8239: 8236: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8223: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8208: 8206: 8204: 8198: 8194: 8189: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8138: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8117: 8114: 8113: 8111: 8109: 8104: 8100: 8093: 8088: 8086: 8081: 8079: 8074: 8073: 8070: 8063: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8052: 8049: 8047: 8044: 8041: 8040: 8035: 8033: 8032: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8010: 8007: 8005: 8002: 8000: 7997: 7996: 7987: 7983: 7979: 7978: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7949: 7944: 7942: 7938: 7934: 7933: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7916: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7890: 7886: 7881: 7879: 7875: 7871: 7870: 7865: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7854: 7849: 7845: 7841: 7837: 7833: 7829: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7798: 7794: 7790: 7785: 7783: 7779: 7775: 7774: 7769: 7767: 7763: 7759: 7758:0-520-21656-3 7755: 7751: 7750: 7745: 7742: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7718: 7714: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7698: 7694: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7679: 7675: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7654: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7631: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7612: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7595: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7579: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7561: 7557: 7550: 7546: 7542: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7531: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7517: 7513: 7512: 7507: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7496: 7491: 7487: 7483: 7479: 7475: 7471: 7467: 7463: 7459: 7458: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7413: 7409: 7405: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7392: 7388: 7384: 7383: 7378: 7376: 7372: 7368: 7367: 7362: 7360: 7356: 7352: 7351: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7319: 7317: 7313: 7310: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7294: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7277: 7273: 7269: 7265: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7246: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7212: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7198: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7187: 7182: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7109: 7107: 7104:– especially 7103: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7085: 7081: 7077: 7076: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7034: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7023: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6979: 6974: 6973: 6959: 6955: 6951: 6944: 6929: 6923: 6908: 6904: 6897: 6888: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6860: 6858: 6849: 6834: 6830: 6823: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6784: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6745: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6705: 6698: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6667: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6640: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6597: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6558: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6523: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6476: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6419: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6392: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6361: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6318: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6283: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6248: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6193: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6150: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6103: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6060: 6052: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6011: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5972: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5945: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5906: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5875: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5836: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5801: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5766: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5731: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5696: 5688: 5684: 5677: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5642: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5607: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5572: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5537: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5502: 5495: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5463: 5461: 5452: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5425: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5386: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5327: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5296: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5257: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5214: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5157: 5149: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5114:(3): e32411. 5113: 5109: 5105: 5098: 5096: 5087: 5080: 5065: 5059: 5057: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5004: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4953: 4945: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4902:(9): 150135. 4901: 4897: 4893: 4886: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4829: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4786: 4779: 4771: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4726: 4719: 4711: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4680:Proc Biol Sci 4677: 4670: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4627: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4570: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4552:9781450319638 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4529: 4520: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4496: 4490: 4486: 4480: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4416: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4372: 4365: 4350: 4346: 4340: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4263: 4259: 4256:Viscido, S.; 4252: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4209: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4158: 4143: 4139: 4133: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4114: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4099: 4092: 4090: 4081: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4045: 4036: 4029: 4028:9780375411410 4025: 4021: 4020: 4013: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3970: 3962: 3957: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3913: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3883: 3881: 3873: 3865: 3859: 3855: 3848: 3840: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3805:(7): e67380. 3804: 3800: 3796: 3789: 3782: 3778: 3772: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3729: 3721: 3717: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3694: 3690: 3684: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3657: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3622: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3579: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3544: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3509: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3464: 3456: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3405: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3370: 3361: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3283: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3231: 3227: 3222: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3204: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3178: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3142: 3133: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3109: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3074: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3031: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2996: 2989: 2986: 2980: 2978: 2969: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2928: 2920: 2916: 2911: 2906: 2901: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2869: 2865: 2860: 2855: 2850: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2791: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2760: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2743: 2738: 2730: 2724: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2673: 2665: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2630: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2587: 2579: 2575: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2536: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2472: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2435: 2427: 2425: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2389: 2387: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2352: 2345: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2325: 2319: 2315: 2310: 2302: 2298: 2291: 2289: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2253: 2251: 2242: 2238: 2231: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2216: 2211: 2205: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2166: 2165:0-86542-256-7 2162: 2156: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2135: 2127: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2105: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2077: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2043:of herrings, 2042: 2039:of goldfish, 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2016: 2012: 2001: 2000: 1996: 1994: 1991: 1989: 1986: 1984: 1981: 1979: 1976: 1974: 1971: 1969: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1945: 1941: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1886: 1882: 1879: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1857: 1850: 1845: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1816: 1814: 1813:Golden shiner 1809: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1788: 1784: 1783:Mexican tetra 1780: 1778: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1760: 1758: 1757:golden shiner 1752: 1748: 1744: 1737: 1732: 1723: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1711:golden shiner 1708: 1703: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1676: 1673: 1672:audience wave 1669: 1665: 1662: 1657: 1655: 1651: 1650:locust swarms 1646: 1642: 1632: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1604: 1597: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1574: 1571: 1568: 1567: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1534: 1533: 1524: 1521: 1513: 1503: 1499: 1493: 1492: 1487:This section 1485: 1481: 1476: 1475: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1452:– needs Java 1451: 1447: 1435: 1423: 1419: 1411: 1401: 1397: 1384: 1381: 1378: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1360: 1356:High polarity 1352: 1347: 1340: 1335: 1328: 1323: 1316: 1311: 1310: 1305: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1287: 1286: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1274: 1264: 1262: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1246: 1238: 1233: 1217: 1212: 1205: 1200: 1199: 1194: 1185: 1182: 1173: 1170: 1161: 1156: 1153: 1151: 1150:biomechanical 1147: 1142: 1137: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1094: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1075: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1051: 1043: 1038: 1037: 1029: 1024: 1017: 1012: 1005: 1000: 993: 988: 987: 986: 984: 979: 975: 971: 965: 957: 952: 943: 941: 935: 933: 925: 920: 916: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 881: 879: 874: 872: 866: 863: 859: 854: 851: 846: 844: 835: 827: 821: 817: 812: 803: 799: 797: 793: 789: 785: 775: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 727: 723: 718: 709: 705: 700: 690: 687: 683: 671: 666: 662: 655: 650: 646: 639: 634: 630: 623: 618: 617: 616: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 573: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 540:fishing banks 537: 533: 529: 525: 524:Oceanic gyres 520: 517: 514: 510: 504: 496: 492: 489:Some coastal 487: 478: 476: 465: 463: 459: 454: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 431: 408: 404: 399: 395: 393: 389: 388:demersal fish 385: 381: 374: 370: 349: 345: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 324:fish such as 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 265: 261: 257: 252: 248: 245: 239: 237: 232: 230: 225: 222: 215: 211: 206: 196: 193: 185: 175: 171: 165: 164: 159:This section 157: 153: 148: 147: 139: 136: 135:oddity effect 131: 127: 125: 121: 116: 114: 110: 106: 95: 91: 84: 73: 69: 62: 48: 44: 37: 33: 19: 10456:Conservation 10444: 10411: 10404: 10187:conservation 10142:Algal blooms 10127:Water column 10111: 10042:Pelagic fish 10022:Coastal fish 9968:OSTM/Jason-2 9943:Bioeconomics 9878:Acoustic tag 9848:Fish counter 9661:Allee effect 9635:Nanorobotics 9625:Ant robotics 9602:Vicsek model 9350: 9195: 9183: 9083:spiny-finned 9032:Major groups 8753:Intelligence 8737: 8733:Scale eaters 8678:Cleaner fish 8560:Mouthbrooder 8512:Reproduction 8487:Schreckstoff 8472:Lateral line 8388:Swim bladder 8378:Spiral valve 8307:hyomandibula 8290:pseudobranch 8173:Hypoxia in - 8059: 8038: 8030: 7976: 7954:(1): 47–52. 7951: 7947: 7931: 7888: 7884: 7868: 7852: 7827: 7823: 7796: 7792: 7772: 7748: 7732: 7704: 7700: 7689: 7661: 7657: 7646:the original 7617: 7559: 7555: 7529: 7510: 7494: 7461: 7455: 7438: 7432: 7420:the original 7407: 7401: 7381: 7365: 7349: 7330: 7326: 7311: 7284: 7280: 7258:(11): 1–14. 7255: 7251: 7219: 7215: 7185: 7145: 7141: 7116: 7112: 7093: 7074: 7041: 7037: 7021: 6988: 6984: 6958:the original 6953: 6943: 6933:13 September 6931:. Retrieved 6922: 6912:13 September 6910:. Retrieved 6906: 6896: 6869: 6865: 6856: 6848: 6838:13 September 6836:. 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