Sawad - Knowledge

2448: 727: 1873:. Abu Ubayd Allah stressed the importance of keeping in mind the financial needs of the taxpayers, and argued that a fixed tax would cause problems for taxpayers due to changes in prices. A key reason he and other officials supported this new system of taxation was that, this way, landlords would share the risk with the government in case of a bad harvest, thus reducing conflict between the state and the landed elite. Another reason was because, under the 'alā l-misāḥa system, independent grain merchants had a great deal of control over prices; by switching to the muqāsama system, the state could increase its control of the grain market in Iraq, where it needed to supply the most important cities in the caliphate. 2541:, or village chiefs, formed the lowest rung of the Sasanian landed elite. They remained after the Islamic conquest, with their village estates formed "the prevailing form of land-tenure in post-conquest Iraq." The government frequently consulted them on matters concerning land and irrigation, as well as for help with collecting taxes; the dihqans' local knowledge made them essential for this purpose. In return, they were allowed to collect a special tax on local cultivators. However, their importance began to decrease with the rise of new Arab landowners, including Sasanian urban and military converts to Islam and their descendants; this process happened gradually, over the course of 60 or 70 years. 437:

and economic collapse, with many villages destroyed, communications disrupted, robbery and brigandry were rampant, and cultivation was made practically impossible. By the early 10th century, 62% of settlements in the area around Baghdad had become abandoned. Yet at the same time, a movement of popular nostalgia emerged, "glorifying indigenous 'Nabataean' achievements, especially those connected with the spread of civilization and the improvement of agriculture. Even as actual conditions were deteriorating intolerably, exhaustively detailed compendiums were appearing with elaborate botanical nomenclature and careful specifications of all the procedures and requirements of good husbandry."

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implies a density of about 95 date palms per hectare. Today, on the other hand, the typical practice in the area around Basra is to pack 450 trees into a hectare. The Neo-Babylonian standard of 227 trees per hectare is also much denser. The apparent low density of early Islamic date palm orchards remains an unsolved problem. It's possible, however, that this is just an artifact of how the contemporary taxes were set: they may have been intentionally set low in order to encourage more date palm production, and that in practice the actual density was much higher.

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tortured people who refused to comply with their demands. Abu Yusuf describes some of these tortures. Tax farmers would severely beat taxpayers, or make them stand out in the hot sun on one foot for a long time. The punishments for defaulters were even more severe: tax collectors would hang heavy stones or buckets filled with water around their necks, or tie them up with ropes and left to starve. Yet, despite these condemnations, the punishments and torture continued for a long time thereafter, sometimes even with official sanction. In 847,

27: 149: 492:. Insufficient gradient in local irrigation systems resulted in poor drainage of salts from the soil. To counter this, laborers, including the Zanj, were tasked with removing the salty topsoil and piling it up by the sides of the canals. As many as 45 million tons of soil were moved in this manner, but even this was insufficient. After Basra itself was sacked by the Zanj and then again by the Qarmatians, much of the fields were abandoned and never brought into cultivation again. 796:(both animal and human), or ash and cinders. Ibn Wahshiyya preferred this kind. The second kind was "composite" manure, which consisted of a mixture of several types of "natural" manure along with earth and water, and was left to decompose after mixing. Different crops called for different kinds of manure, and some needed no fertilization at all. Manure was traded and sold locally, according to several sources, including Ibn Wahshiyya, 605: 596:, designed to relieve the weir during floods. The regulators were made of brick and date from the 9th century, although the arch on the right bank appears older and was probably built by the 8th century at the latest. Both regulators have vertical lines of holes, which were designed so that wooden beams could be inserted into them to hold the structures' planks in place when the sluice needed to be partially or fully closed. 141: 457: 324:

the Abbasid Caliphate led to a neglect of the rural economy and more corrupt exploitation of the peasantry in search of short-term profits. This led to a long period of decline in population and in cultivated area over the centuries until the Mongol conquest. The destruction accompanying the Mongol conquest was the dramatic final blow to the patterns of settlements in Iraq.

356:'s invasion of Mesopotamia. The Persians destroyed dikes, which caused extensive flooding, while simultaneously damming up major waterways to prevent the Romans from being able to use them for transport. The Romans, meanwhile, burned small towns and villages in the countryside while also destroying farms and killing livestock. 2467:

technology, the total labor requirement would have been 1 million people. Assuming an average family size of 4 people, the total agricultural population of rural Iraq at that time would have been 4 million people. This is in addition to an assumed non-agricultural population in Iraq (also including cities) of 1.8 million.

302:, whereas the worst flood on the Euphrates was in 1929 with only 5,200 cumecs. The Euphrates was therefore more manageable, while settlements along the Tigris had to be built away from the river to avoid being destroyed by flooding. Additionally, the Tigris's banks were so deep that canals had to be extended far down the 230:) in the Batihah: Bahassa, Bakhmasa, Basriyatha, and finally al-Muhammadiyah, which was the largest. Below the Hawr al-Muhammadiyah, the channel called the Nahr Abi'l-As'ad finally carried the waters of the Batihah to the head of the Dijlah al-`Awra', or "one-eyed Tigris". The hydrography of the Bata'ih was not static. 2674: 294:

mountains, and melting snows in the mountains lead to high water in April. The Euphrates, on the other hand, mostly consists of water from the Anatolian highlands, and melting snow reaches lower Mesopotamia later, in early May. This is too late to help with growing crops for the May and June harvest season.

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manufacturing. At these sites today, there are vast mounds, hundreds of meters long, consisting mainly of glass slag. There are also numerous remains of what were once glass furnaces. This indicates the large scale of the glass industry here. Where the raw materials serving this industry came from is

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to grow there naturally. These weeds would draw out water from the soil and cause it to dry out, thus creating a dry subsoil below the root area and above the water table. When the field was irrigated the next year, the water would seep down into the dry layer and take any salts from the surface with

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were made from boiled and peeled wheat. Other dishes consisted of a paste made from mashed meat and pearl wheat. Most Iraqi peasants ate more barley-based breads, which were often made with millet and beans mixed in. Additionally, a kind of alcoholic beverage was prepared from a mixture of barley and

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movement that followed it was even larger and longer-lasting, leading to the area under state control shrinking dramatically and "prospects for any constructive, long-term approach to the agrarian economy diminished to the vanishing point." Contemporary sources report this as a time of administrative

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at one point used the term "jizya lands" to refer to the concept that would later become known as kharaj lands, and in one instance, the farmers of the Sawad apparently requested that their tax payments be changed from jizya to sadaqa. Over the centuries, however, a distinction emerged between these

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in 915: in many formerly prosperous districts, a drop by 90% or more took place "in this period of less than a single human life span." In the intervening years, there had been several decades of rural unrest and conflict, provoked by years of increasing tax burdens and abuses by state officials, as

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Later on, however, a vast canal system came to use the flow of the Tigris to supplement the Euphrates: during the winter growing season, when the Tigris was less prone to intense flooding, Tigris water was brought in, and then its headworks closed off and protected as much as possible, while now the

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Contemporary writers did not provide any extensive descriptions of rural villages. Ibn Wahshiyya gave only some details: he wrote that villages should be built on elevated ground such as hillocks, and if this was not naturally available then he said an artificial elevation should be built from wood

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weir in 1957–58, which al-Khatib al-Baghdadi mentioned as serving the Nahrawan canal and which serves as a model for our understanding of how weirs were built during that period. It served to raise the water level in front of it (i.e. upstream) to a height 3 meters above the area downstream, and it

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During this period, both large cities and small villages increased in number and in size, while medium-sized towns decreased in percentage of all settlements compared to the Parthian era. This indicates that the growing population in large cities consisted of people who originally had come from the

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and its hinterlands east of the Tigris, while investing less in the regions on the west bank. Thus, settlement retracted west of the Tigris from its peak during Parthian rule. In the Diyala valley east of the Tigris, however, settlement reached its peak, with over twice as many settlements and over

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The vast, complex systems that emerged during the Sassanid period ultimately made local self-sufficiency impossible. Lack of maintenance on canals could have a strong adverse effect on faraway regions. This made state supervision of the infrastructure absolutely necessary to maintain this degree of

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At its apex under the late Sasanian period, the irrigation system of the Sawad must have diverted virtually the entire flow of both the Tigris and Euphrates to agricultural purposes. Regarding the Euphrates, Robert M. Adams wrote that, "with a whole series of massive diversions upstream, it is not

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suggested that, after the opening of the Katul al-Kisrawi made water readily available to farmers in the lower Nahrawan region, over-irrigation caused the water table to rise dramatically. Today, much of this region's soil is too saline for irrigated agriculture, and the area is largely abandoned.

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Settlement in Iraq reached its apex during the late Sassanid period. The tumult surrounding the Islamic conquest led to a sudden, steep decline. Fairly quickly, however, the Muslims were able to restore much of the Sassanid establishment. However, from the mid-800s onward, political instability in

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Contemporary financial records seem to imply that the palm trees themselves were exceptionally spread out in early Islamic orchards. The tax schedules say that date orchards paid 5–10 dirhams per jarib in taxes, which at a rate of 1/2 dirham per ordinary tree and 1 dirham per finer "Persian" tree

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The timing of the flooding in the Euphrates was less helpful than the Tigris. The Tigris, however, is prone to flooding, since winter and spring storms in the Zagros mountains lead to highly destructive floods. The most destructive flood on the Tigris in modern times was in 1954, when there was a

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or fallow lands, as well as some limited and tightly controlled grazing from young barley shoots. Another important source is uncultivated land, but as the total cultivated area expanded under the Sasanians to reach almost the maximum potential capacity, the availability of this land for grazing

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for the pool. It was buttressed with a tower at each end and built on a raised platform at the same height as the spillway. In front of the abutments were two guide banks: the one on the right, as with the abutment on that side, helped serve as a closing wall, and the one on the left ended in a

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Under this model, the hypothetical annual net output per worker would be 2757 kg of grain. An average agricultural family of 4 is assigned a subsistence income of 1000 kg of grain per year, which would be equivalent to 154 dirhams per year, or 13 per month. This means that out of net

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condemned the injustices against taxpayers in the Sawad, saying that tax farmers were breaking the law for their own financial benefit. He said that they "rob the taxpayer by imposing on them taxes they do not owe and punish them in repulsive ways to secure their own profit". Tax farmers often

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wrote a detailed description of the cultivation of rice in the Sawad. There were two growing seasons for rice in the Sawad: a summer season, which was entirely dependent on irrigation, and a winter season, which was supported by rainfall. Summer rice was planted during the second half of July

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The lands of the Sawad were among the most fertile in the Islamic world, but this productivity was almost totally dependent on artificial irrigation: dry farming requires 200 mm of rainfall per year, an amount reached in almost nowhere in the Sawad. Basra, for instance, has 60 mm of

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was used to cover walls and floors, especially in rooms and buildings used for storage. He said that isolated, independently standing houses were best, but if space was tight then they could be built adjoining each other as long as the necessary ventilation was provided. He also stressed the

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The main crop-growing season in this region comes during the winter, and irrigation is needed at least monthly. However, neither the Tigris nor the Euphrates reaches its high water mark during the winter when farmers need water the most: the Tigris is fed by several tributaries in the Zagros

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The total rural population of the medieval Sawad can be calculated from the extent of the farmland. Assuming 3 million hectares of winter cereal crops in the late 8th/early 9th century, and the ability of a person to reap 3 hectares during the 2-month-long harvest season using contemporary

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Under the Sassanids, the area in cultivation in the Diyala basin reached an extent that had never been attained before, and never would be again. During this time, almost 8,000 square kilometers were brought into cultivation, almost totally covering the region with farmland. A two-field

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as well as various beverages, and, despite Islamic prohibition, they were used to make a type of intoxicant. Ibn Wahshiyya praises the myriad uses of the date palm, remarking that every part of the tree was useful – it provided timber for construction, its fronds could be used to make

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described the Bata'ih as covered by reed beds crossed by water channels, where enormous amounts of fish where caught, then salted and exported to neighboring provinces. The water level was too shallow for most river boats to pass through, and only special pole-propelled vessels called

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Much of the meat consumed in Baghdad would have come from the steppes of northern Iraq, but some would also have come from the Sawad as well. Southern Iraq does not have any natural pastures, so the livestock raised here had to be fed grain. In addition, they could partly be fed with

399:, however, the Tigris continued to rise even higher. He spent huge sums of money to finance the restoration of the systems, but in vain. In the final years of the Sasanian empire, these projects were abandoned due to war, and local dihqans couldn't finance such major undertakings. 1540:. However, this could not be repeated indefinitely — eventually, the salt concentration would become too high, preventing any plants from growing, and that land would have to be abandoned (although this was far from the only reason that land was abandoned in medieval Iraq). 2548:

and mud. This served two purposes: the first, he said, was for better health, and the second was to provide an elevated lookout point over the surrounding fields. Houses were built from either baked or sun-dried bricks, with high walls and many openings to provide

1024:. Rice bread, like barley, was cheaper than wheat bread, which resulted in it gaining a reputation as being food for poor people. Nonetheless, rice remained the single most important food for many people, especially the poor, in southern Iraq due to its low price. 1857:, people paid taxes in the form of a portion of their crops, rather than a fixed amount of money or crops. The rate was 50% for land irrigated by flooding, 33% for land irrigated by waterwheels, and 25% for land irrigated by animal-powered wheels. According to 1688:

Originally, the kharaj tax was supposed to represent a tax on the land of non-Muslims. However, over time, as the dihqans either sold their lands to Muslims or themselves converted to Islam, the status of kharaj land also applied to Muslims. The Umayyad caliph

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In Iraq, there are two very distinct seasons: summer and winter. Spring and autumn are very short. Summer, which lasts from May through October, is intensely hot and dry, with the sky mostly cloudless and rain extremely rare. The prevailing northwest wind (the

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was even used to cement the sides of the ponds. He said that these practices should be abolished and prescribed that drinking water should instead be provided by being collected on clean roofs of houses, and then directed down the sides of the houses into a

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greatly enlarged Euphrates was used to support irrigation efforts. This massive reshaping of the natural relationship between these rivers, which reached its peak during the Sasanian period, led to a mushrooming population and the rise of many new cities.

1724:, but it appears that this reduction's implementation was highly flawed, as many farmers filed complaints over the matter. This 40% tax rate was maintained at least nominally, but in practice, new taxes were introduced that cancelled out the reduction. 352:. There was widespread destruction of major urban centers as well as rural agricultural infrastructure that was necessary for recovery. For example, even the area of the Nahr al-Malik, deep within Sassanid territory, was devastated by the Roman emperor 807:

The Abbasid government played a role in supervising cultivation. It would sometimes loan money to farmers to help them buy seed and livestock. Some poorer farmers were directly given seeds. The government expected repayment in full after the harvest.

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During the Sasanian period, and probably continuing into the Early Islamic period, large-scale industrial operations were carried out even in the countryside, far from the major cities. For example, one newly-dug Sasanian canal in the area north of

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Over time, the distinction between kharaj lands and ushr lands became blurred, and eventually the two categories were merged into one category, which kept the name kharaj. This merger appears to have taken place during the reign of the caliph

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During the medieval period, the lower Tigris followed a different course than it does today. It had shifted further west due to the floods of the early 7th century (before this, its course was the same as it is today). It passed the city of

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were the most popular fruit in Iraqi markets. Ibn Wahshiyya wrote that they were widely cultivated in Iraq and listed eight different varieties of them, but said that it would be difficult to list all the varieties grown at the time.

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Michele Campopiano, “Land Tax Alā l-misāḥa and muqāsama: Legal Theory and Balance of Social Forces in Early Medieval Iraq (Sixth to Eighth Centuries)”, in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 54/2, 2011, 239–269

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At the maximum extent under the late Sasanian dynasty, the Iraqi countryside would have been under "virtually continuous cultivation", supporting a much larger population than in previous periods. During the time of the caliphs

1040:) was grown in large quantities throughout Iraq. Bread made from sorghum flour, especially when mixed with wheat and barley flour, was regarded more highly by Southern Iraqis than rice bread. Sorghum was also grown for use as 929:

noted that four districts paid taxes in barley and rice instead of the usual barley and wheat, indicating that rice was a particularly widespread crop there. These districts were Sura and Barbisama, Furat Badaqla, Nistar, and

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by Muslims shortly after the conquest of Iraq. In the Batiha area, the land had been reclaimed via drainage, and in the Ṣibākh area, it had been reclaimed by clearing the silt. Much of this process was described in detail by

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of the protective levees built along the river in order to keep a high enough water level. Yet these labor-intensive canal offtakes were directly exposed to the floods and could be suddenly buried under a deep layer of silt.

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it. Down there, the salts would become "trapped" and prevented from being brought up to the surface by capillary action. Another method farmers used involved planting a field with barley and then, after the harvest, having

281:, the climate of Iraq during the Abbasid era was probably similar to today, although the greater abundance of date palm orchards then "may have mitigated the violence of the winter winds and prevented the occurrence of the 336:, southern Mesopotamia was home to an urban civilization built upon irrigation agriculture. This enabled the security, stability, population density, and complex social organization that characterized this urban setting. 1572:

unknown, but Robert M. Adams provided one possible explanation: by late Sasanian times, the area to the south of this canal was increasingly becoming part of the great swamp. Here, there would have been large numbers of

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From the Sasanians to the Abbasids, the peasants of the Sawad formed "a legally subordinate class, working the estates of large landlords, and from which surplus in the form of taxes, rents, and labor were extracted".

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was practiced extensively in the Sawad. According to Umar's policy, any freeman was allowed to sell his Nabataean neighbor as a slave if they were in dire financial straits; this policy was upheld by the caliph

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The techniques used by farmers in the medieval Sawad were mostly the same as those used by twentieth-century Iraqi farmers. Buzjani and Ibn Wahshiyya both wrote extensively on such practices. Several different

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to abolish it. The governors of eastern Abbasid provinces gave hadaya to the caliph in the form of rare and valuable items made by local artisans from their province. For the festival of Nowruz in 282 AH,

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Construction of canals was very expensive. It was often financed by private investors who expected to turn a profit out of the deal. Usually, all the governor did was provide land for irrigation projects.

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Due to gravity, the canals of the Sawad had to be elevated slightly above the ground. This came with significant risk: if there was a breach in the canal's banks, the water would flood surrounding fields.

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maintaining the landlord's rural properties. These agents were responsible for overseeing daily work, providing necessities like seed and farm tools, and potentially hiring additional workers if needed.

1897:). There were 60 tassujs in total (48 at Ibn Khordadbeh's time). Many of these divisions bear Sasanian names, indicating that they had originally been established before the Islamic conquest of Iraq. 407:

Archaeological evidence indicates that there was "a precipitate retreat from a vast central area of the Sawad" during this period, only reversing itself in modern times. After the golden age of the

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production, 36% was kept by the peasants, while taxes were 26% and rents were 38%. Thus almost 2/3 of the Sawad's total net production went to supporting the urban population and upper classes.

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that were prevalent in the Sawad: people would dig holes or use natural slopes to collect rainwater in ponds without making sure that either the ground or the water itself was clean — cattle

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could be used for transport. Most of the marshes were covered by water, but there were some areas with good soil, where people formed settlements, grew crops, and dug canals for irrigation.

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in Iraq, although most of them were no longer extant or operational at the time he wrote. The most extensive archaeological work done on one of those weirs has been done on the Abbasid-era

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from 786 to 809, imperial revenues from the Sawad plummeted from 100 million dirhams to only 20 million by the early 10th century. The sharpest decline took place between the records of

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twice the built-up area as during the Parthian period. In this region, human settlement was as much as 35 times denser and more extensive than it had been under the Achaemenid kings.

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The enormous economic potential of the Sawad is reflected in early Abbasid revenue lists: the Sawad produced four times as much tax revenue as the second-highest-producing province,

1740:, it rose to as much as 50%. The ushr tax was regarded as illegitimate by Islamic jurists at the time, but nonetheless it remained an integral part of the government's tax policy. 592:

action from eroding the sides of the pool to a point where the water could spill around the weir on the other side. Finally, 140 meters upstream from the spillway, there were two

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The ushr tax was a tax on the agricultural output of lands owned by Muslims. The rate on this tax was usually lower than that of the kharaj, at 10% to 25%, but under the caliphs

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were built in front of the spillway, one on each side, to contain the water even during a flood. The right abutment was built more solidly than the left, and it also served as a

210:) or great swamp was the medieval name for the vast marshlands of southern Iraq, along the lower courses of the Tigris and Euphrates. In the northwest, it stretched almost up to 859:

Breads made from wheat and barley formed the main food for most Iraqis, especially in major urban areas such as Baghdad, Wasit, Basra, and Kufa. An especially popular dish was

699:, which was based in the capital and had branches in the provinces. It employed land surveyors and civil engineers for both construction of new projects and their maintenance. 538:

there. Fishing may have been done in some canals, with at least two canals being named after types of fish that lived in them. Canals could also be used to power mills or for

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Most of the inhabitants of the Sawad were called "Nabataeans". Although they converted to Islam, they maintained many pre-Islamic traditions and spoke a distinct dialect of

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to bring saline water up to the surface. Too little irrigation, on the other hand, left no extra water to leach the salts that had been deposited from previous irrigation.

254:) is a hot wind and is strong during the day but dissipates at night. Winter lasts from November until April, and the northwest winds are weaker and often interrupted by 593: 1824:; prior to this, its value was estimated to be as much as that of all other taxes combined. However, it appears that this tax was again reinstated at some point, since 278: 1991: 1182:. In the Sawad of Basra, dates were the main dietary staple for much of the population. Dates were not only eaten plain: they were used in producing a strong type of 188:, after about 1200, the Tigris and Euphrates started to gradually shift toward their present courses, which they finally reached during the 1500s. On the other hand, 563: 2327: 2310: 2087: 448:

in the region, leading to widespread emigration. The repercussions were felt heavily in Baghdad, since there was a desperate lack of grain leading to starvation.

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Maintaining the vast irrigation systems of Iraq required a large number of workers. In addition to the surveyors and engineers mentioned above, there were also

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In order to protect against excessive salt or water buildup in the soil, farmers would leave fields uncultivated for a while, allowing deep-rooted weeds like

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in cultivation during a single winter. (Since land was fallowed every other year, the actual amount of land set aside for grains would have been twice that.)

2395: 2351: 1607:, in some cases, tax farmers demanded a payment greater than a farmer's entire harvest for the year, driving them to seek protection from higher officials. 391:(r. 488–531), the Tigris overflowed its banks and flooded large areas of productive farmland. Kubadh was unable to do anything about it, but after his son 516:

observed, the Tigris watered the area to the east of the river, whereas the area to the west of the Tigris was irrigated with waters from the Euphrates.

2291: 1996: 1150:. It was planted in late February and in March, and harvested in June. Hemp was woven into a rough but durable cloth; its fibers were also used to make 2238: 1597: 1342: 3163: 2479: 2301: 2296: 2274: 2070: 2001: 1936: 1866: 696: 531: 416: 1600:

to undertake a general land survey of the Sawad, in order to make the taxation of the Sawad more centralized. Taxpayers resented this land survey.

1129: 958: 954: 942:, constituted some of the richest rice-producing areas in the Sawad, which enticed government officials to compete for the control of the region. 2402: 2381: 2219: 2046: 1931: 2492:

According to Ibn Wahshiyya and Sabi, almost all the landlords of the Sawad lived in larger cities and towns, with their representatives, called

3109: 2407: 2209: 2183: 2166: 2142: 2061: 2010: 1986: 1967: 1960: 1914: 1780:, however, did the jizya constitute a separate tax. In other parts of Iraq, the jizya was collected as an addition to the ordinary kharaj tax. 939: 584: 270:

may occur anywhere in Iraq during the winter, except for the southernmost parts, and they come in the wake of the depressions, after the rain.

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According to Ibn Wahshiyya, six different kinds of wheat were grown in the Sawad. The most important wheat-growing areas were located around

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The Collapse of the World's Oldest Civilization: The Political Economy of Hydraulic States and the Financial Crisis of the Abbasid Caliphate

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and siege of Baghdad in 865, which "wiped out any notion that the government's reciprocal function of protection could be honoured". The

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eventually came to refer to the rural district around a particular city; thus, contemporary geographers made references to the Sawad of

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was a crucial crop, almost as important as cereals like wheat, barley, and rice. Basra alone grew 300 varieties at the time of Caliph

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Under Persian rule, the Persian settlement had been heaviest in the area east of the Tigris, as well as in certain garrison cities.

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were also grown as fodder as well as to replenish soils, but their importance appears to have declined after the second century AH.

2412: 2027: 1009: 935: 388: 1481:. Ibn Wahshiyya warned that sesame should not be grown in back-to-back years because doing so would deplete the soil's nutrients. 1128:) was especially grown in the central part of the Sawad, where, besides being used for textiles, it also formed a dietary staple; 1865:

introduced a temporary reduction of the rate, from the common 50% to 40%. The muqāsama system was introduced with the support of

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Throughout its history, the Sawad was crisscrossed by many canals. In the Islamic period, most canals ran west to east, from the

1524: 181: 89:) was used to denote the irrigated and cultivated areas in any district. Unmodified, it always referred to southern Iraq, the 2753: 2663: 726: 718:, who dredged canals; and workers (no name given) who carried loads of soil to reinforce structures such as dams and weirs. 1298:, grown in the mountains. He also described ten different specific varieties of fig, with varying size, taste, and color. 2649: 1796:

rule. It had been collected from the peasants twice a year and spent to buy gifts for the king during the festivals of

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Since the destruction largely occurred west of the Tigris, the Sassanid emperors focused on developing the region of

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At first, the terms that would come to be used for various types of taxes were not clearly distinguished. The words

969:). Rice farming required meticulous preparation, fertilization, irrigation, and labor for harvesting and threshing. 792:

used to fertilize crops in the Sawad. The first was "natural" manure, which consisted of either dried plant matter,

616:, Syria. Mechanical waterwheels like this one once carried water from rivers and canals to the fields of the Sawad. 1227:

was grown in Iraq, with Ibn Wahshiyya and al-Dinawari each distinguishing between two varieties of citron: sweet (

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was especially cultivated in the Sawad of Basra. Ibn Wahshiyya considered the ideal soil for growing cotton to be

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tax but would still have to pay kharaj. (Abbasid-period writers attributed this policy to the Rashidun caliph

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regions. Rice was often served with fish and/or vegetables. Various recipes called for rice to be cooked with

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succeeded him, he ordered the reconstruction of dykes and was able to reclaim part of the flooded land. Under

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unlikely that in Sasanian times the Euphrates entered the swamps ... with very little if any residual flow."

472:

The amount of water used in irrigation was crucial: excessive irrigation would cause a dangerous rise in the

899:, although both districts experienced a steep decline in wheat production by the end of the 3rd century AH. 950: 266:) are accompanied by cold temperatures, cloudy skies, and rain. Average winter rainfall is about 5 inches. 3165:

Heartland of Cities: Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates

1511:

Ibn Wahshiyya also enumerates 35 different kinds of "unfruitful trees" which were planted to supply wood.

925:

was grown in the parts of the Sawad that were warm and humid – two conditions necessary for it to thrive.

3455: 852:

described the four districts surrounding Baghdad as extremely productive, which is partly why the caliph

425: 1712:, with the tax rate being 50% of the crops grown on kharaj land. This rate was maintained by the caliph 1620:, introduced a "furnace of iron which had protruding nails inside it" to be used to punish tax evaders. 781:

were grown this way rather than from seeds. Ibn Wahshiyya wrote a detailed description of the practice.

695:

The government ministry responsible for the construction and maintenance of irrigation projects was the

2553: 2549: 747: 481: 1889:

describe the general administrative setup of the 9th-century Sawad. It was divided into 12 districts (

1820:, its value rose to as much as 50 million dirhams annually. The hadaya was abolished a second time by 2636: 1701:, as a way of giving it more legitimacy, since the Umayyads had become infamous under the Abbasids.) 1301:

Ibn Wahshiyya listed the following as fruits grown widely in most parts of Iraq during his lifetime:

420: 3366: 1282:

was especially known for growing figs. Al-Dinawari distinguished between four basic types of figs:

195:

In Sasanian times, the Euphrates likely entered the swamps close to the site of the modern town of

189: 64:, it was an official political term for a province encompassing most of modern Iraq except for the 1893:; there were only 10 at Ibn Khordadbeh's time), each of which consisted of several sub-districts ( 424:

well as outright looting by Turkish mercenaries. The single greatest precipitating event was the

1693:

established a policy that, if a landlord converted to Islam, he would no longer have to pay the

669:) instead of water thrust. These were commonly used around Baghdad and Anbar. The third was the 623:

outlined five main mechanical devices used for irrigation purposes in the Sawad. The first, the

3018:"The Feeding of the five Hundred Thousand: Cities and Agriculture in Early Islamic Mesopotamia" 1118:

and free of salt. It was sown between late April and late May, and harvested in June and July.

20: 2743: 1536:) grow there without irrigation. This also had a similar effect, and had the added benefit of 2556:. (The walls were high to make space for all the openings.) Tree trunks were used either for 764: 555: 333: 972:

Rice, and particularly rice bread, was a dietary staple in southern Iraq, especially in the

1882: 1496:

Various types of flowers were grown, mainly for use in medicine. Ibn Wahshiyya singled out

926: 524: 348:

sometimes threatened the security of the region, particularly the areas to the west of the

1162: 1094:

district, millet was used alongside barley to pay taxes, indicating its local importance.

8: 2580:

trees and then covered with a mixture of mud and straw. Ibn Wahshiyya also described how

751:, which documents many of the agricultural practices of the Sawad in the 3rd century AH. 633:

3295: 3103: 3039: 2640: 1390: 165: 44:. It means "black land" or "arable land" and refers to the stark contrast between the 3372: 3251: 3221: 3067: 3043: 2749: 2659: 2502: 2458: 1813: 1603:

In practice, tax collectors often took far more than the official rate. According to

1577: 1537: 408: 255: 69: 61: 57: 31: 2644: 1554:

shrank, likely bringing people and livestock into direct competition for resources.

865:, which consisted of pieces of bread with either vegetable soup or a combination of 303: 3419: 3287: 3029: 1748: 1581: 1434: 477: 353: 26: 3061: 2979: 2173: 1829: 1713: 1708:, the standard implementation of the kharaj tax in the Sawad came in the form of 813: 801: 412: 2342: 1853:, at the behest of the Muslims of Iraq. Under this new system, which was called 376:

system was likely employed during this period, just as it was in Islamic times.

368:

medium-sized towns, rather than rural population moving to large urban centers.

2632: 2601: 2597:

in each village to supply residents with everyday items or building materials.

2564:

to support the ceilings, and the ceilings themselves were lined with wood from

1886: 1838: 1761: 1644:

were often used interchangeably in early Islamic writings. At one point in the

1240: 1179: 1087: 634: 579:, and small pieces of brick, all built on top of a stepped brick platform. Two 461: 445: 429: 53: 45: 3034: 3017: 3444: 3423: 3225: 1817: 1737: 1709: 1617: 1584:, and sand may have been supplied from here as well, deposited by the water. 1260: 1244: 1212: 945: 734: 687:

was a simple animal-powered device used to transport water taken from wells.

373: 259: 65: 1901:

Administrative divisions of the 9th-century Sawad (from El-Samarraie, 1970)

820:, the total winter acreage for cereal crops has been estimated at 3 million 148: 3278:

Waines, David (1977). "The third century internal crisis of the Abbasids".

2519: 2213: 2051: 1862: 1753: 1721: 1550: 1482: 1330: 1175: 1133: 1066:

were also grown for use as fodder in the Sawad. Ibn Wahshiyya recorded the

896: 844:

were grown in every district of the Sawad. In most of these districts, the

817: 638: 512:, since water level in the Tigris was lower than that of the Euphrates. As 441: 384: 345: 129: 40:

was the name used in early Islamic times (7th–12th centuries) for southern

1841:, indicating that the hadaya may have continued even through this period. 1776:

was a tax collected from all adult male non-Muslims in the Sawad. Only in

2614: 2507: 2078: 1346: 1044:; Ibn Wahshiyya considered it the ideal fodder for livestock, especially 1013: 989: 679:, was a bucket operated by four people; it was in use in the area of the 630: 473: 192:

described the shift as taking place in the period between 1500 and 1650.

185: 98: 49: 706:, who supervised water levels, flow, and capacity of rivers and canals; 3299: 2586: 2187: 1474: 1350: 1275: 1268: 907: 902:

Perhaps due to its greater resilience to the increasing soil salinity,

797: 778: 657:, was another type of waterwheel; it was powered by animals (typically 513: 396: 380: 233: 2739: 2590: 2523: 2245: 2106: 1858: 1825: 1733: 1717: 1645: 1608: 1505: 1478: 1444: 1438: 1188: 1115: 1001: 866: 853: 642: 505: 360: 282: 3411: 3291: 957:). Winter rice, meanwhile, was planted at the beginning of January ( 469:

rainfall per year. Without irrigation, agriculture here would fail.

2565: 2482:

wrote that "the inhabitants of the Sawad are servants and slaves."

2229: 2111: 1951: 1850: 1793: 1705: 1665: 1593: 1501: 1493:

was also an important sesame producer in the early 4th century AH.

1338: 1137: 782: 774: 738: 646: 604: 580: 568: 433: 523:

The most detailed account of Islamic canals is that of Suhrāb, or

140: 3250:. Chicago and London: Chicago University Press. pp. 67, 93. 3217:

Land Behind Baghdad: A History of Settlement on the Diyala Plains

2610: 2600:

Ibn Wahshiyya disapproved of the unsanitary methods of obtaining

2594: 2581: 2569: 2514: 2451: 2133: 2032: 1849:

A new system of taxation was introduced under the Abbasid caliph

1821: 1777: 1690: 1460: 1418: 1386: 1370: 1302: 1183: 1147: 1095: 1067: 1033: 973: 931: 892: 870: 821: 650: 620: 539: 456: 432:

lasted for 15 years before finally being quelled in 883, and the

238: 203: 177: 125: 109: 94: 1235:). Later, in the early 4th century AH, citrus trees such as the 530:

A canal could become the center of urban activity: for example,

2605: 2577: 2561: 2557: 2538: 2527: 2486: 2178: 1922: 1870: 1809: 1805: 1797: 1698: 1669: 1657: 1637: 1633: 1533: 1486: 1470: 1448: 1426: 1410: 1378: 1374: 1366: 1334: 1322: 1318: 1279: 1224: 1208: 1167: 1111: 1099: 1063: 1041: 985: 903: 875: 861: 849: 845: 841: 789: 756: 675: 572: 509: 349: 215: 76: 1720:

urged him to lower it. It was lowered to 40% under the caliph

673:; it was a waterwheel powered by human labor. The fourth, the 2358: 2317: 2255: 2102: 1946: 1773: 1744: 1694: 1680:

tax was also important for non-Muslim peasants in the Sawad.

1677: 1653: 1641: 1629: 1573: 1568: 1497: 1490: 1394: 1354: 1326: 1314: 1306: 1264: 1248: 1236: 1192: 977: 911: 837: 793: 666: 658: 625: 609: 576: 534:

lined both sides of his canal with shops and moved the local

489: 299: 267: 223: 173: 161: 157: 121: 113: 2573: 2367: 1869:, the vizier under al-Mahdi who authored the first book on 1673: 1564: 1382: 1310: 1151: 1143: 1121: 1049: 997: 981: 922: 613: 589: 571:, 37.56 meters wide and 30 meters deep, and made of a well- 559: 271: 211: 117: 41: 1437:, which produced a dark orange dye and was also used for 1406: 1059: 1055: 1045: 993: 906:

was a more common crop than wheat in the medieval Sawad.

535: 3416:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

3280:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

3063:

A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times

1195:, and it produced a sweet syrup that was highly valued. 1105: 662: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3209: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3139: 2530:

banned the purchase of dhimmi serfs because they were

1747:

Sawad was classified as ushr land because it had been

785:

was done with vines if there was enough space for it.

771:

was used to level a field after it had been ploughed.

3201: 3199: 3197: 3195: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3137: 3135: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3119: 2388:; possibly combined with Barusama as a single tassuj) 1000:. Rice-based pastries were also eaten, and a type of 848:

tax was paid mostly in the form of those two grains.

665:, although in the area of Anbar they were powered by 3232: 3220:. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. 1837:records a gift-giving of this nature to the caliph 1278:were another commonly grown fruit. The district of 440:The intentional breaching of the Nahrawan canal by 383:first formed during the Sasanian era. According to 3180: 3116: 1146:was grown both for its textile use as well as for 3333: 3331: 3329: 464:as it appeared near the turn of the 20th century. 3442: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3309: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2965: 226:on the Tigris. Suhrab lists four great lagoons ( 2963: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2913: 2911: 2909: 2907: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2883: 2881: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2785: 914:in particular as an important barley producer. 856:chose Baghdad for the site of his new capital. 274:sometimes lays on the ground for several days. 97:. It replaced the earlier and more narrow term 3358: 2981:Agriculture in Iraq during the 3rd/9th century 2783: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2765: 1086:as producing these crops in large quantities. 488:A similar phenomenon occurred in the Sawad of 3405: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3395: 3337: 3306: 2534:: subject to payment of the kharaj land tax. 1477:, which in Iraq was far more widespread than 1032:Described as a summer crop by Ibn Wahshiyya, 788:Ibn Wahshiyya described two general types of 567:supplied 11 branch canals. It consisted of a 3338:Allen, Robert C.; Heldring, Leander (2016). 2977: 2505:compared this system with that of the Roman 714:, who bound reeds for use in building dams; 690: 288: 84: 2762: 1876: 1567:was studded with sites that specialized in 588:tower. The closing walls served to prevent 3409: 3392: 3108:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2650:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 1592:In the year 105 AH (723–4 CE), the caliph 1008:was produced in many districts, including 3033: 3011: 3009: 3007: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2748:. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 513. 1110:The most important textile crop in Iraq, 3371:. Abu Dhabi: Trident Press. p. 31. 3093: 2626: 2462:12th-century Iraqi earthenware water jar 2457: 2446: 1451:valley, and was grown in the regions of 1161: 725: 603: 599: 455: 147: 139: 25: 3087: 3015: 1433:), which produced a deep blue dye, and 1425:), which produced a yellow-orange dye, 3443: 3277: 3271: 3168:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 3055: 3053: 2996: 1500:in particular; they were used to make 285:that now sweep all over the country." 3364: 3243: 3213: 3161: 2745:A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic 1514: 1106:Textile crops: cotton, flax, and hemp 218:, while in the northeast it began at 3059: 2738: 575:mixture of lime, pebbles, limestone 132:. This usage was exclusive to Iraq. 30:Map of the Sawad ("Irak") under the 3050: 2718:Quoted in Allen and Heldring, p. 11 2658:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 87. 1792:, or "gifts", had originated under 1614:Muhammad ibn Abdul-Malik al-Zayiyat 1543: 832: 85: 13: 3094:Longrigg, Stephen Hemsley (1925). 2978:El-Samarraie, Husam Qawam (1970). 1166:Contemporary date palm orchard at 710:, who disposed of unneeded waste; 16:Historical region in Southern Iraq 14: 3477: 1623: 1489:as ideal for sesame cultivation. 1286:, grown in gardens and orchards; 645:, and in the western part of the 3466:Iraq under the Abbasid Caliphate 3461:Iraq under the Umayyad Caliphate 1447:was introduced to Iraq from the 1027: 777:was practiced extensively: most 2712: 2699: 1254: 2984:. London: University of London 2732: 2686: 2454:-era bowl, 9th–10th century CE 2434:belonging to multiple tassujs) 2424:belonging to multiple tassujs) 1400: 934:. The rice plantations around 827: 721: 262:. The southeast winds (called 1: 3096:Four Centuries of Modern Iraq 3066:. Routledge. pp. 23–24. 2725: 1417:), which produced a red dye, 1247:were introduced to Iraq from 953:) and harvested in December ( 910:notes the region surrounding 451: 327: 3410:Campopiano, Michele (2011). 1804:. This tax was abolished by 1704:From the time of the caliph 1616:, the vizier for the caliph 743:Kitab al-filaha al-Nabatiyya 320:settlement and cultivation. 160:, and five times as much as 135: 7: 1844: 1587: 1557: 1294:, grown in flat areas; and 1207:These were used to produce 767:. An instrument called the 759:were in use, including the 419:in the mid-9th century and 339: 10: 3482: 2620: 2442: 1485:described the environs of 1174:In much of the Sawad, the 554:The 3rd-century AH author 402: 332:From as early as the late 314: 244: 18: 3365:Potts, Daniel T. (2002). 3244:Adams, Robert M. (1972). 3214:Adams, Robert M. (1965). 3162:Adams, Robert M. (1981). 3035:10.1017/S0021088900000152 1808:, but it was restored by 1783: 1683: 1218: 1202: 748:The Nabataean Agriculture 737:wrote a detailed book on 691:Upkeep and administration 499: 289:Challenges to agriculture 3424:10.1163/156852011X586804 2679: 1877:Administrative divisions 1767: 1727: 1405:Plants grown for use in 1360: 1157: 1132:was used to make bread. 961:) and harvested in May ( 549: 279:Husam Qawam El-Samarraie 190:Stephen Hemsley Longrigg 152:Marshes of southern Iraq 144:Marshes of southern Iraq 2627:Schaeder, H.H. (1997). 1716:, although his advisor 1136:was also used to light 917: 564:ash-Shadhirwan al-Asfal 460:The now-dry bed of the 444:in 937 led to a severe 3451:History of Mesopotamia 3016:Kennedy, Hugh (2011). 2463: 2455: 1171: 731: 617: 476:, as well as enabling 465: 387:, during the reign of 153: 145: 34: 21:Sawad (disambiguation) 3060:Hill, Donald (1984). 2461: 2450: 2430:(possibly a separate 2420:(possibly a separate 1992:al-Madinah al-ʽAtiqah 1668:at the time were the 1165: 729: 607: 600:Mechanical irrigation 556:al-Khatib al-Baghdadi 459: 334:fourth millennium BCE 151: 143: 75:As a generic term in 29: 3247:The Uruk Countryside 3098:. Oxford. p. 2. 2694:The Uruk Countryside 2333:al-Fallujah al-Sufla 2328:al-Fallujah al-ʽUlya 2098:al-Nahrawan al-Asfal 2093:al-Nahrawan al-Awsat 1652:is used to refer to 996:, and seasoned with 683:canal. Finally, the 411:during the reign of 393:Khusraw I Anushirvan 19:For other uses, see 2707:Heartland of Cities 2396:Bih-Qubadh al-Asfal 2352:Bih-Qubadh al-Awsat 2311:Bih-Qubadh al- Aʽla 2088:al-Nahrawan al-Aʽla 1902: 1816:. Under the caliph 1656:. The early caliph 1090:wrote that, in the 637:, in the region of 3456:Historical regions 2464: 2456: 1900: 1812:and maintained by 1664:The main forms of 1515:Soil replenishment 1473:was grown to make 1223:At first only the 1172: 938:, as described by 732: 653:. The second, the 649:district, west of 618: 466: 222:, downstream from 154: 146: 62:Abbasid Caliphates 35: 2755:978-3-447-02002-2 2705:Quoted in Adams, 2692:Quoted in Adams, 2665:978-90-04-10422-8 2503:Alfred von Kremer 2440: 2439: 1883:Qudama ibn Ja'far 1814:Ali ibn Abi Talib 1578:calcium carbonate 1538:nitrogen fixation 1076:Asfal iqlīm Bābil 873:. Dishes such as 426:Abbasid civil war 409:Abbasid Caliphate 344:Warfare with the 70:Upper Mesopotamia 32:Abbasid Caliphate 3473: 3435: 3434: 3432: 3430: 3407: 3390: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3346: 3335: 3304: 3303: 3275: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3241: 3230: 3229: 3211: 3178: 3177: 3175: 3173: 3159: 3114: 3113: 3107: 3099: 3091: 3085: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3057: 3048: 3047: 3037: 3013: 2994: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2975: 2760: 2759: 2736: 2719: 2716: 2710: 2703: 2697: 2690: 2669: 2641:Heinrichs, W. P. 2239:Ardashir-Babakan 1903: 1899: 1881:The accounts of 1598:Umar Ibn Hubayra 1582:sodium carbonate 1544:Animal husbandry 1343:black mulberries 833:Wheat and barley 730:Near Basra, Iraq 478:capillary action 258:coming from the 176:and entered the 88: 87: 3481: 3480: 3476: 3475: 3474: 3472: 3471: 3470: 3441: 3440: 3439: 3438: 3428: 3426: 3408: 3393: 3383: 3381: 3379: 3363: 3359: 3349: 3347: 3344: 3336: 3307: 3292:10.2307/3631960 3286:(20): 282–306. 3276: 3272: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3242: 3233: 3212: 3181: 3171: 3169: 3160: 3117: 3101: 3100: 3092: 3088: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3058: 3051: 3014: 2997: 2987: 2985: 2976: 2763: 2756: 2737: 2733: 2728: 2723: 2722: 2717: 2713: 2704: 2700: 2691: 2687: 2682: 2666: 2633:Bosworth, C. E. 2623: 2585:necessity of a 2554:let sunlight in 2522:. According to 2445: 2302:al-Zab al-Asfal 2297:al-Zab al-Awsat 2275:Bih-Dhiumasufan 2174:Bahman-Ardashir 2071:Bazijan-Khusraw 2002:Radhan al-Asfal 1879: 1867:Abu Ubayd Allah 1847: 1830:Harun al-Rashid 1786: 1770: 1730: 1714:Harun al-Rashid 1686: 1626: 1590: 1576:as a source of 1560: 1546: 1517: 1403: 1365:These included 1363: 1257: 1221: 1205: 1160: 1108: 1030: 920: 835: 830: 814:Harun al-Rashid 802:Yaqut al-Hamawi 724: 697:Diwan al-Kharaj 693: 602: 558:listed some 30 552: 532:Bilal ibn Burda 502: 482:Robert M. Adams 454: 417:Ibn Khurdadhbeh 413:Harun al-Rashid 405: 342: 330: 317: 298:flow of 16,000 291: 247: 184:. According to 180:at the town of 138: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3479: 3469: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3437: 3436: 3391: 3377: 3368:Feast of Dates 3357: 3305: 3270: 3256: 3231: 3179: 3115: 3086: 3072: 3049: 2995: 2761: 2754: 2730: 2729: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2720: 2711: 2698: 2684: 2683: 2681: 2678: 2677: 2676: 2670: 2664: 2637:van Donzel, E. 2622: 2619: 2602:drinking water 2444: 2441: 2438: 2437: 2436: 2435: 2425: 2415: 2410: 2405: 2398: 2392: 2391: 2390: 2389: 2379: 2374: 2365: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2325: 2320: 2313: 2307: 2306: 2305: 2304: 2299: 2294: 2292:al-Zab al-Aʽla 2287: 2271: 2270: 2269: 2268: 2263: 2258: 2253: 2248: 2241: 2235: 2234: 2233: 2232: 2227: 2222: 2217: 2205: 2199: 2198: 2197: 2196: 2191: 2181: 2176: 2169: 2163: 2162: 2161: 2160: 2155: 2150: 2145: 2138: 2122: 2121: 2120: 2119: 2114: 2109: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2083: 2067: 2066: 2065: 2064: 2059: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2039: 2030: 2025: 2020: 2013: 2007: 2006: 2005: 2004: 1999: 1997:Radhan al-Aʽla 1994: 1989: 1984: 1975: 1970: 1963: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1954: 1949: 1944: 1939: 1934: 1927: 1911: 1910: 1907: 1887:Ibn Khordadbeh 1878: 1875: 1846: 1843: 1785: 1782: 1769: 1766: 1729: 1726: 1685: 1682: 1625: 1624:Types of taxes 1622: 1589: 1586: 1559: 1556: 1545: 1542: 1516: 1513: 1402: 1399: 1362: 1359: 1256: 1253: 1231:) and bitter ( 1220: 1217: 1204: 1201: 1159: 1156: 1130:flaxseed flour 1107: 1104: 1088:Ibn Khordadbeh 1029: 1026: 959:Kanun al-Akhir 955:Kanun al-Awwal 919: 916: 834: 831: 829: 826: 723: 720: 692: 689: 635:Nahrawan Canal 601: 598: 551: 548: 501: 498: 462:Nahrawan Canal 453: 450: 446:water shortage 430:Zanj rebellion 404: 401: 341: 338: 329: 326: 316: 313: 290: 287: 246: 243: 137: 134: 72:in the north. 54:Arabian Desert 46:alluvial plain 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3478: 3467: 3464: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3454: 3452: 3449: 3448: 3446: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3400: 3398: 3396: 3380: 3378:1-900724-59-6 3374: 3370: 3369: 3361: 3343: 3342: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3259: 3257:0-226-00500-3 3253: 3249: 3248: 3240: 3238: 3236: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3218: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3167: 3166: 3158: 3156: 3154: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3132: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3111: 3105: 3097: 3090: 3075: 3073:0-415-15291-7 3069: 3065: 3064: 3056: 3054: 3045: 3041: 3036: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3012: 3010: 3008: 3006: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2983: 2982: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2914: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2757: 2751: 2747: 2746: 2741: 2735: 2731: 2715: 2708: 2702: 2695: 2689: 2685: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2651: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2624: 2618: 2616: 2612: 2607: 2603: 2598: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2545: 2542: 2540: 2535: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2516: 2512: 2511: 2509: 2504: 2499: 2495: 2490: 2488: 2483: 2481: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2460: 2453: 2449: 2433: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2419: 2416: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2404: 2403:Furat-Badaqla 2401: 2400: 2399: 2397: 2394: 2393: 2387: 2383: 2382:Nahr al-Malik 2380: 2378: 2375: 2373: 2369: 2366: 2364: 2360: 2357: 2356: 2355: 2353: 2350: 2349: 2344: 2341: 2339: 2336: 2334: 2331: 2329: 2326: 2324: 2321: 2319: 2316: 2315: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2308: 2303: 2300: 2298: 2295: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2288: 2286: 2284: 2281: 2276: 2273: 2272: 2267: 2264: 2262: 2259: 2257: 2254: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2244: 2243: 2242: 2240: 2237: 2236: 2231: 2228: 2226: 2223: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2211: 2208: 2207: 2206: 2204: 2201: 2200: 2195: 2192: 2189: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2171: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2164: 2159: 2156: 2154: 2151: 2149: 2146: 2144: 2141: 2140: 2139: 2137: 2135: 2132: 2127: 2124: 2123: 2118: 2115: 2113: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2101: 2099: 2096: 2094: 2091: 2089: 2086: 2085: 2084: 2082: 2080: 2077: 2072: 2069: 2068: 2063: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2047:al-Bandanijan 2045: 2043: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2031: 2029: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2019: 2016: 2015: 2014: 2012: 2009: 2008: 2003: 2000: 1998: 1995: 1993: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1976: 1974: 1971: 1969: 1966: 1965: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1933: 1932:Fayruz-Qubadh 1930: 1929: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1916: 1913: 1912: 1908: 1905: 1904: 1898: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1874: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1861:, the caliph 1860: 1856: 1852: 1842: 1840: 1836: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1781: 1779: 1775: 1765: 1763: 1757: 1755: 1750: 1746: 1741: 1739: 1738:al-Mutawakkil 1735: 1725: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1710:sharecropping 1707: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1621: 1619: 1618:al-Mutawakkil 1615: 1610: 1606: 1601: 1599: 1596:commissioned 1595: 1585: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1566: 1555: 1552: 1541: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1522: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1494: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1261:Ibn Miskawayh 1259:According to 1252: 1250: 1246: 1245:bitter orange 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1200: 1196: 1194: 1190: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1169: 1164: 1155: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1117: 1113: 1103: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1028:Other cereals 1025: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 970: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 947: 946:Ibn Wahshiyya 943: 941: 937: 933: 928: 924: 915: 913: 909: 905: 900: 898: 894: 889: 886: 882: 878: 877: 872: 868: 864: 863: 857: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 825: 823: 819: 815: 809: 805: 803: 799: 795: 791: 786: 784: 780: 776: 772: 770: 766: 762: 758: 752: 750: 749: 744: 740: 736: 735:Ibn Wahshiyya 728: 719: 717: 713: 709: 705: 700: 698: 688: 686: 682: 678: 677: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 627: 622: 615: 611: 606: 597: 595: 591: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 565: 561: 557: 547: 543: 541: 537: 533: 528: 526: 521: 517: 515: 511: 507: 497: 493: 491: 486: 483: 479: 475: 470: 463: 458: 449: 447: 443: 438: 435: 431: 427: 422: 418: 414: 410: 400: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 377: 375: 374:crop rotation 369: 365: 362: 357: 355: 351: 347: 337: 335: 325: 321: 312: 308: 305: 301: 295: 286: 284: 280: 277:According to 275: 273: 269: 265: 261: 260:Mediterranean 257: 253: 242: 240: 235: 231: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 200: 198: 193: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 169: 167: 163: 159: 150: 142: 133: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 102: 100: 96: 92: 82: 78: 73: 71: 67: 66:Syrian Desert 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 39: 33: 28: 22: 3427:. Retrieved 3415: 3382:. Retrieved 3367: 3360: 3348:. Retrieved 3340: 3283: 3279: 3273: 3261:. Retrieved 3246: 3216: 3170:. Retrieved 3164: 3095: 3089: 3077:. Retrieved 3062: 3025: 3021: 2986:. Retrieved 2980: 2744: 2734: 2714: 2706: 2701: 2693: 2688: 2655: 2648: 2599: 2546: 2543: 2536: 2532:ahl al-karaj 2531: 2513: 2506: 2497: 2493: 2491: 2484: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2431: 2421: 2408:al-Saylahayn 2343:ʽAyn al-Tamr 2279: 2277: 2210:Fayruz-Sabur 2184:Dasti-Maysan 2167:Shadh-Bahman 2143:al-Zandaward 2130: 2128: 2075: 2073: 2062:al-Rustaqayn 2052:Baraz al-Ruz 2011:Shadh-Qubadh 1968:Buzurjisabur 1961:Shadh Hurmuz 1919: 1917: 1915:Shadh-Fayruz 1894: 1890: 1880: 1854: 1848: 1787: 1771: 1758: 1754:al-Baladhuri 1743:Most of the 1742: 1731: 1703: 1687: 1663: 1649: 1627: 1602: 1591: 1561: 1547: 1529: 1518: 1510: 1495: 1483:Al-Muqaddasi 1469: 1443: 1430: 1422: 1414: 1404: 1364: 1351:blackberries 1300: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1274: 1258: 1255:Other fruits 1233:aṭrunj ḥāmuḍ 1232: 1228: 1222: 1206: 1197: 1173: 1170:, near Basra 1142: 1134:Flaxseed oil 1125: 1120: 1109: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1054: 1037: 1031: 1005: 971: 944: 940:Qadi Tanukhi 921: 901: 890: 884: 880: 874: 860: 858: 836: 810: 806: 787: 773: 768: 760: 753: 746: 742: 733: 715: 711: 707: 703: 701: 694: 684: 674: 670: 654: 624: 619: 585:closing wall 553: 544: 529: 525:Ibn Serapion 522: 518: 503: 494: 487: 471: 467: 439: 406: 385:al-Baladhuri 378: 370: 366: 358: 346:Roman Empire 343: 331: 322: 318: 309: 296: 292: 276: 263: 251: 248: 232: 227: 207: 201: 194: 170: 155: 105: 103: 90: 80: 74: 56:. Under the 37: 36: 3418:: 239–269. 3384:12 February 3028:: 177–199. 2645:Lecomte, G. 2550:ventilation 2526:, however, 2478:The jurist 2386:al-Sayibayn 2384:(including 2323:Khutarniyah 2266:Nahr Jawbar 2261:Nahr Durqit 2148:al-Tharthur 2126:Shadh-Sabur 2079:al-Nahrawan 2057:al-Daskarah 2042:al-Dhaybayn 1839:al-Mu'tamid 1762:al-Mu'tasim 1648:, the term 1465:Khaṭarnīyya 1401:Other crops 1347:raspberries 1290:, or wild; 1269:watermelons 1229:aṭrunj ḥulū 1191:as well as 1180:Al-Mu'tasim 1084:al-Jarāmiqa 828:Major crops 779:fruit trees 722:Agriculture 474:water table 421:Ali ibn Isa 256:depressions 186:Donald Hill 50:Mesopotamia 3445:Categories 3350:31 October 3172:1 December 3079:1 December 2740:Wehr, Hans 2726:References 2654:Volume IX: 2613:by wooden 2587:blacksmith 2508:latifundia 2428:Hurmuzjird 2418:Rudhmastan 2338:al-Nahrayn 2251:al-Rumaqan 2194:Abz-Qubadh 2188:al-Ubullah 2158:al-Jawazir 2018:Rustuqbadh 1818:Mu'awiya I 1605:Jahshiyari 1475:sesame oil 1457:Saqī Jūkhā 1339:mulberries 1092:Rustuqbadh 1072:Saqī dijla 965:and June ( 908:Ibn Hawqal 798:Ibn Bassam 763:, or iron 631:waterwheel 594:regulators 452:Irrigation 397:Khusraw II 328:Background 283:sandstorms 234:Ibn Rustah 168:combined. 3226:899942882 3104:cite book 3044:128901895 2591:carpenter 2524:Abu Ubayd 2520:al-Ma'mun 2498:al-wuhata 2372:Barbisama 2283:al-Zawabi 2246:Bahurasir 2225:Qatrabbul 2107:Jarjaraya 1863:al-Ma'mun 1859:al-Tabari 1826:Abu Yusuf 1749:reclaimed 1734:al-Wathiq 1722:al-Ma'mun 1718:Abu Yusuf 1609:Abu Yusuf 1506:rosewater 1479:olive oil 1445:Asparagus 1439:cosmetics 1409:included 1189:furniture 1002:rice wine 867:olive oil 862:al-tharīd 854:al-Mansur 818:al-Ma'mun 643:Euphrates 581:abutments 506:Euphrates 442:Ibn Ra'iq 361:Ctesiphon 304:backslope 206:(plural: 197:Shinafiya 166:Palestine 136:Geography 104:The term 2742:(1979). 2709:, p. 223 2647:(eds.). 2566:tamarisk 2494:al-quwam 2377:Barusama 2363:al-Budat 2230:Baduraya 2214:al-Anbar 2153:al-Astan 2117:Bakusaya 2112:Badaraya 1982:Nahr Bin 1978:Kalwadha 1973:Nahr Buq 1952:Khanaqin 1937:al-Jabal 1909:Tassujs 1855:muqāsama 1851:al-Mahdi 1845:Muqasama 1802:Mihrijan 1794:Sasanian 1706:al-Mahdi 1672:and the 1666:land tax 1594:Yazid II 1588:Taxation 1558:Industry 1502:rose oil 1423:za'farān 1303:apricots 1213:currants 1068:nahiyahs 1018:Bakusaya 1014:Badaraya 888:millet. 885:disheesh 822:hectares 783:Layering 775:Grafting 739:agronomy 716:haffārūn 712:razzāmūn 708:naqqālūn 704:qaīyāsun 647:Baduraya 629:, was a 573:cemented 569:spillway 434:Qaramita 340:Sasanian 128:, or of 52:and the 3429:16 June 3300:3631960 3263:16 June 2988:30 June 2696:, p. 67 2656:San–Sze 2629:"Sawād" 2621:Sources 2615:gutters 2611:cistern 2582:plaster 2570:cypress 2562:rafters 2558:columns 2539:dihqans 2515:Slavery 2452:Abbasid 2443:Society 2203:al-ʽAli 2037:Jabilta 2033:Jalawla 2023:Mahrudh 1942:Tamarra 1835:Abshihi 1822:Umar II 1778:Baghdad 1691:Umar II 1661:terms. 1551:stubble 1453:Bājarmā 1419:saffron 1397:, etc. 1387:parsley 1371:chicory 1335:bananas 1331:pippins 1323:quinces 1319:damsons 1307:peaches 1284:bustānī 1209:raisins 1184:vinegar 1148:hashish 1096:Alfalfa 1034:sorghum 1022:Junhula 1004:called 974:Bata'ih 967:Haziran 932:Kashkar 893:Kashkar 881:habbīya 876:burghul 871:vinegar 765:coulter 757:ploughs 741:called 651:Baghdad 641:on the 621:Buzjani 542:cloth. 540:fulling 514:Ya'qubi 508:to the 403:Islamic 381:Bata'ih 315:History 245:Climate 239:mashhuf 220:al-Qatr 208:Bata'ih 204:Batihah 178:Batihah 126:Samarra 110:Baghdad 95:Baghdad 58:Umayyad 3375: 3298: 3254: 3224: 3070: 3042: 2752: 2662: 2643:& 2606:manure 2595:potter 2593:, and 2578:walnut 2576:, and 2560:or as 2528:Umar I 2487:Arabic 2480:Sharik 2413:Tistar 2220:Maskin 2179:Maysan 2134:Kaskar 2028:Silsil 1923:Hulwan 1895:tassūj 1871:kharaj 1828:urged 1810:Uthman 1806:Umar I 1798:Nowruz 1790:hadāyā 1784:Hadaya 1699:Umar I 1684:Kharaj 1676:. The 1670:kharaj 1658:Umar I 1650:kharāj 1646:Qur'an 1640:, and 1638:sadaqa 1634:kharaj 1574:snails 1534:clover 1487:Tikrit 1471:Sesame 1463:, and 1449:Jordan 1427:indigo 1415:fuwwah 1411:madder 1379:fennel 1375:capers 1355:olives 1353:, and 1327:apples 1315:prunes 1296:jabalī 1280:Hulwan 1265:melons 1243:, and 1241:orange 1225:citron 1219:Citrus 1203:Grapes 1168:al-Faw 1126:kattān 1116:clayey 1112:cotton 1100:clover 1082:, and 1064:millet 1062:, and 1042:fodder 1020:, and 1010:Abdasi 1006:nabīdh 986:butter 951:Tammuz 936:Jamida 927:Qudama 904:barley 883:, and 850:Tabari 846:kharaj 842:barley 800:, and 790:manure 769:mijrad 761:sikkah 681:Sarsar 676:shādūf 671:daliya 667:camels 659:horses 577:cherts 510:Tigris 500:Canals 389:Kubadh 354:Julian 350:Tigris 300:cumecs 264:Sharqi 252:Shamal 216:Nippur 99:Rādhān 77:Arabic 3345:(PDF) 3296:JSTOR 3040:S2CID 2680:Notes 2631:. In 2432:diyaʽ 2422:diyaʽ 2359:Jubba 2318:Babil 2256:Kutha 2103:Iskaf 1987:Jazir 1947:Arbil 1906:Astan 1891:astān 1774:jizya 1768:Jizya 1745:Basra 1728:'Ushr 1695:jizya 1678:jizya 1654:wages 1642:zakat 1630:jizya 1569:glass 1530:ritab 1498:roses 1491:Wasit 1461:Bābil 1435:henna 1395:basil 1361:Herbs 1311:pears 1292:sahlī 1288:barrī 1249:India 1237:lemon 1193:boats 1158:Dates 1152:ropes 1138:lamps 1080:Jūkhī 1050:goats 1038:dhura 992:, or 978:Basra 963:Ayyar 912:Wasit 897:Anbar 838:Wheat 794:feces 745:, or 685:bakra 655:dūlāb 639:Anbar 626:nā'ūr 610:Noria 560:weirs 550:Weirs 490:Basra 268:Frost 224:Wasit 174:Wasit 162:Syria 158:Egypt 130:Anbar 124:, of 122:Wasit 120:, of 116:, of 114:Basra 112:, of 106:sawad 91:sawād 81:sawād 38:Sawad 3431:2021 3386:2021 3373:ISBN 3352:2021 3265:2021 3252:ISBN 3222:OCLC 3174:2020 3110:link 3081:2020 3068:ISBN 3022:Iraq 2990:2020 2750:ISBN 2660:ISBN 2574:pine 2552:and 2537:The 2370:and 2368:Sura 2361:and 2105:and 2035:and 1980:and 1885:and 1800:and 1788:The 1772:The 1736:and 1674:ushr 1565:Uruk 1525:aqul 1523:and 1521:shuk 1504:and 1431:nīla 1407:dyes 1391:sage 1383:dill 1367:mint 1276:Figs 1267:and 1211:and 1176:date 1144:Hemp 1122:Flax 1098:and 1056:Oats 1048:and 1046:cows 998:salt 982:milk 976:and 923:Rice 918:Rice 895:and 869:and 840:and 816:and 663:oxen 614:Hama 590:wave 379:The 272:Snow 228:Ḥawr 214:and 212:Kufa 202:The 182:Qatr 164:and 118:Kufa 86:سواد 68:and 60:and 42:Iraq 3420:doi 3288:doi 3030:doi 2496:or 2280:aka 2131:aka 2076:aka 1920:aka 1070:of 1060:rye 994:fat 990:oil 661:or 612:in 536:suq 93:of 48:of 3447:: 3414:. 3394:^ 3308:^ 3294:. 3284:20 3282:. 3234:^ 3182:^ 3118:^ 3106:}} 3102:{{ 3052:^ 3038:. 3026:73 3024:. 3020:. 2998:^ 2764:^ 2652:. 2639:; 2635:; 2617:. 2589:, 2572:, 2568:, 2489:. 2285:) 2136:) 2081:) 1925:) 1764:. 1756:. 1636:, 1632:, 1508:. 1467:. 1459:, 1455:, 1441:. 1393:, 1389:, 1385:, 1381:, 1377:, 1373:, 1369:, 1357:. 1349:, 1345:, 1341:, 1337:, 1333:, 1329:, 1325:, 1321:, 1317:, 1313:, 1309:, 1305:, 1263:, 1251:. 1239:, 1215:. 1154:. 1140:. 1078:, 1074:, 1058:, 1052:. 1016:, 1012:, 988:, 984:, 879:, 804:. 608:A 527:. 199:. 101:. 79:, 3433:. 3422:: 3388:. 3354:. 3302:. 3290:: 3267:. 3228:. 3176:. 3112:) 3083:. 3046:. 3032:: 2992:. 2758:. 2668:. 2510:. 2278:( 2216:) 2212:( 2190:) 2186:( 2129:( 2074:( 1918:( 1532:( 1429:( 1421:( 1413:( 1124:( 1036:( 949:( 83:( 23:.

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