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Enlightened
Empress?" Simon Henderson implores the reader to consider the constraints the empress faced when deciding if she was truly an enlightened despot. Henderson asserts that despite her deceptive tactics, she always possessed an "unswerving commitment to modernizing Russia,". Early on, Catherine concerned herself with the philosophies and culture of the enlightenment. Though she often agreed with their liberal positions, her status in court was entirely reliant upon the support of noble families. As a result, the Empress could not always implement reforms the way she would have liked. For example, when confronted with the issue of serfdom, Catherine initially suggested in her proposal of "the Instruction" that landowners offer serfs the option to "purchase their freedom" or that the government limit the period of servitude to six years. However, the nobles omitted this section from the document as it did not benefit them. "Rather than seeing her as insincere in her concern for the peasantry, historians have recently highlighted…what she might have achieved had the circumstances been different,". Despite the constraints, Catherine did manage to implement few policies that benefitted the serfs. In 1767 it was forbidden for foster parents to enserf illegitimate children and in 1781 enserfment of prisoners of war was prohibited and a law passes that saw marriage of a free man to a serf woman emancipate the woman. Catherine is known to have investigated and then bought out landowners who were reported to ill-treat their serfs,. Voltaire outwardly supported emancipation of the serfs. The philosopher believed that the Russian aristocracy "should not permit the vast majority of the people to go on suffering from the arbitrariness of very laws who ought to be to afford protection to each and all,". Furthermore, in an attempt to create a more educated bureaucracy, Catherine moved to bring better education to her people. In 1786, she established the Russian Statute of National Education to launch a national school system. As a result of her campaign to modify Russia, Catherine successfully introduced the tsardom to the Western world and furthered the degree to which it was involved in European affairs. While Catherine worked to bring enlightenment principles to Russia, Voltaire worked to improve her reputation in Europe. The philosopher enthusiastically adopted her cause, commending her to friends in high places, advising her in politics, and distributing her texts to the liberal media, thereby cementing her title as an enlightened despot. "Voltaire participated in a campaign to protect Catherine's reputation…he wrote pamphlets in support of her policies… published her pronouncements in the western press,". In a letter to Marquis D'Argenson, a French statesman, Voltaire asked him to help "re-establish reputation in Paris", (Lentin 13). Catherine, happy with rise to popularity, admits to Prince De Ligne: "It was certainly Voltaire who brought me into fashion,".
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Catherine often sidestepped his inquiries. For example, "Voltaire did try to start a discussion…in the case of the
Helvetius translation by Golitsuin. In response to Voltaire's comments…Catherine blithely agrees…but confesses she has not read the book yet,". One has the impression that Voltaire would have liked to dwell on literary, philosophic or artistic subjects as he did with his other correspondents. However, Catherine was far more interested in winning the philosopher's approval than in entering a philosophical dialogue. The content of her letters does not permit one to see her primary motives as anything other than propagandistic. She is not at all interested in broadening her cultural and intellectual horizons. Catherine seeks no advice from Voltaire on how to rule Russia.... Instead Catherine tries to impose her views, justify her policies and explain away her failures. Voltaire is, for Catherine, the best method of diffusing favorable information in Europe. As a testament to Catherine's political ingenuity, she skillfully kept Voltaire at arm's length, feigning a belief in absolute liberalism in her letters while, in practice, implementing repressive reforms in her country. For example, the opinion she shares with Voltaire regarding serfdom did not always correspond with the laws she passed. "The Empress turned over 800,000 peasants to private proprietors. The 1763 law limiting freedom of movement by requiring the peasant to get a permit from the landlord before he/she could leave the property has been cited as evidence that Catherine enserfed peasants in the name of fiscal expediency,". Catherine's correspondence largely acted as propaganda intended to assure Voltaire (and Europe) of Russia's prosperity. Handicapped by distance and a lack of information, Voltaire was simply too willing to believe in Catherine's liberalism.
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flattery and profound respect…Catherine announced that she had no desire to read any literary works that were not written as well as
Voltaire's,". She often called Voltaire her "teacher", her "thinking instructor", and her "master of thought,". After his death in 1778, Catherine wrote letters to her contemporaries imploring them to study and memorize his works. "She believed that the study of his work educated citizens, that it helped to form geniuses, heroes and writers, and that it would help to develop thousands of talents,". Her devotion to Voltaire after his death remains evident of her sincere and genuine reverence of him.
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with
Catherine, Voltaire saw it beneficial for his own reputation to rid the Empress of her disparaging image. "As Catherine's name was linked more and more to that of the philosophes, it became important that she be cleared of such any unsavory charges,". Thus neither pen pal was possessed entirely "pure" intentions. Yet, despite their ulterior motives, the correspondence remains an important document recording the political pursuits of an Empire. Catherine's alignment with Voltaire acted as an early indication of the Russian tsardom moving towards closer relations with Europe.
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723:, armed with supporters, threatened Catherine's rule, as well as the guards who possessed the military might to overthrow the Empress. In a letter to Voltaire on September 21, 1762, Catherine acknowledged the conspirators and potential traitors all around her: "Every guardsman when he looks at me can say: 'I made that woman.'" A shrewd politician, Catherina also knew she needed the support of the Court, the public, and other powerful regimes in order to maintain power, suppress rebellion, and emerge as a leading world power.
510:(gentry) comes down from the quality and virtue of those men who took the lead in ancient times and distinguished themselves by particular service." She codified this by ordering assemblies of the gentry in regional centers to keep genealogical records. Catherine's reforms allowed those with historically powerful families to keep their status in society, and others to rise due to service. A nobleman no longer showed his refinement through his servitude to the court but through what he owned and what company he kept.
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Prussian system of national education and "Irish school" as models. The state then established free, co-educational high schools and primary schools in provincial towns in 1786. By 1764, district towns received primary schools however; rural schools did not come into existence. Few children attended public schools. Around 176,000 children passed through
Russian public school between 1786 and 1796. Russia lacked the finances and teachers to run schools properly.
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flattered
Voltaire in her letters, she wrote in a more contrived manner, perhaps due to the fact that her secretary Pictet thoroughly revised the letters (unlike the letters she wrote to Frederick the Great) prior to sending them. The main difference between the two sets of letters seems to be that " compliments Voltaire, to tickle his vanity and play on his prejudices", while Voltaire's compliments "convey undertones of hero-worship."
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667:. Since the philosophes significantly shaped public opinion in Western Europe, Catherine wanted desperately to gain Voltaire's approval. She used him to spread support of her policies throughout Western Europe. Voltaire also interested Catherine on an intellectual level, as they shared a common interest in politics, philosophy, and literature. Her correspondence with Voltaire provided an outlet for her intellectual curiosity.
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810:. As a philosopher, Voltaire disagreed with war in general. However, in his letters he encourages Catherine to go to war with Turkey. He even suggested to Catherine that Russia, Prussia, and Austria unite to divide Turkey. Catherine, however, wanted to conquer Turkey for political and economic reasons. Namely, she wanted to expand Russia's borders to the Black Sea to obtain a base from which she could target
216:" carries different meanings in different countries over varying time periods. But in relation to Russia during the 18th century, the term meant legislative changes to economics, politics and culture. It also entails the Russian gentry's adherence to a set standard and its imitation of the Western values. Westernization in Russia included the modernization of machinery, the refinement of a more efficient
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1250:) were printed in Moscow 1778; they were the first opera fragments printed in Russia. Sales of musical instruments (like keyboards, guitars and harps) were also growing. Sacred music genres were transformed under the foreign influences. The Italian operatic composers such as Galuppi and Sarti were involved in producing liturgies for the church service. The genre of the
1301:, Catherine clamped down on Novikov and other Freemasons in the late 1780s. Her son Paul interdicted all Masonic assemblies in 1799. Novikov and his circle promoted "prosveshchenie" which combined religious piety, erudition, and commitment to the spread of learning. However it bore little similarity to the skeptical and critical spirit of the European Enlightenment.
649:, and she went to very great lengths to make his acquaintance. In the autumn of 1763, Catherine arranged for her Genevan secretary François-Pierre Pictet, an acquaintance of Voltaire, to send Voltaire a letter (supposedly written by Catherine herself) in which Pictet praised her at great length. Catherine made many other attempts to link herself to the French
674:, Voltaire approved of Catherine's secular policies. He thought that his correspondence with Catherine would help him explore the possibilities for enlightened despotism and allow him to compare the laws and customs of Russia with those of France. By 1763, Voltaire had long been interested in Russia on an intellectual level, having written in 1759 the
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intellectual capacity to have such discussions with
Voltaire, and that Catherine brought up primarily political affairs in her letters in order to impart her political ideas onto Voltaire. They did discuss cultural matters in the year 1772, which suggests that Catherine wanted to distract Voltaire from her recent
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establishing of the school. The legislation of the day emphasized significance of land management: "Current surveying is a business, which is performed not only to the benefit and peace of every holder but the state business containing the
Emperor glory and advantage of peace and quiet for all the State."
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However, Voltaire certainly recognized the benefits of fraternizing with the
Empress of Russia. The philosopher enjoyed socializing with Europe's elite and often boasted of his influential friends. "He avowed the usefulness of having a crowned up sleeve…". Furthermore, as a result of his association
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Catherine's letters to
Voltaire often served as a means to woo the influential philosopher to her cause. Rather than pursue intellectual subjects, Catherine utilized her letters to flatter and cajole the philosopher. While Voltaire often attempted to initiate the Empress in an intellectual dialogue,
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as "an Appellation of Honour, which distinguishes all those who are adorned with it from every other Person of Inferior Rank." In 1785, she fused the notion of reward for service with the idea of inherited rank in "Declaration of the Rights, Freedom and Privileges of the Well-Born Russian Nobility":
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In contrast to Peter I, who regulated Russian society through public ceremony and legislation, Catherine promoted "the internal mechanisms of behavior regulation." She attempted to achieve this remarkable goal through education. Russia set up state-run schools that provided students with learning in
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or "Instruction" expressed her political ideals. She wrote this for her Legislative Commission, summoned in 1767 to draft a Code of Laws for Russia. Representatives from all the free estates of the realm, government bodies, and non-Russian people considered the state of Russia's laws. Several of her
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told Russia to leave Poland. Russia declared war on the Sultan immediately afterward. After several successful victories including the destruction of the Turkish naval fleet, Catherine impressed many European powers: "Catherine, who had at first been treated as a dilettante in politics, now appeared
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of the country. However, he never condemned Catherine for deceiving him, but rather congratulated both her and the Poles on the outcome. Their discussions of Poland thus reveal what Peter Gay has called a "lack of accurate information, compounded by a deliberate refusal to learn the truth." The
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Nevertheless, Voltaire made clear his stance regarding serfdom in his submission for an essay competition held by the Free Economic Society of St. Petersburg in 1767. For the subject topic of the contest, Catherine chose "the merits of private ownership of land by the peasants." Voltaire's essay,
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Both Catherine and Voltaire wrote to each other in generally approbatory tones. Voltaire's letters to Catherine have been described as "a catalogue of extravagant and unqualified compliments, and fulsome approbation of her policies." He even addressed her as "my Catherine." While Catherine also
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in Russia, arranged for several of Voltaire's plays to be produced at the Court of St. Petersburg, asked for copies of his complete works, and invited him to come to Russia. Her flattery eventually won over Voltaire, and they began writing letters to each other in the autumn of 1763, continuing to
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The upper classes of Russia put more money into manufacturing, which grew during Catherine's reign. The number of enterprises increased from 600 to 700 in 1762 to over 2,000 when her reign ended. Russian agriculture grew during Catherine's reign due to the economic pressure put upon the gentry that
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established. She established fifty "gubernii" provinces, divided into ten districts. 300,000 to 400,000 people lived in each province and 20,000 to 30,000 lived in every district. A governor, and a network of officials, divided by executive, legislative, and judicial functions were ideally supposed
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Her Sub-Commission on Education concerned itself not with the subtleties of sciences, but with primary, secondary, and higher education. The idea was to teach children the duties required of those who live in society. The Sub-Commission began its work in May 1768 and used English universities, the
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who was born in that year. The government and Catherine II of Russia herself patronized and supported the school from the date of its establishing emphasizing a significance of land management and special surveying education. Lack of land surveyors and state importance of land surveying initiated
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When Catherine first invaded Poland, Voltaire believed, contrary to popular opinion, that she had done so based on religious tolerance. He believed that she wanted to restore the rights of the non-Catholic Polish minorities rather than to acquire Polish land. Voltaire was proven wrong in 1772,
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Throughout her reign, Catherine remained committed to intellectual pursuits and encouraged members of her court to engage in them as well. The empress provided her palace staff with a library and reportedly spent an average of 80,000 rubles annually on books. In his essay, "Catherine the Great:
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Despite her impure intentions, Catherine remained a loyal and unwavering disciple of Voltaire. Catherine revered the philosopher whose work she had read since her youth. Upon receiving a poem from Voltaire dedicated to her, the empress was "totally overwhelmed by her emotions…In a letter full of
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In their discussions of Russia's domestic affairs, Catherine only exchanged news with Voltaire that would cast Russia and her rule in a positive light. She sent him news that depicted Russia as an economically stable and prosperous country and to depict herself as the epitome of an enlightened
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Russia became a major European power because of Peter's reforms. From Peter's rule set the precedent for succeeding leaders. For the next 150 years, Russian rulers followed "reform conservatism" which consisted of maintaining the state's power, fighting off fundamental change, but also adopting
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was a period in the 18th century in which the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences, which had a profound impact on Russian culture. During this time, the first Russian university was founded, a library, a theatre, a public museum, as well as a relatively
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A foreign-born woman and usurper of the Russian throne, Catherine the Great held no legitimate claim to the crown. Her sole connection with the house of Romanov derived from her marriage to the late Emperor, Peter III, whose murder she was widely known to have orchestrated. The royals who held
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Voltaire played an important role in promoting Catherine's image in Europe. He has been described as Catherine's "most distinguished western partisan, her most enthusiastic devotee, and her most indefatigable and eloquent propagandist." In addition to singing her praises among his circles of
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She realized the need for the establishment of laws. Some argue that Catherine used the Enlightenment as a way of placing "her rule on firm philosophic foundations and providing a national guide for the moral leadership of Europe." Others say she used her laws for purely practical reasons. She
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The main topics of discussion in the Voltaire-Catherine letters were Russia's foreign and domestic affairs. Despite their mutual affection for literature, art and philosophy, very rarely did Catherine and Voltaire discuss such topics. One scholar has suggested that Catherine did not have the
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Many of Catherine's contemporaries questioned her adherence to Enlightenment ideals and thought she was an egoist, merely using concepts from the Age of Enlightenment to further her selfish gains. Gender played a primary role in these criticisms. Contemporaries interpreted her personality as
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The majority of Catherine and Voltaire's correspondence took place during the years 1769–1778, a period in which Catherine found herself largely involved with foreign affairs. Thus, much of their correspondence focuses on Russia's wars in Poland and Turkey and on the themes of religion and
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succeeded in reorganizing Russian Freemasonry into a far-reaching system that united some 14 lodges and about 400 government officials. He secured English authorization of the first Russian Grand Lodge and became its Provincial Grand Master. Most Russian lodges were attracted to the
557:, a "western" principle, officially came to Russia through monetary necessity. Of course Enlightenment ideas about religion influenced the gentry but Catherine established the Commission on Church Lands on February 6, 1764 to support the finances of the state. The appropriation of
781:, in regard to which Voltaire advocated emancipation, also figured prominently in their correspondence. Although Voltaire sent Catherine advice on the subject, he never pushed his ideas, nor did he condemn Catherine for not taking more progressive action against the institution.
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peasants, and state peasants. Consisting of 56 percent of the peasantry, private serfs were bound to their villages because of tax purposes and military conscription. Their masters had a legal responsibility to feed them in time of famine, care for them in old age, and pay their
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Catherine returned to the Crimea in November 1776, and imposed a ruler for the reoccupation of the peninsula because of disturbances there. The Crimeans revolted in 1778, after which the Russians went in the same year and installed their own leader to the throne.
388:. She ruled through a series of functional colleges headed by boards under presidents, who worked in cooperation with an appointed administrative Senate of 20 or 30 people. The Senate possessed no legislative powers. Catherine kept the power to pass laws.
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of 1773–74. When Voltaire brought up the subject, Catherine brushed it off by simply saying that she had it under control. As a result, Voltaire never realized the significant economic hardship of Russia's peasant class that had triggered the revolt.
830:. Shcherbatov delivered a scathing criticism of the existing social institutions, maintaining that mass education—rather than far-reaching political reforms and the abolition of serfdom—may be more effective in improving the morals of Russian society.
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They often discussed legislation, as both strongly advocated for the absolute power of the law. Voltaire asked for information on Catherine's regulations, and Catherine sent Voltaire a copy of her Instructions, which he read twice. The subject of
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consisted of a fairly impoverished majority and small extremely wealthy minority. The lower gentry farmed and lived slightly better than the few serfs they had. In 1777, 59 percent of the gentry owned less than twenty serfs. The lives of
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Because she gained significant diplomatic power in the early 1770s Catherine considered something called the "Greek Project". This consisted of pushing the Turks out of Europe but it also carried another more utopian aspect: reclaiming
525:, taught upper-class girls polite manners in society and gave them a moral education. Girls studied not only "dance, music, sewing, drawing, and household economy" but also "law, mathematics, languages, geography, history, economy,
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owned two-thirds of ploughed land. After Catherine's reform, secularized Church land brought the state "an annual income of 1,370,000 rubles, of which less than 463,000 was returned to the Church each year between 1764 and 1768."
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conception of the Russian sovereign as "good tsar." From his reign on all tsars were judged by the standard of: modernizing economics, society, politics and cultural life, gaining influence abroad, and leading Russia on
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In 1746 the first public concert took place in Russia. This soon became a tradition. Concert life was dominated by foreign musicians before Russian virtuosos appeared in the 1780–1790s; these included the violinist
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friends, Voltaire wrote pamphlets that supported Catherine's policies and had her pronouncements and letters published in the western press, particularly targeting anti-Russian publications such as the
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advisers suggested putting in place a council to regulate legislation but this was promptly rejected. Once Catherine began to lose the slightest amount of power she reverted to the ways of the past:
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A relationship with Voltaire benefited Catherine for several reasons. Firstly, Catherine felt the need to strengthen her claim to power, having only recently taken the throne from her husband in a
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The state's efforts to "westernize" Russia's gentry greatly affected their economic cirmcumstances. The wealthiest classes gained more income in order to afford education and western habits. The
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and later they produced some operas in Italian and French. And only at the beginning of the 1770s the first modest attempts of the composers of Russian origin to compose operas to the Russian
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was an even more blatant example of power politics. Russia invaded three separate times, in 1772, 1793, and 1795, and divided the once important European state between itself, Austria and
315:, which still held significant influence in the 18th century. She wished to show Western Europe that her country would be a powerful presence in European political matters. Catherine's
231:, qualitatively. Bringing Russia to an equal level with the rest of Europe intellectually was a major concern of Catherine's. For this reason she created laws that justified her rule.
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and tried to adhere to Enlightenment ideas. She wished to bring Russia up to par with its neighbors not only in a military sense, but also politically, culturally, and intellectually.
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Carolyn H. Wilberger, "Voltaire and Catherine the Great." in Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, ed. Theodore Besterman (Oxford: The Voltaire Foundation, 1976), 163.
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Carolyn H. Wilberger, "Voltaire and Catherine the Great." in Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, ed. Theodore Besterman (Oxford: The Voltaire Foundation, 1976), 160.
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Carolyn H. Wilberger, "Voltaire and Catherine the Great." in Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, ed. Theodore Besterman (Oxford: The Voltaire Foundation, 1976), 153.
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Carolyn H. Wilberger, "Voltaire and Catherine the Great." in Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, ed. Theodore Besterman (Oxford: The Voltaire Foundation, 1976), 150.
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Carolyn H. Wilberger, "Voltaire and Catherine the Great." in Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, ed. Theodore Besterman (Oxford: The Voltaire Foundation, 1976), 159.
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campaigned for the comprehensive reform of education which would result in the development of a "new breed of citizens". His proposals have been implemented in part, e.g., the
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To understand the significance of Catherine's rule, one must look back on Peter the Great's reign. Peter established the idea of a "reforming tsar." He broke away from the old
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Catherine greatly exaggerated Russia's economic stability and greatly misinformed Voltaire on the subject. For instance, Catherine in the correspondence never mentioned
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may have shattered the illusions of rapid political change, but the intellectual climate in Russia was altered irrevocably. Russia's place in the world was debated by
471:, as well as about behavior proper for citizenship. The schools stressed two principles above all else: the need to be patriotic, and the need to accept innovation.
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established a civil law code in January 1774 and a criminal code during the second half of the 1770s, but never finished a unitary code. She drew heavily in the
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influences, he set free the radical writers imprisoned by his mother, including Novikov and Radishchev. Paul's family enjoyed recitals of didactic fables by
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succeeded his mother on the Russian throne, the Russian Enlightenment was very much on the wane. Although the new monarch was fiercely opposed to the French
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and Poland, updated the army, and supported burgeoning manufactures, she really wanted to westernize Russia by reforming it, specifically the lives of the
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860:) that the Surveying School should be opened. The school was named Konstantinovsky in honour of the Great Prince Konstantin Pavlovich, the grandson of
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Kahan, Aracadius. "The Costs of "Westernization" in Russia: The Gentry and the Economy in the Eighteenth Century." Slavic Review 25.1 (1966): 40–66.
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proceeded to outline an ambitious program of political reform, but his chief propositions were not put into execution until the great reforms of
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as an easy way to assert Russia's intentions. By declaring that Constantinople would one day belong to Christians, she also appeased the
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Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling. "Religion and Enlightenment in Eighteenth-Century Russia: Father Platon at the Court of Catherine II",
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Enlightenment ideas were popularized by the nascent Russian theatre. The first Russian theater group of this kind was established in
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used in Russia. The institution of laws and importation of liberal Western European thought served as means of expanding the state.
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Russia produced more goods, and enlisted thousands of troops during Catherine's reign. While she acquired new lands, including
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For an overview of Catherine's many intellectual interests, see: Frank T Brechka, "Catherine the Great: The Books She Read",
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1231:. Publishing music business, sales of foreign sheet music, and music lovers' periodicals flourished from the 1770s onward.
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remained relatively the same during Catherine's reign. In 1762 the peasantry was divided into three groups: private serfs,
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to combine amusement with instruction—would see some of his poems banned from print during the last years of her reign.
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used novels and poems to show that the duty of the autocrat was to transition from an enlightened absolute monarch to a
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threat and as a therefore presenting a threat to Russia's monarchy and its influence in Poland, which ultimately led to
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in old areas as well as new land on the peripheries of the empire. This expansion occurred during the 1780s and 90s.
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and creating a Christian empire centered there does not appear to be a very enlightened plan. However, Catherine saw
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Kahan, Aracadius. "The Costs of "Westernization" in Russia: The Gentry and the Economy in the Eighteenth Century."
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realized that the Ottoman Empire was the only country in a position to topple Catherine. Supported by France, the
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in 1801, may be viewed as the last attempt to implement the ideals of the Enlightenment in the Russian Empire.
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Colum Leckey, "What is Prosveshchenie? Nikolai Novikov's Historical Dictionary of Russian Writers Revisited."
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Whittaker, Cynthia H. "The Reforming Tsar: The Redefinition of Autocratic Duty in Eighteenth-Century Russia."
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of monastic properties to the domestic reform which envisioned more rational planning for the Russian towns.
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At the advice of her learned correspondents, Catherine introduced a number of changes, ranging from the vast
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2226:"The Myth of the State in the Age of Enlightenment and Its Destruction in Late Eighteenth-Century Russia",
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during the celebration of her coronation in Moscow. In 1735 another Italian opera troupe led by composer
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lands to the state brought a substantial amount of money, land, and peasants under Catherine's control.
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Catherine believed in Enlightenment political thought. She reformed the strong and powerful bureaucracy
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played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences, and education. The national Enlightenment in the
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to run each province. Catherine also wanted the gentry to play a role in local political affairs.
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needed more wealth in order to indulge in Western European tastes. The gentry used potentially
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Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling. "Thoughts on the Enlightenment and Enlightenment in Russia",
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Russian Federation, 1730–1860, (Opera, Concert life, Domestic music making, Sacred music)
1216:
1138:
1045:
1026:
931:
911:
869:
846:
823:
799:
749:
715:
genealogical claims to the throne overtly devised plots to replace the new Tsarina. Both
479:
316:
264:
82:
54:
31:
27:
2743:
2718:
2165:
Refining Russia: Advice Literature, Polite Culture, and Gender from Catherine to Yeltsin
1834:
Refining Russia: Advice Literature, Polite Culture, and Gender from Catherine to Yeltsin
3196:
3058:
3048:
3033:
3023:
2977:
2865:
2688:
2409:
1325:
1097:
1053:
1041:
1033:
962:
873:
332:
188:
133:
118:
3168:
2337:
2109:
Wilberger, Carolyn. Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century. 1976. p. 158.
2106:
A. Lentin. Voltaire and Catherine the Great: Selected Correspondence. 1974. p. 9.
3401:
3206:
3201:
3163:
3153:
3002:
2918:
2913:
2855:
2703:
2693:
2458:
2315:
2200:
2147:
1684:
1657:
1630:
1622:
1606:
1579:
1425:
1333:
1298:
1149:
1112:
1104:
1061:
1015:. Araja spent 25 years in Russia and wrote 14 operas for the Russian Court including
969:
778:
626:
611:
603:
540:
412:
240:
164:
149:
126:
74:
66:
3242:
2663:
65:
of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with abolishing the institution of
3406:
3038:
3018:
2987:
2678:
2643:
2587:
2184:
1354:
1212:
1179:
1089:
1017:
942:
927:
826:, a publicist and historian whose notion of liberty was influenced by the works of
720:
570:
544:
514:
506:
494:
487:
475:
460:
404:
285:
228:
122:
23:
3121:
617:
Mining was a source of Russian wealth. Catherine invited German mineralogy expert
3211:
3096:
2972:
2934:
2753:
2597:
2592:
2394:
2300:
1571:
1359:
1294:
1251:
1165:
1073:
1049:
1037:
1008:
954:
881:
857:
575:
385:
351:
114:
3260:
655:
69:. The Russian Enlightenment did not promote the separation of church and state.
3383:
3333:
3191:
3068:
3063:
3053:
2949:
2875:
2784:
2779:
2602:
2577:
2557:
2542:
2527:
2512:
2112:
Henderson, Simon. "Catherine the Great: Enlightened Empress?" 2005. p. 15.
1314:
1220:
1057:
1012:
938:
896:
885:
811:
554:
518:
377:
Catherine's political reforms went beyond perfecting Russia's bureaucracy. Her
363:
347:
304:
281:
268:
244:
213:
86:
78:
58:
35:
1092:
theatres, where they were given with participation of the famous serf-soprano
629:
joined him later in Russia, where he rose to the post of Minister of Finance.
3472:
3411:
3368:
3338:
3318:
2982:
2908:
2835:
2738:
2668:
2582:
2537:
2522:
2419:
2368:
2223:
2196:
1676:
1268:
Some of the leading figures of the Russian Enlightenment are associated with
1239:
1077:
1069:
985:
946:
923:
670:
Voltaire likewise benefited from Catherine's friendship. Long an admirer of
622:
308:
180:
141:
478:' increased purchasing power caused them to see themselves as equals to the
431:
Western European ideas. No longer did leaders paternalistically protect the
346:
Catherine's land acquisitions show the quantitative changes she made to the
3421:
3416:
3363:
3353:
3328:
3308:
3028:
2997:
2944:
2939:
2723:
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2572:
2552:
2439:
2363:
1374:
1321:, a fabulist whose journalistic activity had been denounced by his mother.
1310:
1286:
1282:
1277:
994:
895:
seemed to succumb to the influences of the Enlightenment. The teachings of
834:
588:
526:
468:
109:
The ideas of the Russian Enlightenment were first espoused by the "learned
61:
differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further
1445:
3373:
3158:
2954:
2728:
2567:
2446:
2429:
2424:
1318:
1269:
1108:
650:
602:
Throughout Catherine's reign she tried to find a balance between liberal
596:
397:
300:
river, and the Ottoman Empire recognizing Russia's annexation of Crimea.
256:
217:
198:
193:
2388:
3378:
3358:
3343:
3313:
2562:
2473:
2330:
2305:
2295:
2233:
607:
440:
408:
239:
Almost every Russian ruler has sought to conquer ports in warm waters.
94:
1504:. 8th ed. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. n.p. Print.
1178:
to the libretto by Catherine II (1786), as well as by Italian trained
1169:
2404:
2325:
2050:, trans. A. Lentin (Cambridge: Oriental Research Partners, 1974), 11.
1880:, trans. A. Lentin (Cambridge: Oriental Research Partners, 1974), 12.
1849:, trans. A. Lentin (Cambridge: Oriental Research Partners, 1974), 33.
1273:
1116:
919:
252:
251:. Gaining access to the Crimea would have given Russia access to the
19:
396:
from the latest continental jurisprudence but ignored references to
2763:
2358:
2351:
1235:
1022:
999:
827:
646:
579:
536:
297:
202:
160:
145:
110:
1227:
musician who printed in 1751 the collection of his songs entitled
451:
Considered the "only articulate ideologist to rule Russia between
1224:
1085:
849:
was key to the moral regeneration of the corrupt modern society.
842:
716:
700:
Histoire ou anecdotes sur la révolution de Russie en l'année 1762
452:
428:
320:
293:
97:
traditions of Russian thought. Intellectuals often used the term
2124:
The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of Russian Culture
1474:
The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of Russian Culture
1148:
The most important contribution in the opera genre were made by
2434:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1121:
645:
Catherine first initiated the relationship between herself and
530:
432:
248:
224:
694:. Voltaire even succeeded in convincing the French historian
2320:
1562:. Vol. 1. n.p.: Yale University, 1990. N. pag. 1 vols. Print.
1395:
1194:, opera-melodrama to the text by Yakov Knyazhnin (1792), and
1174:
990:
958:
499:
456:
379:
2033:
2031:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1479:
1424:. Moscow: Moscow State Industrial University. p. 300.
785:
to his disappointment, only received an honorable mention.
175:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1476:. Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1966. pp. 217–26. Print.
1468:
1466:
1464:
937:
During Catherine's reign the leading playwrights included
350:. But she went far beyond this type of modernization that
2048:
Voltaire and Catherine the Great: Selected Correspondence
2028:
1878:
Voltaire and Catherine the Great: Selected Correspondence
1847:
Voltaire and Catherine the Great: Selected Correspondence
1697:
973:
439:
progressive changes that gave the autocracy a feature of
1828:
1826:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1548:
803:
affair greatly damaged Voltaire's reputation in Europe.
621:
to Russia and put him in charge of a major salt mine at
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1725:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1461:
403:
Criticism of the Empress's reforms abounded. Professor
292:, 1787–1792, ended with Russia gaining the fortress of
1276:. In the early 1770s, Catherine the Great's secretary
1135:
The Miller who was a Wizard, a Cheat and a Match-maker
2220:, Jan–April 2010, Vol. 88 Issue 1/2, pp. 180–203
1792:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1545:
1119:
were made. Among these were successful one-act opera
159:
Shuvalov was also the patron of the greatest Russian
1872:
1870:
1868:
1803:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1534:
1532:
1507:
934:
was responsible for the repertory of their theatre.
852:
Catherine II could be considered the founder of the
140:
found their way into Russia. Elizaveta's favourite,
2230:, Winter 2009/2010, Vol. 48 Issue 3, pp. 10–29
2170:Lentin, A. "Catherine the Great and Denis Diderot"
1297:was in charge of the Moscow lodges. Spooked by the
841:was inaugurated for noble maidens, in keeping with
676:
Histoire de l'Empire de Russie sous Pierre le Grand
209:combining masculine strength with feminine vanity.
1021:(1755), the first opera written in Russian to the
660:do so until Voltaire's death fifteen years later.
272:to all the Western chanceries as an evil genius."
148:: he was instrumental in the establishment of the
16:18th-century period of arts and sciences in Russia
2177:Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg.
1865:
1755:
1750:Politics and Culture in Eighteenth-century Russia
1627:The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848
1529:
1500:Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg.
806:Another major topic of conversation was Russia's
341:destruction of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
220:, and the acceptance of Western European tastes.
117:. It is the spirit which animates the sermons of
3470:
1906:
1904:
1982:
1980:
1970:
1968:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1654:The Revolutionary Period in Europe 1763 to 1815
1103:Catherine II sent some domestic composers like
957:, whose drama about a popular uprising against
856:, it was announced on May 25, 1779 (on May 14,
443:, which was actually conservative in practice.
331:voted in 1791 was considered by Catherine as a
1752:. New York: Addison Wesley Longman Inc., 1998.
1352:Valeriani: Sets for the "first Russian opera"
2249:
1901:
1800:. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
2378:
2349:
2335:
2003:
2001:
1977:
1965:
1922:
1542:. New York: Penguin Books, 1980. n.p. Print.
880:for many years. In 1783, she instituted the
3489:History of science and technology in Russia
2444:
2211:Modern Russian History & Historiography
2143:The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
2046:Catherine II, Empress of Russia, Voltaire.
1876:Catherine II, Empress of Russia, Voltaire.
1845:Catherine II, Empress of Russia, Voltaire.
2256:
2242:
1836:. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
822:A more conservative approach was taken by
702:, which provided a disparaging account of
187:Catherine the Great considered herself an
1998:
1616:
1415:
1413:
1084:that were widely performed, including in
997:invited the Italian opera troupe to show
640:
486:, Swiss, Danish and Swedes. This led the
2263:
1076:, brought important contribution to the
906:
535:
174:
18:
1576:Germany from the Earliest Period Vol. 4
1419:
610:, and the strong regulation started by
3471:
1643:
1592:
1410:
170:
2494:
2275:
2237:
2213:, 2009, Vol. 2 Issue 2, pp. 1–26
2131:The Modernisation of Russia 1676–1825
1798:The Modernisation of Russia 1676–1825
1681:Isaiah Berlin's Counter-Enlightenment
1565:
854:State University of Land Use Planning
132:During the reign of Peter's daughter
104:
1560:Catherine the Great: A Short History
872:—sometimes viewed as a precursor of
2218:Slavonic & East European Review
1131:Melnik – koldun, obmanshchik i svat
13:
3494:18th century in the Russian Empire
2133:(Cambridge University Press, 1999)
1670:
14:
3510:
1629:, Oxford University Press, 1996,
1184:The Coachmen at the Relay Station
968:Even Catherine's favourite poet,
945:, who authored a great number of
914:, a serf actress-turned-countess.
234:
3452:
3451:
2167:(Oxford University Press, 2001).
1386:
1367:
1345:
1264:History of Freemasonry in Russia
2116:
2089:
2080:
2071:
2062:
2053:
2040:
2019:
2010:
1989:
1956:
1947:
1938:
1913:
1892:
1883:
1852:
1839:
296:and the Black Sea shore to the
2174:(May 1972), pp 313–320 online.
1860:The Journal of Library History
1656:, Kessinger Publishing, 2005,
1578:, Kessinger Publishing, 2004,
1438:
1257:
884:, which she modeled after the
329:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
191:. She read the most prominent
49:independent press. Like other
1:
2193:New Grove Dictionary of Opera
1404:
1393:Title page of Catherine II's
993:reached Russia in 1731, when
653:: she offered to publish the
2495:
2381:Liberté, égalité, fraternité
1862:4, no. 1 (Jan. 1969): 39–52.
1304:
965:and publicly burnt in 1791.
817:
564:
523:Maison royale de Saint Louis
125:, and the historiography of
7:
2350:
1455:Russian Academy of Sciences
1082:André Ernest Modeste Grétry
878:Russian Academy of Sciences
696:Claude-Carloman de Rulhière
357:
144:, was an ideal enlightened
10:
3515:
3479:Cultural history of Russia
2276:
2228:Russian Studies in History
1722:51.1 (1992): 77–98. Print.
1261:
983:
949:tragedies with touches of
930:during Elizaveta's reign.
606:ideas in the tradition of
504:"The right to the name of
446:
3438:
3392:
3294:
3251:
3230:
3177:
3146:
3130:
3077:
3011:
2963:
2927:
2894:
2813:
2772:
2616:
2505:
2501:
2490:
2395:Methodological skepticism
2286:
2282:
2271:
1291:Rite of Strict Observance
1229:Idle Hours Away from Work
891:Even the monolith of the
704:Catherine's rise to power
2136:Frolova-Walker, Marina:
1379:Foundling Home in Moscow
1096:at the private opera of
1005:Giovanni Alberto Ristori
710:Voltaire as propagandist
619:Franz Ludwig von Cancrin
259:. While Russia occupied
154:Imperial Academy of Arts
2126:(Alfred A. Knopf, 1966)
1748:de Madariaga, Isabela.
1111:abroad to study art of
1032:Foreign composers like
1011:was invited to work in
902:
893:Russian Orthodox Church
3499:Enlightened absolutism
2445:
2379:
2345:Enlightened absolutism
2336:
1558:de Madariaga, Isabel.
1420:Gonchar, L. F (2008).
1340:half a century later.
1202:, comic opera, 1800).
1188:Yamshchiki na podstave
1125:(1772) to the text by
915:
862:Catherine II of Russia
641:Catherine and Voltaire
547:
521:, based on the French
197:of the day, including
184:
138:Enlightened Absolutism
38:
2311:Counter-Enlightenment
2122:Billington, James H.
2099:37.4 (2010): 360-377.
1650:Henry Eldridge Bourne
1472:Billington, James H.
1330:Alexander I of Russia
1244:Derevenskiy vorozheya
1154:The Carriage Accident
1094:Praskovya Zhemchugova
961:'s rule was declared
910:
808:relations with Turkey
672:enlightened despotism
539:
493:Catherine called the
337:a military expedition
178:
22:
3484:Age of Enlightenment
2265:Age of Enlightenment
1453:. Saint Petersburg:
1158:Neschastye ot karety
770:Pugachev's Rebellion
419:or limited monarch.
325:3rd May Constitution
91:Alexander Radishchev
71:Pugachev's Rebellion
45:Age of Enlightenment
3271:Feijóo y Montenegro
3222:Vorontsova-Dashkova
2179:A History of Russia
2160:25.1 (1966): 40–66.
1540:Catherine the Great
1502:A History of Russia
1217:Elizaveta Sandunova
1139:Alexander Ablesimov
1027:Alexander Sumarokov
972:—who sought in his
932:Aleksandr Sumarokov
912:Parasha Zhemchugova
870:Yekaterina Dashkova
868:Catherine's friend
833:On a related note,
824:Mikhail Shcherbatov
750:partition of Poland
698:not to publish his
317:partition of Poland
171:Catherine the Great
83:Mikhail Shcherbatov
55:Catherine the Great
51:enlightened despots
32:Alexandrine Theatre
28:Catherine the Great
2410:Natural philosophy
1666:Google Print p.161
1603:Waves of Democracy
1588:Google Print, p.33
1422:Philosophy. Part 1
1326:Informal Committee
1248:The Village Wizard
1143:Mikhail Sokolovsky
1098:Nikolai Sheremetev
1034:Johann Adolf Hasse
916:
798:after Catherine's
692:Courrier d'Avignon
688:Gazette de Cologne
604:political economic
548:
543:'s design for the
515:Smol'nyi Institute
290:Second Turkish War
286:Orthodox Christian
189:enlightened despot
185:
134:Elizaveta Petrovna
119:Feofan Prokopovich
105:Early developments
39:
3466:
3465:
3434:
3433:
3430:
3429:
2486:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2459:Scientific method
2316:Critical thinking
2224:Zhivov, Viktor M.
2185:Taruskin, Richard
2163:Kelly, Catriona.
1832:Kelly, Catriona.
1693:Google Print, 108
1639:Google print p.84
1623:Paul W. Schroeder
1334:Mikhail Speransky
1299:French Revolution
1150:Vasily Pashkevich
1137:) to the text by
1113:music composition
970:Gavrila Derzhavin
845:'s doctrine that
684:Gazette de France
632:In the 1762, the
627:Georg von Cancrin
413:Mikhail Kheraskov
339:resulting in the
165:Mikhail Lomonosov
150:Moscow University
136:the ideas of the
127:Vasily Tatishchev
121:, the satires of
75:French Revolution
67:serfdom in Russia
3506:
3455:
3454:
2503:
2502:
2492:
2491:
2450:
2384:
2355:
2341:
2284:
2283:
2273:
2272:
2258:
2251:
2244:
2235:
2234:
2100:
2093:
2087:
2084:
2078:
2075:
2069:
2066:
2060:
2057:
2051:
2044:
2038:
2035:
2026:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2008:
2005:
1996:
1993:
1987:
1984:
1975:
1972:
1963:
1960:
1954:
1951:
1945:
1942:
1936:
1933:
1920:
1917:
1911:
1908:
1899:
1896:
1890:
1887:
1881:
1874:
1863:
1856:
1850:
1843:
1837:
1830:
1801:
1794:
1753:
1746:
1723:
1716:
1695:
1674:
1668:
1647:
1641:
1620:
1614:
1596:
1590:
1569:
1563:
1556:
1543:
1536:
1527:
1524:
1505:
1498:
1477:
1470:
1459:
1458:
1452:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1417:
1390:
1377:'s plan for the
1371:
1355:Tsefal i Prokris
1349:
1328:, instituted by
1213:Ivan Khandoshkin
1192:Orfey i Evridika
1180:Yevstigney Fomin
1018:Tsefal i Prokris
943:Vladislav Ozerov
928:Ivan Dmitrievsky
847:girls' education
839:Smolny Institute
760:Domestic affairs
625:. Cancrin's son
545:Smolny Institute
433:Russian homeland
407:, a follower of
405:Semyon Desnitsky
123:Antiokh Kantemir
3514:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3504:
3503:
3469:
3468:
3467:
3462:
3461:
3448:
3426:
3388:
3290:
3247:
3226:
3173:
3142:
3138:Carvalho e Melo
3126:
3073:
3007:
2959:
2923:
2890:
2809:
2768:
2612:
2497:
2478:
2464:Spanish America
2338:Encyclopédistes
2301:Civil liberties
2278:
2267:
2262:
2199:(London, 1992)
2119:
2103:
2097:Russian History
2094:
2090:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2029:
2025:(Wilberger 147)
2024:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2006:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1978:
1973:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1923:
1919:(Wilberger 182)
1918:
1914:
1910:(Wilberger 157)
1909:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1875:
1866:
1857:
1853:
1844:
1840:
1831:
1804:
1795:
1756:
1747:
1726:
1717:
1698:
1675:
1671:
1648:
1644:
1621:
1617:
1597:
1593:
1572:Wolfgang Menzel
1570:
1566:
1557:
1546:
1538:Troyat, Henri.
1537:
1530:
1525:
1508:
1499:
1480:
1471:
1462:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1432:
1418:
1411:
1407:
1400:
1391:
1382:
1372:
1363:
1350:
1307:
1295:Nikolay Novikov
1266:
1260:
1252:choral concerto
1238:and songs from
1166:Yakov Knyazhnin
1164:to the text by
1074:Antoine Bullant
1038:Hermann Raupach
1009:Francesco Araja
988:
955:Yakov Knyazhnin
905:
882:Russian Academy
858:Julian calendar
820:
800:first partition
789:Foreign affairs
643:
567:
529:, science, and
449:
386:autocratic rule
371:Peter the Great
360:
352:Peter the Great
284:from Muslim to
237:
173:
115:Peter the Great
107:
99:prosveshcheniye
26:'s Monument to
17:
12:
11:
5:
3512:
3502:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3464:
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3459:
3441:
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3436:
3435:
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3428:
3427:
3425:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3398:
3396:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3300:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3257:
3255:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3234:
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3228:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
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3199:
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3189:
3183:
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3175:
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3171:
3166:
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3150:
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3144:
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3141:
3140:
3134:
3132:
3128:
3127:
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3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
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3066:
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3015:
3013:
3009:
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3006:
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3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2969:
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2961:
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2947:
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2900:
2898:
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2873:
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2833:
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2808:
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2797:
2792:
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2770:
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2767:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2620:
2618:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2610:
2608:Wollstonecraft
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2509:
2507:
2499:
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2466:
2461:
2456:
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2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
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2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2347:
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2328:
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2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2287:
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2269:
2268:
2261:
2260:
2253:
2246:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2221:
2214:
2207:
2182:
2181:(8th ed. 2011)
2175:
2168:
2161:
2154:
2134:
2129:Dixon, Simon.
2127:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2110:
2107:
2102:
2101:
2088:
2079:
2070:
2061:
2052:
2039:
2027:
2018:
2009:
1997:
1988:
1986:(Henderson 16)
1976:
1974:(Henderson 15)
1964:
1955:
1946:
1937:
1935:(Henderson 17)
1921:
1912:
1900:
1898:(Wilberger 19)
1891:
1882:
1864:
1851:
1838:
1802:
1796:Dixon, Simon.
1754:
1724:
1696:
1669:
1642:
1615:
1591:
1564:
1544:
1528:
1506:
1478:
1460:
1437:
1430:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1402:
1401:
1392:
1385:
1383:
1373:
1366:
1364:
1351:
1344:
1309:By 1796, when
1306:
1303:
1262:Main article:
1259:
1256:
1221:Grigory Teplov
1219:. The senator
1141:with music by
1066:Martin y Soler
1013:St. Petersburg
951:sentimentalism
939:Denis Fonvizin
904:
901:
897:Platon Levshin
886:French Academy
819:
816:
812:Constantinople
794:civilization.
743:Correspondence
642:
639:
566:
563:
555:Secularization
519:St. Petersburg
461:Russian gentry
448:
445:
417:constitutional
364:secularization
359:
356:
348:Russian Empire
305:Constantinople
282:Constantinople
245:Ottoman Empire
236:
235:Foreign policy
233:
214:Westernization
183:'s art gallery
172:
169:
106:
103:
87:Andrey Bolotov
79:Denis Fonvizin
59:Russian Empire
36:St. Petersburg
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3511:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
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3418:
3415:
3413:
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3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3397:
3395:
3394:United States
3391:
3385:
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3377:
3375:
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3360:
3357:
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3302:
3301:
3299:
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3262:
3259:
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3235:
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3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3176:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3154:Budai-Deleanu
3152:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3129:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3084:
3082:
3080:
3076:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3010:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
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2824:
2822:
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2818:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
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2775:
2771:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
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2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
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2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
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2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2621:
2619:
2615:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2518:Ashley-Cooper
2516:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2493:
2489:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2420:Progressivism
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2369:Individualism
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2354:
2353:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2285:
2281:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2259:
2254:
2252:
2247:
2245:
2240:
2239:
2236:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2215:
2212:
2208:
2206:
2205:0-333-73432-7
2202:
2198:
2197:Stanley Sadie
2194:
2190:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2173:
2172:History Today
2169:
2166:
2162:
2159:
2158:Slavic Review
2155:
2153:
2152:0-333-60800-3
2149:
2145:
2144:
2139:
2135:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2120:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2098:
2092:
2083:
2074:
2065:
2056:
2049:
2043:
2034:
2032:
2022:
2013:
2004:
2002:
1995:(Neserius 36)
1992:
1983:
1981:
1971:
1969:
1962:(Gorbatov 66)
1959:
1953:(Gorbatov 65)
1950:
1944:(Gorbatov 74)
1941:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1916:
1907:
1905:
1895:
1886:
1879:
1873:
1871:
1869:
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1769:
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1761:
1759:
1751:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1721:
1720:Slavic Review
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1694:
1690:
1689:0-87169-935-4
1686:
1682:
1678:
1677:Robert Wokler
1673:
1667:
1663:
1662:1-4179-3418-2
1659:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1640:
1636:
1635:0-19-820654-2
1632:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1612:
1611:0-8039-9019-7
1608:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1589:
1585:
1584:1-4191-2171-5
1581:
1577:
1573:
1568:
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1456:
1449:
1448:
1441:
1433:
1431:9785276014753
1427:
1423:
1416:
1414:
1409:
1398:
1397:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1370:
1365:
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1342:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1302:
1300:
1296:
1293:. His friend
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1265:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1240:Ivan Kerzelli
1237:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1196:The Americans
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1127:Mikhail Popov
1124:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1078:Russian opera
1075:
1071:
1070:Ivan Kerzelli
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
1001:
996:
992:
987:
986:Russian opera
982:
981:
977:
975:
971:
966:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
935:
933:
929:
925:
924:Fyodor Volkov
921:
913:
909:
900:
898:
894:
889:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
866:
863:
859:
855:
850:
848:
844:
840:
836:
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829:
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815:
813:
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804:
801:
795:
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790:
786:
782:
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771:
766:
762:
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753:
751:
745:
744:
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736:
732:
728:
724:
722:
718:
712:
711:
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705:
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693:
689:
685:
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609:
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592:
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585:
581:
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572:
562:
560:
556:
552:
546:
542:
538:
534:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
511:
509:
508:
502:
501:
496:
491:
489:
485:
481:
477:
476:upper classes
472:
470:
464:
462:
458:
454:
444:
442:
436:
434:
430:
425:
420:
418:
414:
410:
406:
401:
399:
395:
389:
387:
382:
381:
375:
372:
367:
365:
355:
353:
349:
344:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
309:land grabbing
306:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
277:
273:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
232:
230:
226:
221:
219:
215:
210:
206:
204:
200:
196:
195:
190:
182:
181:Ivan Shuvalov
177:
168:
166:
162:
157:
155:
151:
147:
143:
142:Ivan Shuvalov
139:
135:
130:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
102:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
63:modernization
60:
56:
52:
47:
46:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
3442:
3187:Catherine II
3178:
2639:Beaumarchais
2469:Universality
2440:Reductionism
2387:
2364:Human rights
2227:
2217:
2210:
2188:
2178:
2171:
2164:
2157:
2141:
2137:
2130:
2123:
2117:Bibliography
2096:
2091:
2082:
2073:
2064:
2055:
2047:
2042:
2021:
2012:
1991:
1958:
1949:
1940:
1915:
1894:
1885:
1877:
1859:
1854:
1846:
1841:
1833:
1797:
1749:
1719:
1680:
1672:
1653:
1645:
1626:
1618:
1602:
1599:John Markoff
1594:
1575:
1567:
1559:
1539:
1501:
1473:
1446:
1440:
1421:
1394:
1353:
1338:Alexander II
1323:
1311:Emperor Paul
1308:
1287:Ivan Schwarz
1283:Swedish Rite
1278:Ivan Yelagin
1267:
1247:
1243:
1233:
1228:
1223:was also an
1209:
1205:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1173:
1172:(1782), and
1161:
1157:
1153:
1147:
1134:
1130:
1129:, and opera
1120:
1102:
1031:
1016:
998:
995:Empress Anna
989:
979:
978:
967:
947:Neoclassical
936:
917:
890:
867:
851:
835:Ivan Betskoy
832:
821:
805:
796:
792:
788:
787:
783:
775:
767:
763:
759:
758:
754:
746:
742:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
713:
709:
708:
699:
691:
687:
683:
680:
675:
669:
662:
656:Encyclopédie
654:
644:
631:
616:
601:
593:
568:
553:
549:
527:architecture
513:Catherine's
512:
505:
498:
492:
473:
469:the three Rs
465:
450:
437:
421:
402:
393:
390:
378:
376:
368:
361:
345:
302:
278:
274:
238:
222:
211:
207:
192:
186:
158:
131:
108:
98:
42:
40:
3444:Romanticism
3266:Charles III
3107:Poniatowski
3044:Leeuwenhoek
3024:de la Court
3012:Netherlands
2856:Mendelssohn
2851:Lichtenberg
2729:Montesquieu
2447:Sapere aude
2430:Rationalism
2425:Rationality
2415:Objectivity
2016:(Lentin 16)
2007:(Lentin 14)
1319:Ivan Krylov
1315:libertarian
1285:. In 1782,
1270:Freemasonry
1258:Freemasonry
1215:and singer
1206:Other music
1200:Amerikantsy
1109:Bortniansky
665:coup d'état
651:philosophes
597:arable land
398:natural law
257:Dardanelles
243:fought the
218:bureaucracy
199:Montesquieu
194:philosophes
3473:Categories
3286:Villarroel
3281:Jovellanos
3217:Radishchev
3164:Micu-Klein
3102:Niemcewicz
3069:Swammerdam
3059:Nieuwentyt
3049:Mandeville
2904:Farmakidis
2790:Burlamaqui
2699:La Mettrie
2674:Fontenelle
2629:d'Argenson
2624:d'Alembert
2548:Harrington
2474:Utopianism
2374:Liberalism
2331:Empiricism
2306:Classicism
2296:Capitalism
2146:, vol. 21
1889:(Lentin 9)
1405:References
1381:, c. 1764.
1105:Berezovsky
1046:Manfredini
984:See also:
690:, and the
608:Adam Smith
441:liberalism
409:Adam Smith
288:rule. The
95:Slavophile
30:after the
3407:Jefferson
3349:Hutcheson
3238:Obradović
3207:Lomonosov
3202:Kheraskov
3112:Śniadecki
2876:Weishaupt
2871:Thomasius
2861:Pufendorf
2704:Lavoisier
2689:d'Holbach
2684:Helvétius
2664:Descartes
2659:Condorcet
2654:Condillac
2588:Priestley
2405:Modernity
2326:Democracy
1683:, DIANE,
1305:Aftermath
1274:Martinism
1242:'s opera
1190:, 1787),
1182:with his
1162:The Miser
1160:, 1779),
1152:with his
1117:librettos
1090:Ostankino
1054:Paisiello
920:Yaroslavl
876:—led the
818:Education
565:Economics
541:Quarenghi
507:dvoryanin
497:, in her
424:Muscovite
303:Retaking
253:Black Sea
247:over the
3457:Category
3402:Franklin
3369:Playfair
3339:Ferguson
3296:Scotland
3243:Mrazović
3197:Kantemir
3192:Fonvizin
3131:Portugal
3097:Krasicki
3092:Konarski
3087:Kołłątaj
3039:Koerbagh
2988:Genovesi
2973:Beccaria
2935:Berkeley
2866:Schiller
2831:Humboldt
2805:Saussure
2800:Rousseau
2764:Voltaire
2719:Maréchal
2694:Jaucourt
2649:Châtelet
2644:Chamfort
2593:Reynolds
2496:Thinkers
2400:Midlands
2389:Lumières
2359:Humanism
2352:Haskalah
2191:in 'The
1613:, p.121.
1605:, 1996,
1236:overture
1145:(1779).
1062:Cimarosa
1023:libretto
1000:Calandro
874:feminism
828:Rousseau
765:despot.
647:Voltaire
589:poll-tax
580:peasants
358:Politics
298:Dniester
255:and the
203:Voltaire
179:View of
161:polymath
152:and the
146:courtier
111:druzhina
73:and the
43:Russian
24:Mikeshin
3412:Madison
3384:Stewart
3324:Burnett
3319:Boswell
3304:Beattie
3276:Moratín
3261:Cadalso
3212:Novikov
3147:Romania
3122:Wybicki
3117:Staszic
3064:Spinoza
3034:Huygens
3029:Grotius
2983:Galvani
2978:Galiani
2928:Ireland
2909:Feraios
2881:Wieland
2846:Lessing
2841:Leibniz
2814:Germany
2795:Prévost
2780:Abauzit
2744:Quesnay
2734:Morelly
2724:Meslier
2709:Leclerc
2669:Diderot
2558:Johnson
2533:Collins
2528:Bentham
2513:Addison
2506:England
2454:Science
2291:Atheism
2195:', ed.
1457:. 1998.
1399:, 1767.
1375:Betskoy
1362:, 1755.
1225:amateur
1170:Molière
1086:Kuskovo
1050:Traetta
1042:Galuppi
963:Jacobin
843:Fenelon
779:serfdom
717:Ivan VI
623:Staraya
612:Peter I
484:British
453:Ivan IV
447:Culture
429:secular
333:Jacobin
327:of the
321:Prussia
294:Ochakov
241:Peter I
3364:Newton
3354:Hutton
3334:Cullen
3231:Serbia
3179:Russia
3169:Șincai
3079:Poland
3019:Bekker
2993:Pagano
2955:Toland
2919:Korais
2914:Kairis
2896:Greece
2826:Herder
2821:Goethe
2785:Bonnet
2773:Geneva
2759:Turgot
2749:Raynal
2739:Pascal
2679:Gouges
2617:France
2603:Tindal
2598:Sidney
2573:Newton
2568:Milton
2543:Godwin
2538:Gibbon
2435:Reason
2277:Topics
2203:
2189:Russia
2150:
1687:
1660:
1633:
1609:
1582:
1428:
1168:after
1122:Anyuta
953:; and
721:Paul I
686:, the
634:Church
584:Church
571:gentry
559:Church
531:ethics
495:gentry
488:gentry
480:French
323:. The
313:Church
265:France
261:Poland
249:Crimea
229:gentry
225:Crimea
3422:Paine
3417:Mason
3379:Smith
3329:Burns
3314:Blair
3309:Black
3253:Spain
3159:Maior
3054:Meyer
2998:Verri
2965:Italy
2950:Swift
2945:Burke
2940:Boyle
2886:Wolff
2714:Mably
2634:Bayle
2583:Price
2563:Locke
2553:Hooke
2523:Bacon
2321:Deism
1451:(PDF)
1396:Nakaz
1360:Araja
1175:Fevey
1058:Sarti
991:Opera
980:Opera
959:Rurik
576:serfs
500:Nakaz
457:Lenin
394:Nakaz
380:Nakaz
269:Turks
113:" of
3374:Reid
3359:Mill
3344:Hume
3003:Vico
2836:Kant
2754:Sade
2578:Pope
2201:ISBN
2148:ISBN
1685:ISBN
1658:ISBN
1631:ISBN
1607:ISBN
1580:ISBN
1426:ISBN
1324:The
1272:and
1234:The
1107:and
1088:and
1064:and
974:odes
926:and
903:Arts
719:and
578:and
474:The
455:and
201:and
41:The
1358:by
1025:by
1003:by
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533:."
517:in
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2140:,
2030:^
2000:^
1979:^
1967:^
1924:^
1903:^
1867:^
1805:^
1757:^
1727:^
1699:^
1691:,
1679:,
1664:,
1652:,
1637:,
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1040:,
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435:.
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343:.
263:,
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