Ancient Roman technology

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effective in combat, the helepolis was designed to be self-propelled. The self-propelled vehicles were operated using two types of motors: an internal motor powered by humans, or a counterweight motor powered by gravity. The human-powered motor used a system of ropes that connected the axles to a capstan. It has been calculated that at least 30 men would be required to turn the capstan in order to exceed the force required to move the vehicle. Two capstans may have been used instead of just the one, reducing the number of men needed per capstan to 16, for a total of 32 to power the helepolis. The gravity-powered counterweight motor used a system of ropes and pulleys to propel the vehicle. Ropes were wrapped around the axles, strung through a pulley system that connected them to a counterweight hanging at the top of the vehicle. The counterweights would have been made of lead or a bucket filled with water. The lead counterweight was encapsulated in a pipe filled with seeds to control its fall. The water bucket counterweight was emptied when it reached the bottom of the vehicle, raised back to the top, and filled with water using a reciprocating water pump, so that motion could again be achieved. It has been calculated that to move a helepolis with a mass of 40000 kg, a counterweight with a mass of 1000 kg was needed.

192:. A water wheel had two general designs: the undershot and the overshot. The undershot water wheel generated power from the natural flow of a running water source pushing upon the wheel's submerged paddles. The overshot water wheel generated power by having water flow over its buckets from above. This was usually achieved by building an aqueduct above the wheel. Although it is possible to make the overshot water wheel 70 percent more efficient than the undershot, the undershot was generally the preferred water wheel. The reason being the economic cost to building an aqueduct was too high for the mild benefit of having the water wheel turn faster. The primary purpose of water wheels was to generate power for milling operations and to raise water above a system's natural height. Evidence also exists that water wheels were used to power the operation of saws, though only scant descriptions of such devices remain. 196: 642: 1133: 540:

meant designing aqueducts that flowed ground level or below surface level, as these were more cost effective than building bridges considering the cost of construction and maintenance for bridges was higher than that of surface and sub-surface elevations. Aqueduct bridges were often in need of repairs and spent years at a time in disuse. Water theft from the aqueducts was a frequent problem which led to difficulties in estimating the amount of water flowing through the channels. To prevent the channels of the aqueducts from eroding, a plaster known as opus signinum was used. The plaster incorporated crushed terracotta in the typical Roman mortar mixture of pozzolana rock and lime.

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dome. A perfect number is a number where its factors add up to itself. So, the number 28 is considered to be a perfect number, because its factors of 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14 add together to equal 28. Perfect numbers are extremely rare, with there being only one number for each quantity of digits (one for single digits, double digits, triple digits, quadruple digits, etc.). Embodying mathematical concepts of beauty, symmetry, and perfection, into the structure conveys the technical sophistication of Roman engineers.

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the speed at which these bridges were constructed. Leaders surprised enemy units to great effect by speedily crossing otherwise treacherous bodies of water. Lightweight crafts were "organized and tied together with the aid of planks, nails and cables". Rafts were more commonly used instead of building new makeshift bridges, enabling quick construction and deconstruction. The expedient and valuable innovation of the pontoon bridge also accredited its success to the excellent abilities of Roman Engineers.

303: 965: 952:(spear): The Roman heavy spear was a weapon favored by legionaries and weighed approximately five pounds/2.25 kilograms. The innovated javelin was designed to be used only once and was destroyed upon initial use. This ability prevented the enemy from reusing spears. All soldiers carried two versions of this weapon: a primary spear and a backup. A solid block of wood in the middle of the weapon provided legionaries protection for their hands while carrying the device. According to 458:

whereas pozzolana mortar using crushed brick dust has a tensile strength of 500 psi. The advantage of using pozzolana mortar in the construction of the Hagia Sophia is the increase in strength of the joints. The mortar joints used in the structure are wider than one would expect in a typical brick and mortar structure. The fact of the wide mortar joints suggests the designers of the Hagia Sophia knew about the high tensile strength of the mortar and incorporated it accordingly.

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holes were then filled with water so that the wedges would swell with enough force to cut the stone block out of the Earth. Blocks with the dimensions of 23yds by 14 ft by 15 ft have been found, with weights of about 1000 tons. There is evidence that saws were developed to cut stone in the Imperial age. Initially, Romans used saws powered by hand to cut stone, but later went on to develop stone cutting saws powered by water.

745:. The pit was first filled with rocks, gravel or sand and then a layer of concrete. Finally, they were paved with polygonal rock slabs. Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. Bridges were constructed over waterways. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. After the fall of the Roman Empire the roads were still usable and used for more than 1000 years. 33: 2361: 1095: 1091:

described as the most advanced two-armed torsion engine used by the Roman Army”. The weapon often looks like a mounted crossbow capable of shooting projectiles. Similarly, the onager "named after the wild ass because of its 'kick'," was a larger weapon that was capable of hurling large projectiles at walls or forts. Both were very capable machines of war and were put to use by the Roman military.

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ballista of enormous size belonging to the Fifteenth legion began to do great harm to the Flavians' line with the huge stones that it hurled; and it would have caused wide destruction if it had not been for the splendid bravery of two soldiers, who, taking some shields from the dead and so disguising themselves, cut the ropes and springs of the machine

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was the battlefield, with horses being used in the cavalry and scouting parties. For carriages carrying passengers or light materials donkeys or mules were generally used, as they were faster than oxen and cheaper on fodder than horses. Other than being used as a means of transportation, animals were also employed in the operation of rotary mills.

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Carts also contained brakes, elastic suspensions and bearings. The elastic suspension systems used leather belts attached bronze supports to suspend the carriage above the axles. The system helped to create a smoother ride by reducing the vibration. The Romans adopted bearings developed by the Celts.

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It was ideal to mine stones from quarries that were situated as close to the site of construction as possible, to reduce the cost of transportation. Stone blocks were formed in quarries by punching holes in lines at the desired lengths and widths. Then, wooden wedges were hammered into the holes. The

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Roman technology was largely based on a system of crafts. Technical skills and knowledge were contained within the particular trade, such as stonemasons. In this sense, knowledge was generally passed down from a tradesman master to a tradesman apprentice. Since there are only a few sources from which

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With limited sources of power, the Romans managed to build impressive structures, some of which survive to this day. The durability of Roman structures, such as roads, dams, and buildings, is accounted for in the building techniques and practices they utilized in their construction projects. Rome and

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Grainmill, rotary. According to Moritz (p57) rotary grainmills were not known to the ancient Greeks but date from before 160 BC. Unlike reciprocating mills, rotary mills could be easily adapted to animal or water power. Lewis (1997) argues that the rotary grainmill dates to the 5th century BC in the

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On engaging they drove back the enemy, only to be driven back themselves, for the Vitellians had concentrated their artillery on the raised road that they might have free and open ground from which to fire; their earlier shots had been scattered and had struck the trees without injuring the enemy. A

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extracted without needing to crush the ore. Washing tables were fitted below the tanks to collect the gold-dust and any nuggets present. Vein gold needed crushing, and they probably used crushing or stamp mills worked by waterwheels to comminute the hard ore before washing. Large quantities of water

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Way stations providing refreshments were maintained by the government at regular intervals along the roads. A separate system of changing stations for official and private couriers was also maintained. This allowed a dispatch to travel a maximum of 800 kilometres (500 mi) in 24 hours by using a

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The Romans primarily built roads for their military. Their economic importance was probably also significant, although wagon traffic was often banned from the roads to preserve their military value. In total, more than 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) of roads were constructed, 80,500 kilometres

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The Romans did not invent plumbing or toilets, but instead borrowed their waste disposal system from their neighbors, particularly the Minoans. A waste disposal system was not a new invention, but rather had been around since 3100 BCE, when one was created in the Indus River Valley The Roman public

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The Romans designed the Pantheon thinking about the concepts of beauty, symmetry, and perfection. The Romans incorporated these mathematical concepts into their public works projects. For instance, the concept of perfect numbers was used in the design of the Pantheon by embedding 28 coffers into the

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The ratio of the mixture of Roman lime mortars depended upon where the sand for the mixture was acquired. For sand gathered at a river or sea, the mixture ratio was two parts sand, one part lime, and one part powdered shells. For sand gathered further inland, the mixture was three parts sand and one

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Although various levels of medicine were practiced in the ancient world, the Romans created or pioneered many innovative surgeries and tools that are still in use today such as hemostatic tourniquets and arterial surgical clamps. Rome was also responsible for producing the first battlefield surgery

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Mobility, for a military force, was an essential key to success. Although this was not a Roman invention, as there were instances of "ancient Chinese and Persians making use of the floating mechanism”, Roman generals used the innovation to great effect in campaigns. Furthermore, engineers perfected

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Originally an incendiary weapon adopted from the Greeks in 7th century AD, the Greek fire "is one of the very few contrivances whose gruesome effectiveness was noted by" many sources. Roman innovators made this already lethal weapon even more deadly. Its nature is often described as a "precursor to

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The helepolis was a transportation vehicle used to besiege cities. The vehicle had wooden walls to shield soldiers as they were transported toward the enemy's walls. Upon reaching the walls, the soldiers would disembark at the top of the 15m tall structure and drop on to the enemy's ramparts. To be

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Roman carts had many purposes and came in a variety of forms. Freight carts were used to transport goods. Barrel carts were used to transport liquids. The carts had large cylindrical barrels laid horizontally with their tops facing forward. For transporting building materials, such as sand or soil,

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The containment of heat in the rooms was important in the operation of the baths, as to avoid patrons from catching colds. To prevent doors from being left open, the door posts were installed at an inclined angle so that the doors would automatically swing shut. Another technique of heat efficiency

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The primary usage of animal power was for transportation. Several species of animals were used for differing tasks. Being strong and cheap to maintain, oxen were used to farm and transport large masses of goods. If speed was desired, horses were utilized. The main environment which called for speed

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published schematics of a steam device that rotated a ball on a pivot. The device used heat from a cauldron to push steam through a system of tubes towards the ball. The device produced roughly 1500 rpm but would never be practical on an industrial scale as the labour requirements to operate, fuel

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provided better protection, but the plate bands were expensive and difficult to produce and difficult to repair in the field. Generally, chainmail was cheaper, easier to produce, and simpler to maintain, was one-size-fits-all and was more comfortable to wear; thus, it remained the primary form of

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Roman aqueducts conjure images of water travelling long distances across arched bridges, however; only 5 percent of the water being transported along the aqueduct systems traveled by way of bridges. Roman engineers worked to make the routes of aqueducts as practical as possible. In practice, this

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Water inside the aqueducts depended entirely on gravity. The raised stone channels in which the water traveled were slightly slanted. The water was carried directly from mountain springs. After it had gone through the aqueduct, the water was collected in tanks and fed through pipes to fountains,

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The pozzolana mortar used in the construction of the Hagia Sophia does not contain volcanic ash but instead crushed brick dust. The composition of the materials used in pozzolana mortar leads to increased tensile strength. A mortar composed of mostly lime has a tensile strength of roughly 30 psi

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Recently archaeologically detected in the Val Gabbia in northern Lombardy from the 5th and 6th centuries AD. This technically interesting innovation appears to have had little economic impact. But archaeologists may have failed to recognize the distinctive slag, so the date and location of this

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Warfare was an essential aspect of Roman society and culture. The military was not only used for territorial acquisition and defense, but also as a tool for civilian administrators to use to help staff provincial governments and assist in construction projects. The Romans adopted, improved, and

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This led to a number of innovations in the use of glass. Window glass is attested at Pompeii in AD 79. In the 2nd century AD hanging glass oil lamps were introduced. These used floating wicks and by reducing self-shading gave more lumens in a downwards direction. Cage cups (see photograph) are

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While core artillery inventions were notably founded by the Greeks, Rome saw opportunity in the ability to enhance this long-range artillery. Large artillery pieces such as carroballista and onagers bombarded enemy lines, before full ground assault by infantry. The manuballista would "often be

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is a tactical military maneuver original to Rome. The tactic was implemented by having units raise their shields in order to protect themselves from enemy projectiles raining down on them. The strategy only worked if each member of the testudo protected his comrade. Commonly used during siege

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Most Roman cities were shaped like a square. There were 4 main roads leading to the center of the city, or forum. They formed a cross shape, and each point on the edge of the cross was a gateway into the city. Connecting to these main roads were smaller roads, the streets where people lived.

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describes a ship powered by oxen. Wherein oxen are attached to a rotary, moving in a circle on a deck floor, spinning two paddle wheels, one on either side of the ship. The likelihood that such a ship was ever built is low, due to the impracticality of controlling animals on a watercraft.

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battles, the "sheer discipline and synchronization required to form a Testudo" was a testament to the abilities of legionnaires. Testudo, meaning tortoise in Latin, "was not the norm, but rather adopted in specific situations to deal with particular threats on the battlefield". The Greek

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mortar. Pozzolana is a volcanic clay substance located in and around Naples. The mixture ratio for the cement was two parts pozzolana and one part lime mortar. Due to its composition, pozzolana cement was able to form in water and has been found to be as hard as natural forming rock.

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were used for construction work and possibly to load and unload ships at their ports, although for the latter use there is according to the "present state of knowledge" still no evidence. Most cranes were capable of lifting about 6–7 tons of cargo, and according to a relief shown on

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were not unique, but the Romans were probably the first people to put ballistas on carts for better mobility on campaigns. On the battlefield, it is thought that they were used to pick off enemy leaders. There is one account of the use of artillery in battle from Tacitus, Histories

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was essential to the design of the Pantheon. The mortar used in the construction of the dome is made up of a mixture of lime and the volcanic powder known as pozzolana. The concrete is suited for use in constructing thick walls as it does not require to be completely dry to cure.

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mortar. Evidence for the use of the substance comes from the sagging of the structure's arches during construction, as a distinguishing feature of pozzolana mortar is the large amount of time it needs to cure. The engineers had to remove decorative walls to let the mortar cure.

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The preservation of skins with vegetable tannins was a pre-Roman invention but not of the antiquity once supposed. (Tawing was far more ancient.) The Romans were responsible for spreading this technology into areas where it was previously unknown such as Britain and

1540:, France dated c. 20 BC. The structure has entirely disappeared. Its existence attested from the cuts into the rock on either side to key in the dam wall, which was 14.7 metres high, 3.9m thick at base narrowing to 2.96m at the top. Earliest description of 1129:

napalm". Military strategists often put the weapon to good use during naval battles, and the ingredients to its construction "remained a closely guarded military secret". Despite this, the devastation caused by Greek fire in combat is indisputable.

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or warm room. In the moderate dry heat of the tepidarium, some performed warm-up exercises and stretched while others oiled themselves or had slaves oil them. The tepidarium's main purpose was to promote sweating to prepare for the next room, the

513:. Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface with only small portions above ground supported by arches. The longest Roman aqueduct, 178 kilometres (111 mi) in length, was traditionally assumed to be that which supplied the city of 418:

The construction of the Pantheon was a massive undertaking, requiring large quantities of resources and man-hours. Delaine estimates the amount of total manpower needed in the construction of the Pantheon to be about 400 000 man-days.

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The Romans developed a railed cargo system for transporting heavy loads. The rails consisted of grooves embedded into existing stone roadways. The carts used in such a system had large block axles and wooden wheels with metal casings.

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Grewe, Klaus (2009), "Die Reliefdarstellung einer antiken Steinsägemaschine aus Hierapolis in Phrygien und ihre Bedeutung für die Technikgeschichte. Internationale Konferenz 13.−16. Juni 2007 in Istanbul", in Bachmann, Martin (ed.),

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Shipmill, (though small, the conventional term is "shipmill" not boat mill, probably because there was always a deck, and usually an enclosed superstructure, to keep the flour away from the damp) where water wheels were attached to

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The Romans built dams to store water for irrigation. They understood that spillways were necessary to prevent the erosion of earth-packed banks. In Egypt, the Romans adopted the water technology known as wadi irrigation from the

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The most readily available sources of power to the ancients were human power and animal power. Mechanical devices were developed to assist in the manipulation of objects which exceeded human strength - one such device being the

3994: 633:. Wadis were a technique developed to capture large amounts of water produced during the seasonal floods and store it for the growing season. The Romans successfully developed the technique further for a larger scale. 485:

made of limestone that provided the city with over 1 million cubic metres of water each day, sufficient for 3.5 million people even in modern-day times, and with a combined length of 350 kilometres (220 mi).

448:

Although the Hagia Sophia was constructed after the fall of the Western empire, its construction incorporated the building materials and techniques signature to ancient Rome. The building was constructed using

609:, judging by the piles of slag found at this site in northern England. Tanks for holding water are also common along aqueduct systems, and numerous examples are known from just one site, the gold mines at 787:, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall and span length. They were most of the time at least 60 feet (18 m) above the body of water. 109:, the Romans used stone, wood, and marble as building materials. They used these materials to construct civil engineering projects for their cities and transportation devices for land and sea travel. 1819: 105:

its surrounding area contained various types of volcanic materials, which Romans experimented with in the creation of building materials, particularly cements and mortars. Along with

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a force to be reckoned with. They also used a rudimentary version of antiseptic surgery years before its use became popular in the 19th century and possessed very capable doctors.

259:

are among the few writers who have published technical information about Roman technology. There was a corpus of manuals on basic mathematics and science such as the many books by

870:, where streams or waves of water are released onto the hillside, first to reveal any gold-bearing ore, and then to work the ore itself. Rock debris could be sluiced away by 2026: 6735: 2956:

Rossi, Cesare, Thomas Chondros, G. Milidonis, Kypros Savino, and F. Russo (2016). "Ancient Road Transport Devices: Developments from the Bronze Age to the Roman Empire".

69:

was one of the most technologically advanced civilizations of antiquity, with some of the more advanced concepts and inventions forgotten during the turbulent eras of

589:, they appear to have built a dam across the river Sil to expose alluvial gold deposits in the bed of the river. The site is near the spectacular Roman gold mine of 517:. The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a sinuous route of more than 336 km. 4824: 3895: 956:, historians have records of "how the Romans threw their spears and then charged with swords". This tactic seemed to be common practice among Roman infantry. 520:

Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerances, and to a technological standard that was not to be equaled until modern times. Powered entirely by

220:

heat source for buildings, such as bath houses. Thermae were built with large windows facing southwest, the location of the Sun at the hottest time of day.

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the Romans used carts with high walls. Public transportation carts were also in use with some designed with sleeping accommodations for up to six people.

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Werner, Walter (1997), "The largest ship trackway in ancient times: the Diolkos of the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece, and early attempts to build a canal",

1898:". Recent archaeological evidence from Phrygia, Anatolia, now pushes back the date to the 3rd century AD and confirms the use of a crank in the sawmill. 4373: 3939:

Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications",

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Representations show lateen sails in the Mediterranean as early as the 2nd century AD. Both the quadrilateral and the triangular type were employed.

89:, not improved upon until the 19th century. The Romans achieved high levels of technology in large part because they borrowed technologies from the 2999: 2919: 2692: 2653: 2614: 2562: 645:

Roman baths in the English city of Bath. A temple was initially constructed on the site in 60 CE with the bathing complex being built up over time.

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A. Archontidou 2005 Un atelier de preparation de l'alun a partir de l'alunite dans l'isle de Lesbos in L'alun de Mediterranee ed P.Borgard et al.

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S. Agusta-Boularot et J-l. Paillet 1997 "le Barrage et l'Aqueduc occidental de Glanum: le premier barrage-vout de l'historire des techniques?"

1259:) is archaeologically attested on the island Lesbos. This site was abandoned in the 7th century but dates back at least to the 2nd century AD. 4711: 208:

Wind power was used in the operation of watercraft, through the use of sails. Windmills do not appear to have been created in ancient times.

149:

Human power was also a factor in the movement of ships, particularly warships. Though wind-powered sails were the dominant form of power in

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Castro, F.; Fonseca, N.; Vacas, T.; Ciciliot, F. (2008), "A Quantitative Look at Mediterranean Lateen- and Square-Rigged Ships (Part 1)",

5295: 5283: 1490:, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece with a 15 cm long handle is of yet unknown purpose and dates to no later than c. 250 AD. 927: 114: 6730: 5342: 4022: 524:, they transported very large amounts of water very efficiently. Sometimes, where depressions deeper than 50 metres had to be crossed, 673:

or hot room. The caldarium, unlike the tepidarium, was extremely humid and hot. Temperatures in the caldarium could reach 40 degrees

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By the late 3rd century AD, all essential elements for constructing a steam engine were known by Roman engineers: steam power (in

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Schnitter, Niklaus (1987a), "Verzeichnis geschichtlicher Talsperren bis Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.),

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M.J.T.Lewis presents good evidence that water powered vertical pounding machines came in by the middle of the 1st century AD for

85:; with some in areas such as civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and certain inventions such as the 1072:

a movable bridge that could attach itself to an enemy ship and allow the Romans to board the enemy vessel. Developed during the

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served hygienic, social and cultural functions. The baths contained three main facilities for bathing. After undressing in the

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An artificial reservoir, highly unusual in that it was meant for recreational rather than utilitarian purposes was created at

1945:), the cylinder and piston (in metal force pumps), non-return valves (in water pumps) and gearing (in water mills and clocks) 173:

Beyond the confines of the land, a schematic for a ship propelled by animals has been discovered. The work known as Anonymous

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were also needed in deep mining to remove waste debris and power primitive machines, as well as for washing the crushed ore.

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Greene, Kevin (2000), "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered",

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The Romans also made great use of aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire, some sites such as

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part lime. The lime for mortars was prepared in limekilns, which were underground pits designed to block out the wind.

2031:. Roman pewter had a wide range of proportions of tin but proportions of 50%, 75% and 95% predominate (Beagrie 1989). 1896:

the Ruwer sends mill-stones swiftly round to grind the corn, And drives shrill saw-blades through smooth marble blocks

1700:

Note, this material attests otherwise unknown chemistry (or other way?) to generate nano-scale gold-silver particles.

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which used ropes and pulleys to manipulate objects. The device was powered by multiple people pushing or pulling on

6570: 5243: 4892: 4819: 3914: 3169: 2391: 2070:-bladed (A much older innovation (e.g. Bible; I Samuel 13, 20–1) that became much more common in the Roman period) 17: 536:, a complex of water mills hailed as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world". 195: 4836: 4769: 4637: 4012:

Basch, Lucien (2001), "La voile latine, son origine, son évolution et ses parentés arabes", in Tzalas, H. (ed.),

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Zhmodikov, Alexander (5 September 2017). "Roman Republican Heavy Infantrymen in Battle (IV-II Centuries B.C.)".

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combined with an arch bridge, a multifunctional hydraulic structure which subsequently spread throughout Iran.

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The Band-i-Kaisar, constructed by Roman prisoners of war in Shustar, Persia, in the 3rd century AD, featured a

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Chandler, Fiona "The Usborne Internet Linked Encyclopedia of the Roman World", p. 80. Usborne Publishing 2001

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Note: there is no evidence of any combination of fore-and-aft rigs with square sails on the same Roman ship.

77:. Gradually, some of the technological feats of the Romans were rediscovered and/or improved upon during the 4522:

Schnitter, Niklaus (1987b), "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pfeilerstaumauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.),

2029: 982:). This segmented armour provided good protection for vital areas, but did not cover as much of the body as 6820: 6740: 5926: 5530: 4982: 4697: 3755: 2386: 2318:

Excavated from both ends simultaneously. The longest known is the 5.6-kilometre (3.5 mi) drain of the

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Schnitter, Niklaus (1987c), "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Bogenstaumauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.),

874:, and the water also used to douse fires created to break down the hard rock and veins, a method known as 6705: 6625: 6550: 6309: 5365: 5248: 4794: 2873: 2894:

Bruce, Alexandra. 2012: Science or Superstition: The Definitive Guide to the Doomsday Phenomenon, p. 26.

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Lewis, P. R., "The Ogofau Roman gold mines at Dolaucothi," The National Trust Year Book 1976–77 (1977).

3759:, vol. 92, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–32, 1395:

More than a dozen Roman bridges are known to feature segmental (=flat) arches. A prominent example was

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and many more are known across the Empire, some of which are still in use. At one site, Montefurado in

529: 46:

is the collection of techniques, skills, methods, processes, and engineering practices which supported

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to draw upon for technical information, it is theorized that tradesmen kept their knowledge a secret.

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Vogel, Alexius (1987), "Die historische Entwicklung der Gewichtsmauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.),

2240: 1137: 3478:

C-H Wunderlich "Light and economy: an essay about the economy of pre-historic and ancient lamps" in

39:(1st century AD), over the Gardon in southern France, is one of the masterpieces of Roman technology 6800: 6795: 6720: 6206: 6116: 5605: 5600: 5585: 5538: 5478: 5433: 5235: 2374: 2270:(Severan Marble Plan), a carved marble ground plan of every architectural feature in ancient Rome. 1182: 1069: 936:

The Roman military technology ranged from personal equipment and armament to deadly siege engines.

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The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water. The city of Rome itself was supplied by

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Livingston, R (1993). "Materials Analysis Of The Masonry Of The Hagia Sophia Basilica, Istanbul".

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or cold room, which offered a cold bath for cooling off after the caldarium. The Romans also had

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Tropis VI, 6th International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Lamia 1996 proceedings

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in north-west Spain having at least 7 major channels entering the minehead. Other sites such as

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Roman Mining at Dolaucothi: the Implications of the 1991–3 Excavations near the Carreg Pumsaint

2279: 1380: 1048: 4239: 4232: 3817:

Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), "Railways in the Greek and Roman world", in Guy, A.; Rees, J. (eds.),

779:(broken bridge) is the oldest Roman stone bridge in Rome, Italy. The biggest Roman bridge was 741:

The roads were constructed by digging a pit along the length of the intended course, often to

6770: 6677: 6590: 6520: 6344: 6096: 5896: 5891: 5688: 5595: 5520: 5483: 5468: 5443: 5423: 5325: 2993: 2226: 1911: 1869: 1052: 762: 678: 4033: 3820:

Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference

3490:

C. van Driel-Murray Ancient skin processing and the impact of Rome on tanning technology in

2937: 2579:(ed.): Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800–1400, Berlin 2001 (4th ed.), pp. 345–48 (345) 795: 677:(104 degrees Fahrenheit). Many contained steam baths and a cold-water fountain known as the 543: 528:

were used to force water uphill. An aqueduct also supplied water for the overshot wheels at

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34, 160–1). Surviving examples are mainly Romano-British of the 3rd and 4th centuries e.g.

902:. That they used water mills on a large scale elsewhere is attested by the flour mills at 8: 6830: 6750: 6530: 6379: 6181: 6051: 6001: 5320: 4917: 3969:

Jones G. D. B., I. J. Blakey, and E. C. F. MacPherson, "Dolaucothi: the Roman aqueduct,"

2366: 1970: 1880:

western Mediterranean. Animal and water powered rotary mills came in the 3rd century BC.

1331: 1040: 494: 4399: 4265: 4179: 4125: 4093: 3871: 2969: 2826: 976:), the Romans perfected a relatively light, full torso armour made of segmented plates ( 799: 6580: 6304: 6111: 5966: 5906: 5826: 5769: 5633: 4869: 4848: 4583: 4575: 4379: 4277: 4191: 4137: 4105: 4016:, Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition, pp. 55–85 3976:

Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, "The Dolaucothi gold mines, I: the surface evidence,"

3956: 3879: 3776: 3768: 3044: 2981: 2913: 2834: 2686: 2647: 2608: 2556: 2308: 2236: 2113: 2081: 2022: 1942: 1934: 1726: 1711: 1506: 1396: 1278: 895: 780: 384: 369: 288: 276: 275:

and so on. Not all of the manuals which were available to the Romans have survived, as

268: 234: 120:

In addition to military engineering, the Romans also made significant contributions to

47: 6219: 4453:"Historical Development of Arch Dams. From Roman Arch Dams to Modern Concrete Designs" 1426:

The harnessing of camels to ploughs is attested in North Africa by the 3rd century AD

6710: 6214: 6066: 5821: 5781: 5759: 4967: 4677: 4617: 4599: 4587: 4545: 4527: 4509: 4477: 4438: 4416: 4295: 4281: 4273: 4243: 4207: 4195: 4187: 4157: 4141: 4133: 4116:

Friedman, Zaraza; Zoroglu, Levent (2006), "Kelenderis Ship. Square or Lateen Sail?",

4101: 4071: 3960: 3904: 3843: 3780: 3564: 2985: 2874:"Knossos Ancient Village / Settlement / Misc. Earthwork – The Modern Antiquarian.com" 2853: 2672: 2633: 2594: 2520: 2490: 2445: 2420: 2267: 2004: 1833: 1656: 1612: 1480: 1416: 1415:

era, the earliest known bridge featuring a pointed arch is the 5th or 6th century AD

1284: 1178: 1005: 978: 476: 292: 175: 86: 74: 4430: 4109: 489: 165: 6765: 6725: 6279: 6239: 6171: 6106: 6031: 6026: 5798: 5721: 5668: 5463: 5458: 5347: 5206: 5155: 5115: 5085: 5080: 5075: 5065: 4987: 4934: 4927: 4912: 4907: 4831: 4759: 4567: 4269: 4183: 4129: 4097: 3948: 3875: 3792: 3760: 2973: 2830: 2130: 1769: 1626: 1570: 1556: 867: 837: 307: 4437:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 331–339, 3108: 1026: 815:

The bearings decreased rotational friction by using mud to lubricate stone rings.

199:

Reconstruction of Hero of Alexandria's steam machine the Aeolipile, 1st century CE

6715: 6374: 6186: 6166: 6126: 6061: 6011: 6006: 5881: 5831: 5739: 5573: 5553: 5473: 4922: 4747: 4452: 4287: 4154:

The Economic History of Byzantium. From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century

3903:, Byzas, vol. 9, Istanbul: Ege Yayınları/Zero Prod. Ltd., pp. 429–454, 2380: 2110: 2078: 2018: 1775: 1754: 1723: 1708: 1620: 1487: 1431: 1073: 891: 802:

constructed in 104 to 106 CE, was built in a similar in style to Trajan's Bridge.

586: 525: 252: 3734: 2333:

Heliogabalus 29. As this is fiction, the evidence dates to its time of writing.

550:

was constructed during the first to second century CE and is still in use today.

6429: 6071: 5806: 5754: 5726: 5673: 5658: 5638: 5453: 5428: 5385: 5375: 5201: 5175: 5105: 5090: 5055: 5015: 4776: 4256:

Whitewright, Julian (2009), "The Mediterranean Lateen Sail in Late Antiquity",

4149: 2255: 2201: 2040: 1998: 1852:

on the Nile. In both places this technology was lost when the Romans withdrew.

1641: 1496: 1441: 1384: 1292: 1155: 547: 472: 411: 389: 233:

The generation of power through steam remained theoretical in the Roman world.

106: 90: 70: 4356: 4330: 3952: 2977: 1783: 1762: 1607: 1562: 6855: 5961: 5931: 5846: 5380: 5357: 5170: 5025: 5010: 4957: 4764: 4671: 4063: 4051: 3827: 2207: 1680: 1600: 1566: 1445: 1400: 1022: 984: 772: 594: 217: 117:

for foot soldiers, cavalry, and siege weapons for land and sea environments.

51: 4400:"Dams from the Roman Era in Spain. Analysis of Design Forms (with Appendix)" 3796: 964: 6439: 6299: 5744: 5693: 5648: 5643: 5495: 5305: 5191: 5135: 5130: 4902: 4786: 4720: 4004:

A.H.V. Smith, "Provenance of Coals from Roman Sites in England and Wales",

2576: 2048: 1955:. Improvements upon earlier models. For the largest mill complex known see 1928: 1829: 1694: 1590: 1374: 1301: 1264: 1216: 1013:

and other Roman formations were a source of inspiration for this maneuver.

875: 841: 758: 704:

was the use of wooden benches over stone, as wood conducts away less heat.

686: 618: 570: 506: 437: 428: 402: 66: 59: 36: 3983:

Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain,"

1892: 1068:

In addition to innovations in land warfare, the Romans also developed the

712: 6234: 5856: 5678: 5568: 4962: 2338: 2319: 2248: 2152: 2093: 1981: 1919: 1738: 1541: 1522: 973: 899: 847: 682: 661: 598: 590: 510: 433: 364: 238:

and maintain the heat of the device would have come at too great a cost.

189: 78: 6646: 2850:

The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World

2784:

J. Crow 2007 "Earth, walls and water in Late Antique Constantinople" in

2235:, spiral staircases only become more widespread after their adoption in 1837: 302: 6775: 6459: 6399: 6364: 6156: 6091: 6081: 5976: 5861: 5749: 5332: 5300: 5045: 4972: 4804: 4799: 4579: 3966:

Oliver Davies, "Roman Mines in Europe", Clarendon Press (Oxford), 1935.

3772: 3701: : Moretti, Giuseppe, d. 1945. Roma : La Libreria dello stato 3048: 2166: 2144: 1849: 1790: 1779: 1758: 1669: 1537: 1366: 1194: 1193:

unit, a move that paired with their contributions to medicine made the

1123: 1076:

it allowed them to apply their experience in land warfare on the seas.

851: 728: 716: 665: 630: 610: 574: 533: 373: 260: 82: 4689: 6489: 6484: 6444: 6369: 6339: 6319: 6196: 6136: 6046: 5996: 5991: 5916: 5876: 5764: 5734: 5543: 5418: 5211: 5095: 5070: 4949: 2232: 2140: 1952: 1938: 1809: 1803: 1730: 1545: 1472: 1412: 1296: 1270: 1108: 911: 894:

provides a detailed description of gold mining in book xxxiii of his

767:

Roman bridges were built with stone and/or concrete and utilized the

670: 450: 352: 264: 256: 248: 153:, rowing was often used by military craft during battle engagements. 143: 94: 4571: 3842:, vol. 1, Treviso: Edizioni Canova, pp. 92, 93 (fig. 39), 3804:

A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900.

3764: 6449: 6434: 6424: 6409: 6324: 6314: 6284: 6274: 6269: 6259: 6161: 6076: 5956: 5941: 5871: 5851: 5841: 5836: 5816: 5615: 5196: 5160: 5050: 4977: 4809: 1989: 1956: 1796: 1549: 1531: 1502: 1466: 1200: 1085: 1044: 953: 903: 606: 602: 514: 441: 139: 3723: 6469: 6464: 6454: 6419: 6414: 6404: 6349: 6334: 6151: 6146: 6131: 6101: 6056: 6036: 6016: 5971: 5703: 5558: 5337: 5145: 5140: 5030: 2760:

Forman, Joan "The Romans", p. 34. Macdonald Educational Ltd. 1975

1964: 1861: 1748: 1510: 1346: 1324: 1305: 1010: 871: 863: 742: 698: 674: 656: 651: 521: 315: 32: 4683: 3369: 3367: 3242: 3081:"10 Incredible Roman Military Innovations You Should Know About" 2084:

18. 171–3) (More important for the Middle Ages, than this era.)

6479: 6359: 6289: 6229: 6224: 6191: 5951: 5936: 5886: 5866: 5288: 5165: 5060: 2185: 2176:

See image for something very close to being a sternpost rudder

2143:, this last already attested in 2nd century BC in the northern 2136: 2100: 2056: 2012: 1514: 1462: 907: 272: 27:

Technological accomplishments of the ancient Roman civilization

3152:. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 17–35. 2955: 2231:

Though first attested as early as the 5th century BC in Greek

6264: 5986: 5713: 5005: 4219:

Toby, A.Steven "Another look at the Copenhagen Sarcophagus",

4170:

Pomey, Patrice (2006), "The Kelenderis Ship: A Lateen Sail",

3364: 3015:"HOW Hard Does It Hit? A Study of Atlatl and Dart Ballistics" 2218: 2051:(50 m), and in the world until its destruction in 1305. 1362: 1349:

in the 1st century AD. Held many advantages over the scroll.

1339: 1029: 949: 855: 614: 582: 98: 1094: 597:, including a well-preserved example from Roman Lanchester, 6474: 6041: 5981: 5563: 4939: 2067: 2044: 1907: 1634: 1582: 1358: 1313: 1226: 915: 886: 882: 859: 768: 622: 578: 566: 327: 326:

The Romans created fireproof wood by coating the wood with

311: 4083: 3675: 3227:

ed L. Lavan E.Zanini & A. Sarantis Brill, Leiden; p200

3223:

Giannichedda 2007 "Metal production in Late Antiquity" in

5035: 4339:], translated by R. H. Rodgers, University of Vermont 4032:, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1–23, archived from 3811:

A History of Invention From Stone Axes to Silicon Chips.

2788:

in ed. L.Lavan, E.Zanini & A. Sarantis Brill, Leiden

2768: 2766: 2721: 1887:

Sawmill, water powered. Recorded by 370 AD. Attested in

866:

high above the present opencast. The water was used for

3712:

The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World

2444:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 707–710. 2419:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 260–266. 4352: 4204:

The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204

2903: 2763: 2671:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 173. 2632:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 126. 2593:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 102. 2519:. Canada: Oxford University Press. pp. 355–375. 297: 4616:, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 47–56, 4544:, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 75–96, 4526:, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 57–74, 3885:

Neil Beagrie, "The Romano-British Pewter Industry",

3574: 3437:"10 Ancient Roman Inventions That Will Surprise You" 2813:

Smith, Norman (1978). "Roman Hydraulic Technology".

2575:

Michael Matheus: "Mittelalterliche Hafenkräne," in:

2356: 188:

Power from water was generated through the use of a

4558:Smith, Norman (1970), "The Roman Dams of Subiaco", 4508:, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 9–20, 4429:Hodge, A. Trevor (2000), "Reservoirs and Dams", in 4404:1st International Congress on Construction History 4375:

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3753:(2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", 3150:

Technology and Culture in Greek and Roman Antiquity

2588: 1808:A floor and also wall heating system. Described by 4491:Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), "Römische Talsperren", 4292:Mechanical Technology of Greek and Roman Antiquity 4234:Medieval Religion and Technology. Collected Essays 4231: 3938: 3519: 3503: 3248: 3196: 2852:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 261. 2329:Solely attested by a Latin word in 4th century AD 1941:), the crank and connecting rod mechanism (in the 601:, where it may have been used in industrial-scale 4397: 4258:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4172:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4118:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4086:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 3859:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 3424: 3373: 2733: 2442:Engineering and Technology in the Classical World 2417:Engineering and Technology in the Classical World 6853: 3230: 2589:Marder, Tod A., and, Wilson Jones, Mark (2014). 2551:. New York: Macmillan Company. pp. 397–408. 2546: 2047:(54–68 AD). The dam remained the highest in the 1201:Technologies developed or invented by the Romans 972:While heavy, intricate armour was not uncommon ( 4202:Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006), 4156:, vol. 2, Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 89–99, 4115: 3897:Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien 3802:Derry, Thomas Kingston and Trevor I. Williams. 3651: 2908:. New York: Macmillan Company. pp. 366–76. 2906:The Technical Arts and Sciences of the Ancients 2791: 2549:The Technical Arts and Sciences of the Ancients 1868:) and ore crushing (archaeological evidence at 1743:A water organ. Later also the pneumatic organ. 621:for providing a reliable water supply from the 497:in modern-day Spain, constructed 1st century CE 282: 4174:, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 326–335, 4120:, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 108–116, 4088:, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 347–359, 3214:R.W.Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel 1975; 197 2904:Neuburger, Albert and, Brose, Henry L (1930). 2489:. London: Chatto & Windus. pp. 9–32. 2196:An innovation of about the mid-1st century AD 664:or changing room, Romans would proceed to the 6662: 4705: 4398:Arenillas, Miguel; Castillo, Juan C. (2003), 4358:Water and Wastewater Systems in Imperial Rome 4260:, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 97–104, 4221:International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4201: 3663: 3336: 3334: 3137:. Barnes & Noble Publishing. p. 167. 2666: 2627: 2547:Neubuger, Albert, and Brose, Henry L (1930). 223: 4450: 4371: 4230:(1978), "The Diffusion of the Lateen Sail", 4054:(1954), "The Sails of the Ancient Mariner", 3791:, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 29–59, 3420: 3359: 3344: 2998:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2918:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2727: 2691:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2652:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2613:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2561:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 734:(50,000 mi) of which were stone-paved. 505:The main aqueducts in Ancient Rome were the 4467: 4337:On the water management of the city of Rome 4255: 4238:, University of California Press, pp. 4058:, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 214–219 3933:Grainmills and Flour in Classical Antiquity 3687: 3236: 2669:The Pantheon: From Antiquity to the Present 2630:The Pantheon: From Antiquity to the Present 2591:The Pantheon: From Antiquity to the Present 1486:A Roman iron crank handle was excavated in 1399:over the Danube, a lesser known the extant 1168:Surgical instruments used by ancient Romans 1136:Depiction of a Roman pontoon bridge on the 928:Technological history of the Roman military 6669: 6655: 4712: 4698: 4539: 4521: 4503: 4482:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3513: 3416: 3384: 3340: 3331: 3317: 3313: 3276: 3272: 2708: 2667:Marder, Tod A, Wilson Jones, Mark (2014). 2628:Marder, Tod A, Wilson Jones, Mark (2014). 2307:e.g. beside the Danube, see the "road" in 1910:, was first recorded at Rome in 547 AD in 581:. They built 72 dams in just one country, 306:Reconstruction of a 10.4-metre-high Roman 6676: 4490: 4457:Australian Civil Engineering Transactions 4353:"International Water History Association" 4350: 4068:Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World 3837: 3561:Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World 3465:54.3 pp. 299–304 The identity of Pliny's 3412: 3309: 3268: 3202: 3037:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 3034: 2847: 2772: 2711:WIT Transactions on the Built Environment 2414: 2221:(earlier, potassium, soap being Celtic). 2135:Introduction of fore-and-aft rigs 1) the 1828:The best surviving examples are those at 1561:Examples include curved dams at Orükaya, 1028:and is believed to have been copied from 862:, all leading to reservoirs and tanks or 351:Another type of Roman mortar is known as 4598:, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, 4451:James, Patrick; Chanson, Hubert (2002), 4020: 3806:New York : Dover Publications, 1993 3615: 3170:"10 Innovations That Built Ancient Rome" 3012: 1615:, Spain (1st century AD) earliest known 1163: 1131: 1093: 1079: 963: 822: 794: 711: 640: 542: 488: 432: 383: 301: 241: 194: 164: 31: 4719: 3971:Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 3826:, pp. 8–19 (10–15), archived from 3813:New York, New York, Facts on File, 2000 3167: 3163: 3161: 3159: 2514: 2484: 1436:Probably a Hellenistic innovation e.g. 1357:The Romans had enough understanding of 50:and made possible the expansion of the 14: 6854: 4315:, University of California Press, 1978 4147: 4062: 4050: 3855: 3786: 3749: 3724:Stanford University: Forma Urbis Romae 3639: 3592: 3580: 3563:. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 3132: 3079:M, Dattatreya; al (11 November 2016). 3074: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3060: 3058: 2797: 2704: 2702: 2465:10 Innovations That Built Ancient Rome 2439: 2165:Archaeologically attested in the Lake 921: 898:, most of which has been confirmed by 783:over the lower Danube, constructed by 593:. Several earthen dams are known from 6650: 4693: 4611: 4593: 4557: 4428: 4410: 4325: 4226: 4169: 4011: 3892: 3816: 3627: 3603: 3547: 3535: 3531: 3507: 3400: 3388: 3355: 3325: 3321: 3284: 3280: 3264: 3252: 3147: 3103: 3101: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2812: 2808: 2806: 2739: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2472: 2299:From archaeological evidence in Gaul 1172: 4435:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology 3492:Le Travail du cuir de la prehistoire 3156: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2536: 1660:used in the perfume industry (Pliny 1654:A product of salt evaporation ponds 169:Schematic of an Overshot water wheel 4148:Makris, George (2002), "Ships", in 3225:Technology in Transition AD 300–650 3078: 3055: 3013:Hrdlicka, Daryl (29 October 2004). 2958:Frontiers of Mechanical Engineering 2786:Technology in Transition AD 300–650 2699: 2517:Themes in Roman Society and Culture 2007:(possibly only a paper invention). 1599:in Spain, like the 600 m long 1144: 24: 4413:Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply 4308:, London: The Penguin Press, 1970 4294:, Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd, 1963 4070:, Johns Hopkins University Press, 4023:"The Lateen Sail in World History" 4008:, Vol. 28 (1997), pp. 297–324 3973:19 (1960): 71–84 and plates III-V. 3880:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1997.tb01322.x 3742: 3699:Il Museo delle navi romane di Nemi 3168:Andrews, Evan (20 November 2012). 3098: 2942: 2835:10.1038/scientificamerican0578-154 2803: 2503: 2469: 2181:Sausage, fermented dry (probably) 1440:but taken up by the Emperors e.g. 577:, one of the largest aqueducts of 569:for water collection, such as the 298:Building materials and instruments 25: 6883: 6816:History of electrical engineering 4631: 3889:, Vol. 20 (1989), pp. 169–91 2936:. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 2002. 2533: 1149: 885:deposits could be worked and the 707: 561:List of Roman dams and reservoirs 269:Heron (a.k.a. Hero of Alexandria) 127: 4322:, Cornell University Press, 1984 4313:Engineering in the Ancient World 4274:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2008.00213.x 4188:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00111.x 4134:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00091.x 4102:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2008.00183.x 3520:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007 3504:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007 3249:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007 2487:Engineering in the Ancient World 2392:Maritime hydraulics in antiquity 2359: 1565:, both Turkey (and 2nd century) 1102: 1035: 4306:Technology in the Ancient World 3728: 3717: 3704: 3692: 3681: 3669: 3657: 3645: 3633: 3621: 3609: 3597: 3586: 3553: 3541: 3525: 3497: 3484: 3472: 3455: 3429: 3406: 3394: 3378: 3349: 3303: 3290: 3258: 3217: 3208: 3187: 3141: 3135:Technology in the Ancient World 3126: 3028: 3006: 2926: 2897: 2888: 2866: 2841: 2778: 2754: 2745: 2660: 1501:Found in several water-powered 939: 422: 396: 156: 6689:History of technology cultures 3480:Nouveautes lychnologiques 2003 2621: 2582: 2569: 2458: 2433: 2408: 2397:Science in classical antiquity 1675:See image of pointable nozzle 1231:The production of alum (KAl(SO 692: 617:. Masonry dams were common in 228: 211: 183: 132: 13: 1: 6836:History of nuclear technology 6811:History of computing hardware 6789:History of technology domains 4372:Rihll, T.E. (11 April 2007), 4206:, Brill Academic Publishers, 3425:Arenillas & Castillo 2003 3374:Arenillas & Castillo 2003 3239:, pp. 51–52, 56, fig. 42 2934:The Great Armies of Antiquity 2717:: 20–26 – via ProQuest. 2402: 2331:Scriptores Historiae Augustae 2105:An early harvesting machine: 1117: 1098:Computer model of a helepolis 827:Rosia Montana Roman Gold Mine 818: 636: 461: 216:The Romans used the Sun as a 203: 6821:History of materials science 5284:Frontiers and fortifications 4662:Resources in other libraries 4470:Führer durch Augusta Raurica 4468:Laur-Belart, Rudolf (1988), 3941:Journal of Roman Archaeology 3838:Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995), 3756:The Journal of Roman Studies 3735:BBC: Tooth and nail dentures 3419:, pp. 60, table 1, 62; 2387:List of Byzantine inventions 1536:Currently best attested for 466: 379: 283:Engineering and construction 7: 5343:Decorations and punishments 3980:, 49, no. 2 (1969): 244–72. 3789:The Economic History Review 3652:Friedman & Zoroglu 2006 2352: 1686:hypothesised as oil lamps. 1608:Dam, Multiple Arch Buttress 1573:in Spain (2nd–3rd century) 1457:innovation may be revised. 944: 10: 6888: 6867:Ancient Rome-related lists 6250:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4825:historiography of the fall 4686:– Roman concrete buildings 4320:Greek and Roman Technology 3928:, University of Hull Press 3710:H Schneider Technology in 2876:. Themodernantiquarian.com 1505:dating from the late 3rd ( 1365:denomination coinage; see 1187: 1176: 1153: 1121: 1106: 1083: 1016: 1000: 932:Roman military engineering 925: 835: 756: 752: 726: 696: 558: 470: 426: 400: 342: 286: 224:Theoretical types of power 6784: 6684: 6631:External wars and battles 6498: 6392: 6205: 5797: 5790: 5712: 5624: 5529: 5404: 5356: 5234: 5184: 5123: 5114: 4996: 4948: 4868: 4785: 4755: 4746: 4728: 4680:– With pictorial evidence 4657:Resources in your library 4411:Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), 4332:De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae 3953:10.1017/S1047759400005341 3664:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2978:10.1007/s11465-015-0358-6 2515:Nikolic, Milorad (2014). 2485:Landels, John G. (1978). 2241:Column of Marcus Aurelius 1891:poem Mosella. Translated 1795:Mentioned in a letter of 1693:Dichroic glass as in the 1411:Constructed in the early 1323:Bath, monumental public ( 1138:Column of Marcus Aurelius 959: 858:was fed by at least five 831: 625:behind many settlements. 359: 81:and the beginning of the 6872:Ancient Roman technology 6862:Technology-related lists 6801:History of communication 6796:History of biotechnology 4030:Journal of World History 3985:Journal of Roman Studies 3421:James & Chanson 2002 3360:James & Chanson 2002 3345:James & Chanson 2002 3283:, p. 82, table 39; 2848:Lancaster, Lynn (2008). 2415:Lancaster, Lynn (2008). 2375:Ancient Greek technology 1544:in such types of dam by 1509:) to 6th century AD (at 1183:Medicine in ancient Rome 1070:corvus (boarding device) 790: 722: 681:. The last room was the 392:, constructed 113–125 AD 333: 146:attached to a cylinder. 44:Ancient Roman technology 6626:Roman–Iranian relations 5101:Optimates and populares 4674:– Horse, harness, wagon 4327:Sextus Julius Frontinus 4021:Campbell, I.C. (1995), 3978:The Antiquaries Journal 3797:10.1111/1468-0289.00151 3559:Casson, Lionel (1995). 2131:Sails, fore-and-aft rig 1977:Newspaper, rudimentary 1864:, grain hulling (Pliny 1816:Knife, multifunctional 1719:Greenhouse cold frames 1629:in the 1st century AD. 1392:Bridge, segmental arch 785:Apollodorus of Damascus 771:. Built in 142 BC, the 554: 321: 6826:History of measurement 6696:Prehistoric technology 6636:Civil wars and revolts 5902:Sextus Pompeius Festus 5549:Conflict of the Orders 4908:Legislative assemblies 4672:Roman Traction Systems 4614:Historische Talsperren 4594:Smith, Norman (1971), 4560:Technology and Culture 4542:Historische Talsperren 4524:Historische Talsperren 4506:Historische Talsperren 3133:Hodges, Henry (1992). 2326:Vehicles, one wheeled 2280:Theodosius of Bithynia 2173:Rudder, stern-mounted 1597:a number of Roman dams 1381:Roman Bridge of Chaves 1169: 1141: 1099: 1066: 1025:saddle had four horns 969: 828: 803: 719: 646: 551: 498: 445: 393: 318: 200: 170: 40: 6771:Industrial Revolution 6678:History of technology 6345:Simplicius of Cilicia 6097:Quintus Curtius Rufus 5326:Siege in Ancient Rome 4935:Executive magistrates 4678:Roman Horse Harnesses 4472:(5th ed.), Augst 4415:, London: Duckworth, 4223:1974 vol.3.2: 205–211 3924:Lewis, M.J.T., 1997, 3522:, p. 156, fn. 74 2440:Davies, Gwyn (2008). 2296:Tooth implants, iron 2043:, Italy, for emperor 1912:Procopius of Caesarea 1870:Dolaucothi Gold Mines 1408:Bridge, pointed arch 1177:Further information: 1167: 1154:Further information: 1135: 1122:Further information: 1107:Further information: 1097: 1084:Further information: 1080:Ballistas and onagers 1058: 967: 926:Further information: 836:Further information: 826: 798: 763:List of Roman bridges 757:Further information: 715: 697:Further information: 644: 546: 492: 471:Further information: 436: 427:Further information: 401:Further information: 387: 305: 287:Further information: 242:Technology as a craft 198: 168: 115:military technologies 35: 6841:History of transport 6806:History of computing 6355:Stephanus Byzantinus 6260:Eusebius of Caesaria 6122:Sidonius Apollinaris 5812:Ammianus Marcellinus 5151:Tribune of the plebs 3993:Barry C. Burnham, " 3931:Moritz, L.A., 1958, 3926:Millstone and Hammer 3809:Williams, Trevor I. 3441:www.thecollector.com 3328:, p. 332, fn. 2 3287:, p. 332, fn. 2 2932:Gabriel, Richard A. 2345:Nat. Hist. 16. 231–2 2287:Surgical instruments 2214:Soap, hard (sodium) 1922:was besieged there. 1672:used in fire engine 1438:Cup of the Ptolemies 1243:O) from alunite (KAl 1140:, constructed 193 CE 444:, constructed 537 AD 151:water transportation 122:medical technologies 6831:History of medicine 6531:Distinguished women 6182:Velleius Paterculus 6022:Nicolaus Damascenus 6002:Marcellus Empiricus 5391:Republican currency 4266:2009IJNAr..38...97W 4180:2006IJNAr..35..326P 4126:2006IJNAr..35..108F 4094:2008IJNAr..37..347C 3872:1997IJNAr..26...98W 3298:Revue Archeologique 3174:The History Channel 2970:2016FrME...11...12R 2827:1978SciAm.238e.154S 2815:Scientific American 2367:Ancient Rome portal 2217:First mentioned by 1971:Horses of San Marco 1625:First mentioned by 1548:around 560 AD, the 1345:First mentioned by 1332:Baths of Diocletian 1041:Roman siege engines 922:Military technology 573:, two of which fed 62:(753 BC – 476 AD). 6305:Phlegon of Tralles 6112:Seneca the Younger 5586:Naming conventions 5316:Personal equipment 4849:Later Roman Empire 4380:Swansea University 4001:28 (1997), 325–336 3987:60 (1970): 169–85. 3676:Castro et al. 2008 3666:, pp. 153–161 3654:, pp. 113–114 3583:, pp. 243–245 3510:, pp. 429–454 3461:I. Longhurst 2007 3267:, pp. 33–35; 3255:, pp. 429–454 3148:Cuomo, S. (2007). 2837:– via JSTOR. 2275:Sundial, portable 2263:Street map, early 2114:Naturalis Historia 2082:Naturalis Historia 2023:Naturalis Historia 1999:Paddle wheel boats 1943:Hierapolis sawmill 1927:Essentials of the 1727:Naturalis Historia 1712:Naturalis Historia 1507:Hierapolis sawmill 1279:Apartment building 1173:Medical technology 1170: 1142: 1100: 988:or chainmail. The 970: 968:Roman scale armour 896:Naturalis Historia 829: 804: 720: 647: 552: 499: 446: 394: 319: 308:construction crane 289:Roman architecture 235:Hero of Alexandria 201: 171: 48:Roman civilization 41: 6849: 6848: 6644: 6643: 6606:Pontifices maximi 6388: 6387: 6245:Diogenes Laërtius 6067:Pliny the Younger 5822:Asconius Pedianus 5782:Romance languages 5654:Civil engineering 5396:Imperial currency 5269:Political control 5230: 5229: 4864: 4863: 4638:Library resources 4596:A History of Dams 4351:Roger D. Hansen, 4213:978-90-04-15197-0 4150:Laiou, Angeliki E 3910:978-975-8072-23-1 3833:on 7 October 2009 3534:, pp. 60f.; 3469:and Roman Perfume 3358:, pp. 35f.; 3109:"Corvus – Livius" 2350: 2349: 2268:Forma Urbis Romae 2089:Pottery, glossed 2005:de Rebus Bellicis 1918:(1.19.8–29) when 1834:Tower of Hercules 1778:and confirmed at 1757:and confirmed at 1657:Dunaliella salina 1613:Esparragalejo Dam 1557:Dam, Arch-gravity 1538:the dam at Glanum 1523:Crane, treadwheel 1417:Karamagara Bridge 1375:Bridge, true arch 1179:Military medicine 995:lorica segmentata 993:armour even when 990:lorica segmentata 979:lorica segmentata 738:relay of horses. 565:The Romans built 477:Aqueduct (bridge) 293:Roman engineering 176:De rebus bellicis 87:mechanical reaper 75:early Middle Ages 16:(Redirected from 6879: 6766:Great Divergence 6671: 6664: 6657: 6648: 6647: 6596:Magistri equitum 6511:Cities and towns 6504: 6430:Constantinopolis 6240:Diodorus Siculus 6172:Valerius Maximus 6107:Seneca the Elder 6027:Nonius Marcellus 5795: 5794: 5348:Hippika gymnasia 5311:Infantry tactics 5217:Consular tribune 5207:Magister equitum 5156:Military tribune 5121: 5120: 5081:Pontifex maximus 5076:Princeps senatus 5066:Magister militum 4832:Byzantine Empire 4753: 4752: 4714: 4707: 4700: 4691: 4690: 4643:Roman technology 4626: 4608: 4590: 4554: 4536: 4518: 4500: 4487: 4481: 4473: 4464: 4447: 4425: 4407: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4386:on 20 March 2008 4382:, archived from 4368: 4367: 4365: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4304:Hodges, Henry., 4288:Drachmann, A. G. 4284: 4252: 4237: 4216: 4198: 4166: 4144: 4112: 4080: 4059: 4047: 4046: 4044: 4039:on 4 August 2016 4038: 4027: 4017: 3963: 3921: 3919: 3913:, archived from 3902: 3882: 3852: 3834: 3832: 3825: 3799: 3783: 3737: 3732: 3726: 3721: 3715: 3714:2007; p. 157 CUP 3708: 3702: 3696: 3690: 3688:Whitewright 2009 3685: 3679: 3673: 3667: 3661: 3655: 3649: 3643: 3637: 3631: 3630:, pp. 63–64 3625: 3619: 3613: 3607: 3601: 3595: 3590: 3584: 3578: 3572: 3557: 3551: 3545: 3539: 3529: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3501: 3495: 3488: 3482: 3476: 3470: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3433: 3427: 3410: 3404: 3398: 3392: 3391:, pp. 337f. 3382: 3376: 3371: 3362: 3353: 3347: 3338: 3329: 3307: 3301: 3294: 3288: 3262: 3256: 3246: 3240: 3237:Laur-Belart 1988 3234: 3228: 3221: 3215: 3212: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3191: 3185: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3165: 3154: 3153: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3105: 3096: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3085:Realm of History 3076: 3053: 3052: 3032: 3026: 3025: 3019: 3010: 3004: 3003: 2997: 2989: 2953: 2940: 2930: 2924: 2923: 2917: 2909: 2901: 2895: 2892: 2886: 2885: 2883: 2881: 2870: 2864: 2863: 2845: 2839: 2838: 2810: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2782: 2776: 2770: 2761: 2758: 2752: 2749: 2743: 2737: 2731: 2728:GRST-engineering 2725: 2719: 2718: 2706: 2697: 2696: 2690: 2682: 2664: 2658: 2657: 2651: 2643: 2625: 2619: 2618: 2612: 2604: 2586: 2580: 2573: 2567: 2566: 2560: 2552: 2544: 2531: 2530: 2512: 2501: 2500: 2482: 2467: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2437: 2431: 2430: 2412: 2369: 2364: 2363: 2362: 2227:Spiral staircase 2206:See for example 2162:Roller bearings 1866:Nat. Hist. 18,97 1844:Leather, Tanned 1770:Hydraulic mining 1733:on Ag. 11.3.52) 1662:Nat. Hist. 31,90 1627:Cornelius Celsus 1571:Puy Foradado Dam 1569:in Tunisia, and 1205: 1204: 868:hydraulic mining 838:Roman metallurgy 800:Alcántara Bridge 717:Via Appia antica 526:inverted siphons 495:Segovia Aqueduct 483:eleven aqueducts 388:The dome of the 21: 18:Roman technology 6887: 6886: 6882: 6881: 6880: 6878: 6877: 6876: 6852: 6851: 6850: 6845: 6780: 6751:Medieval Europe 6680: 6675: 6645: 6640: 6502: 6500: 6494: 6384: 6220:Aëtius of Amida 6201: 6187:Verrius Flaccus 6167:Valerius Antias 6127:Silius Italicus 6062:Pliny the Elder 6007:Marcus Aurelius 5882:Cornelius Nepos 5832:Aurelius Victor 5786: 5708: 5620: 5554:Secessio plebis 5525: 5400: 5352: 5226: 5180: 5110: 4992: 4944: 4860: 4781: 4742: 4724: 4718: 4668: 4667: 4666: 4646: 4645: 4641: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4606: 4572:10.2307/3102810 4552: 4534: 4516: 4475: 4474: 4445: 4431:Wikander, Örjan 4423: 4389: 4387: 4363: 4361: 4342: 4340: 4311:Landels, J.G., 4250: 4214: 4164: 4078: 4042: 4040: 4036: 4025: 3917: 3911: 3900: 3850: 3830: 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372:were worked by 370:Trajan's Column 362: 345: 336: 324: 300: 295: 285: 253:Pliny the Elder 244: 231: 226: 214: 206: 186: 159: 135: 130: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6885: 6875: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6847: 6846: 6844: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6792: 6791: 6785: 6782: 6781: 6779: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6746:Medieval Islam 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6692: 6691: 6685: 6682: 6681: 6674: 6673: 6666: 6659: 6651: 6642: 6641: 6639: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6507: 6505: 6496: 6495: 6493: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6396: 6394: 6390: 6389: 6386: 6385: 6383: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 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3632: 3620: 3608: 3596: 3585: 3573: 3552: 3540: 3524: 3512: 3496: 3483: 3471: 3454: 3428: 3415:, p. 29; 3413:Schnitter 1978 3405: 3393: 3387:, p. 13; 3377: 3363: 3348: 3343:, p. 12; 3330: 3324:, p. 92; 3320:, p. 80; 3316:, p. 13; 3312:, p. 32; 3310:Schnitter 1978 3302: 3289: 3279:, p. 80; 3275:, p. 12; 3271:, p. 31; 3269:Schnitter 1978 3257: 3241: 3229: 3216: 3207: 3203:Galliazzo 1995 3195: 3186: 3155: 3140: 3125: 3113:www.livius.org 3097: 3054: 3027: 3005: 2941: 2925: 2896: 2887: 2865: 2858: 2840: 2802: 2790: 2777: 2762: 2753: 2744: 2732: 2720: 2698: 2677: 2659: 2638: 2620: 2599: 2581: 2568: 2532: 2525: 2502: 2495: 2468: 2457: 2450: 2432: 2425: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2400: 2399: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2377: 2371: 2370: 2354: 2351: 2348: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2334: 2327: 2323: 2322: 2316: 2312: 2311: 2305: 2301: 2300: 2297: 2293: 2292: 2290: 2283: 2282: 2276: 2272: 2271: 2264: 2260: 2259: 2256:Tironian notes 2252: 2251:, a system of 2245: 2244: 2229: 2223: 2222: 2215: 2211: 2210: 2204: 2198: 2197: 2194: 2190: 2189: 2182: 2178: 2177: 2174: 2170: 2169: 2163: 2159: 2158: 2155: 2149: 2148: 2133: 2127: 2126: 2103: 2097: 2096: 2090: 2086: 2085: 2075: 2072: 2071: 2065: 2062: 2061: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2037: 2036:Pleasure lake 2033: 2032: 2015: 2009: 2008: 2001: 1995: 1994: 1992: 1986: 1985: 1978: 1974: 1973: 1967: 1960: 1959: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1931: 1924: 1923: 1903: 1900: 1899: 1885: 1882: 1881: 1877: 1874: 1873: 1858: 1854: 1853: 1845: 1841: 1840: 1826: 1822: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1812: 1806: 1800: 1799: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1751: 1745: 1744: 1741: 1735: 1734: 1720: 1716: 1715: 1705: 1702: 1701: 1691: 1688: 1687: 1683: 1677: 1676: 1673: 1666: 1665: 1652: 1646: 1645: 1638: 1631: 1630: 1623: 1617: 1616: 1610: 1604: 1603: 1593: 1587: 1586: 1579: 1575: 1574: 1559: 1553: 1552: 1534: 1528: 1527: 1525: 1519: 1518: 1499: 1497:connecting rod 1492: 1491: 1484: 1477: 1476: 1470: 1459: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1449: 1442:Gemma Augustea 1434: 1428: 1427: 1424: 1423:Camel harness 1420: 1419: 1409: 1405: 1404: 1393: 1389: 1388: 1385:Severan Bridge 1377: 1371: 1370: 1355: 1351: 1350: 1343: 1335: 1334: 1328: 1320: 1319: 1317: 1310: 1309: 1299: 1289: 1288: 1281: 1275: 1274: 1267: 1261: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1229: 1223: 1222: 1219: 1213: 1212: 1209: 1202: 1199: 1189: 1186: 1174: 1171: 1156:Pontoon bridge 1151: 1150:Pontoon bridge 1148: 1146: 1145:Transportation 1143: 1119: 1116: 1104: 1101: 1081: 1078: 1037: 1034: 1018: 1015: 1002: 999: 961: 958: 946: 943: 941: 938: 923: 920: 833: 830: 820: 817: 792: 789: 775:, later named 754: 751: 727:Main article: 724: 721: 709: 708:Transportation 706: 694: 691: 638: 635: 559:Main article: 556: 553: 548:Proserpina Dam 502:toilets, etc. 473:Roman aqueduct 468: 465: 463: 460: 424: 421: 412:Roman concrete 398: 395: 381: 378: 361: 358: 344: 341: 335: 332: 323: 320: 299: 296: 284: 281: 243: 240: 230: 227: 225: 222: 213: 210: 205: 202: 185: 182: 158: 155: 134: 131: 129: 128:Types of power 126: 101:, and others. 71:Late Antiquity 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6884: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6793: 6790: 6787: 6786: 6783: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6721:Ancient Greek 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6706:Ancient Egypt 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6693: 6690: 6687: 6686: 6683: 6679: 6672: 6667: 6665: 6660: 6658: 6653: 6652: 6649: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6508: 6506: 6497: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6397: 6395: 6391: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6212: 6210: 6208: 6204: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5962:Julius Paulus 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5897:Fabius Pictor 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5804: 5802: 5800: 5796: 5793: 5789: 5783: 5780: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5719: 5717: 5715: 5711: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5634:Amphitheatres 5632: 5631: 5629: 5627: 5623: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5575: 5572: 5571: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5536: 5534: 5532: 5528: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5485: 5482: 5481: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5411: 5409: 5407: 5403: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5371:Deforestation 5369: 5367: 5364: 5363: 5361: 5359: 5355: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5321:Siege engines 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5303: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5286: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5254:Establishment 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5241: 5239: 5237: 5233: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5189: 5187: 5185:Extraordinary 5183: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5171:Promagistrate 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5128: 5126: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5113: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5003: 5001: 4999: 4995: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4958:Twelve Tables 4956: 4955: 4953: 4951: 4947: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4910: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4875: 4873: 4871: 4867: 4855: 4852: 4851: 4850: 4847: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4834: 4833: 4830: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4817: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4784: 4778: 4775: 4771: 4768: 4767: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4757: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4745: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4730: 4727: 4722: 4715: 4710: 4708: 4703: 4701: 4696: 4695: 4692: 4685: 4682: 4679: 4676: 4673: 4670: 4669: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4625: 4623:3-87919-145-X 4619: 4615: 4610: 4607: 4605:0-432-15090-0 4601: 4597: 4592: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4556: 4553: 4551:3-87919-145-X 4547: 4543: 4538: 4535: 4533:3-87919-145-X 4529: 4525: 4520: 4517: 4515:3-87919-145-X 4511: 4507: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4489: 4485: 4479: 4471: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4449: 4446: 4444:90-04-11123-9 4440: 4436: 4432: 4427: 4424: 4422:0-7156-2194-7 4418: 4414: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4396: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4376: 4370: 4360: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4338: 4334: 4333: 4328: 4324: 4321: 4318:White, K.D., 4317: 4314: 4310: 4307: 4303: 4301: 4300:0-934454-61-2 4297: 4293: 4289: 4286: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4254: 4251: 4249:0-520-03566-6 4245: 4241: 4236: 4235: 4229: 4225: 4222: 4218: 4215: 4209: 4205: 4200: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4168: 4165: 4163:0-88402-288-9 4159: 4155: 4151: 4146: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4114: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4079: 4077:0-8018-5130-0 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4035: 4031: 4024: 4019: 4015: 4010: 4007: 4003: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3989: 3986: 3982: 3979: 3975: 3972: 3968: 3965: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3937: 3934: 3930: 3927: 3923: 3916: 3912: 3906: 3899: 3898: 3891: 3888: 3884: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3866:(2): 98–119, 3865: 3861: 3860: 3854: 3851: 3849:88-85066-66-6 3845: 3841: 3836: 3829: 3822: 3821: 3815: 3812: 3808: 3805: 3801: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3785: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3757: 3752: 3748: 3747: 3736: 3731: 3725: 3720: 3713: 3707: 3700: 3695: 3689: 3684: 3677: 3672: 3665: 3660: 3653: 3648: 3641: 3636: 3629: 3624: 3617: 3616:Campbell 1995 3612: 3606:, p. 255 3605: 3600: 3594: 3589: 3582: 3577: 3570: 3569:0-8018-5130-0 3566: 3562: 3556: 3549: 3544: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3521: 3516: 3509: 3505: 3500: 3493: 3487: 3481: 3475: 3468: 3464: 3458: 3442: 3438: 3432: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3402: 3397: 3390: 3386: 3381: 3375: 3370: 3368: 3361: 3357: 3352: 3346: 3342: 3337: 3335: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3306: 3299: 3293: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3261: 3254: 3250: 3245: 3238: 3233: 3226: 3220: 3211: 3204: 3199: 3190: 3175: 3171: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3151: 3144: 3136: 3129: 3114: 3110: 3104: 3102: 3086: 3082: 3075: 3073: 3071: 3069: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3059: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3031: 3023: 3016: 3009: 3001: 2995: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2939: 2935: 2929: 2921: 2915: 2907: 2900: 2891: 2875: 2869: 2861: 2859:9780195187311 2855: 2851: 2844: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2821:(5): 154–61. 2820: 2816: 2809: 2807: 2799: 2794: 2787: 2781: 2774: 2773:Water History 2769: 2767: 2757: 2748: 2741: 2736: 2729: 2724: 2716: 2712: 2705: 2703: 2694: 2688: 2680: 2678:9780521809320 2674: 2670: 2663: 2655: 2649: 2641: 2639:9780521809320 2635: 2631: 2624: 2616: 2610: 2602: 2600:9780521809320 2596: 2592: 2585: 2578: 2572: 2564: 2558: 2550: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2528: 2526:9780195445190 2522: 2518: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2498: 2492: 2488: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2473: 2466: 2461: 2453: 2451:9780195187311 2447: 2443: 2436: 2428: 2426:9780195187311 2422: 2418: 2411: 2407: 2398: 2395: 2393: 2390: 2388: 2385: 2383: 2382: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2372: 2368: 2357: 2346: 2342: 2340: 2337: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2325: 2324: 2321: 2317: 2314: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2303: 2302: 2298: 2295: 2294: 2291: 2288: 2285: 2284: 2281: 2277: 2274: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2262: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2250: 2247: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2213: 2212: 2209: 2208:Cloaca Maxima 2205: 2203: 2200: 2199: 2195: 2192: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2180: 2179: 2175: 2172: 2171: 2168: 2164: 2161: 2160: 2156: 2154: 2153:Sails, Lateen 2151: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2124: 2122: 2119: 2115: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2098: 2095: 2091: 2088: 2087: 2083: 2080: 2076: 2074: 2073: 2069: 2066: 2064: 2063: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2035: 2034: 2030: 2027: 2024: 2020: 2017:Mentioned by 2016: 2014: 2011: 2010: 2006: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1976: 1975: 1972: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1961: 1958: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1902: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1890: 1886: 1884: 1883: 1878: 1876: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1856: 1855: 1851: 1846: 1843: 1842: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1824: 1823: 1820: 1818: 1815: 1814: 1811: 1807: 1805: 1802: 1801: 1798: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1774:Described by 1773: 1771: 1768: 1767: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1753:Described by 1752: 1750: 1747: 1746: 1742: 1740: 1737: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1725: 1721: 1718: 1717: 1713: 1710: 1706: 1704: 1703: 1699: 1696: 1692: 1690: 1689: 1684: 1682: 1681:Glass blowing 1679: 1678: 1674: 1671: 1668: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1658: 1653: 1651: 1648: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1637:, monumental 1636: 1633: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1622: 1619: 1618: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1605: 1602: 1601:Consuegra Dam 1598: 1594: 1592: 1591:Dam, Buttress 1589: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1567:Kasserine Dam 1564: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1554: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1520: 1516: 1513:respectively 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1498: 1494: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1478: 1474: 1471: 1469: 1468: 1464: 1461: 1460: 1455: 1452: 1451: 1447: 1446:Gemma Claudia 1443: 1439: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1425: 1422: 1421: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1407: 1406: 1402: 1401:Limyra Bridge 1398: 1394: 1391: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1376: 1373: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1361:to produce a 1360: 1356: 1353: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1341: 1337: 1336: 1333: 1329: 1326: 1322: 1321: 1318: 1316:, monumental 1315: 1312: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1291: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1262: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1224: 1220: 1218: 1217:Abacus, Roman 1215: 1214: 1210: 1207: 1206: 1198: 1196: 1184: 1180: 1166: 1162: 1157: 1139: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1115: 1110: 1103:The Helepolis 1096: 1092: 1087: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1065: 1064: 1057: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1036:Siege warfare 1033: 1031: 1027: 1024: 1023:Roman cavalry 1014: 1012: 1007: 998: 996: 991: 987: 986: 985:lorica hamata 981: 980: 975: 966: 957: 955: 951: 937: 933: 929: 919: 917: 913: 910:, and on the 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 888: 884: 879: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 843: 839: 825: 816: 812: 808: 801: 797: 788: 786: 782: 778: 774: 773:Pons Aemilius 770: 764: 760: 750: 746: 744: 739: 735: 730: 718: 714: 705: 700: 690: 688: 687:flush toilets 684: 680: 676: 672: 667: 663: 659: 658: 653: 643: 634: 632: 626: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 568: 562: 549: 545: 541: 537: 535: 531: 527: 523: 518: 516: 512: 508: 503: 496: 491: 487: 484: 478: 474: 459: 455: 452: 443: 439: 435: 430: 420: 416: 413: 409: 404: 391: 386: 377: 375: 371: 366: 357: 354: 349: 340: 331: 329: 317: 313: 309: 304: 294: 290: 280: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 239: 236: 221: 219: 218:passive solar 209: 197: 193: 191: 181: 178: 177: 167: 163: 154: 152: 147: 145: 141: 125: 123: 118: 116: 110: 108: 102: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 63: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 38: 34: 30: 19: 6788: 6688: 6576:Institutions 6440:Leptis Magna 6393:Major cities 6300:Philostratus 6087:Quadrigarius 5907:Rufus Festus 5770:Contemporary 5625: 5491:Romanization 5414:Architecture 5021:Collegiality 4870:Constitution 4721:Ancient Rome 4652:Online books 4642: 4613: 4595: 4566:(1): 58–68, 4563: 4559: 4541: 4523: 4505: 4496: 4492: 4469: 4460: 4456: 4434: 4412: 4403: 4388:, retrieved 4384:the original 4374: 4362:, retrieved 4357: 4341:, retrieved 4336: 4331: 4319: 4312: 4305: 4291: 4257: 4233: 4220: 4203: 4171: 4153: 4117: 4085: 4067: 4055: 4041:, retrieved 4034:the original 4029: 4013: 4005: 3998: 3984: 3977: 3970: 3944: 3940: 3932: 3925: 3915:the original 3896: 3886: 3863: 3857: 3839: 3828:the original 3819: 3810: 3803: 3788: 3754: 3730: 3719: 3711: 3706: 3698: 3694: 3683: 3671: 3659: 3647: 3642:, p. 96 3635: 3623: 3611: 3599: 3588: 3576: 3560: 3555: 3550:, p. 87 3543: 3538:, p. 26 3527: 3515: 3499: 3494:2002 Antibes 3491: 3486: 3479: 3474: 3466: 3462: 3457: 3445:. Retrieved 3440: 3431: 3408: 3403:, p. 50 3396: 3380: 3351: 3305: 3297: 3292: 3260: 3244: 3232: 3224: 3219: 3210: 3205:, p. 92 3198: 3189: 3177:. Retrieved 3173: 3149: 3143: 3134: 3128: 3116:. Retrieved 3112: 3088:. Retrieved 3084: 3043:(1): 67–78. 3040: 3036: 3030: 3021: 3008: 2994:cite journal 2964:(1): 12–25. 2961: 2957: 2933: 2928: 2905: 2899: 2890: 2878:. Retrieved 2868: 2849: 2843: 2818: 2814: 2800:, p. 39 2793: 2785: 2780: 2756: 2747: 2735: 2723: 2714: 2710: 2668: 2662: 2629: 2623: 2590: 2584: 2577:Uta Lindgren 2571: 2548: 2516: 2486: 2460: 2441: 2435: 2416: 2410: 2379: 2344: 2193:Screw press 2139:sail 2) the 2120: 2106: 2049:Roman Empire 1929:Steam engine 1915: 1895: 1872:and Spain). 1865: 1830:Dover Castle 1825:Lighthouses 1695:Lycurgus Cup 1661: 1655: 1649: 1595:Attested in 1578:Dam, Bridge 1465: 1302:Pont du Gard 1265:Amphitheatre 1191: 1159: 1127: 1112: 1089: 1067: 1062: 1059: 1039: 1020: 1004: 997:was in use. 994: 989: 983: 977: 971: 948: 940:Foot soldier 935: 906:in southern 880: 876:fire-setting 845: 842:Roman mining 813: 809: 805: 776: 766: 759:Roman bridge 747: 740: 736: 732: 702: 655: 648: 627: 619:North Africa 571:Subiaco Dams 564: 538: 519: 507:Aqua Claudia 504: 500: 480: 456: 447: 438:Hagia Sophia 429:Hagia Sophia 423:Hagia Sophia 417: 410: 406: 403:The Pantheon 397:The Pantheon 363: 350: 346: 337: 325: 279:illustrate. 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6856:Categories 6460:Mediolanum 6400:Alexandria 6365:Themistius 6330:Porphyrius 6157:Tertullian 6092:Quintilian 6082:Propertius 5977:Lactantius 5927:Fulgentius 5862:Censorinus 5684:Sanitation 5669:Metallurgy 5626:Technology 5591:Demography 5539:Patricians 5506:Spectacles 5464:Literature 5459:Hairstyles 5296:Technology 5046:Praefectus 4998:Government 4988:Litigation 4973:Auctoritas 4918:Centuriate 4805:Principate 4800:Pax Romana 4760:Foundation 4499:(2): 25–32 4043:11 October 3628:Basch 2001 3604:White 1978 3571:, Appendix 3548:Hodge 1992 3536:Smith 1971 3532:Smith 1970 3508:Grewe 2009 3467:Flos salis 3401:Vogel 1987 3389:Hodge 2000 3356:Smith 1971 3326:Hodge 2000 3322:Hodge 1992 3285:Hodge 2000 3281:Hodge 1992 3265:Smith 1971 3253:Grewe 2009 2496:0701122218 2403:References 2289:, various 2167:Nemi ships 2145:Aegean Sea 1969:as in the 1889:Ausonius's 1850:Qasr Ibrim 1791:Hydrometer 1780:Dolaucothi 1759:Dolaucothi 1670:Force pump 1650:Flos Salis 1495:Crank and 1453:Cast Iron 1367:sestertius 1221:Portable. 1195:Roman army 1124:Greek fire 1118:Greek fire 852:Dolaucothi 819:Industrial 729:Roman road 666:tepidarium 637:Sanitation 631:Nabataeans 611:Dolaucothi 575:Anio Novus 534:Roman Gaul 462:Waterworks 374:treadwheel 277:lost works 261:Archimedes 204:Wind power 144:handspikes 113:developed 83:Modern Era 6741:Byzantine 6701:Neolithic 6616:Quaestors 6546:Empresses 6536:Dynasties 6526:Dictators 6501:and other 6490:Volubilis 6485:Vindobona 6445:Londinium 6370:Theodoret 6340:Procopius 6320:Polyaenus 6295:Pausanias 6197:Vitruvius 6142:Symmachus 6137:Suetonius 6047:Petronius 6032:Obsequens 5997:Macrobius 5992:Lucretius 5917:Frontinus 5892:Eutropius 5877:Columella 5827:Augustine 5817:Appuleius 5765:Neo-Latin 5740:Classical 5731:Versions 5639:Aqueducts 5581:Patronage 5501:Sexuality 5474:Mythology 5449:Education 5439:Cosmetics 5264:Campaigns 5259:Structure 5212:Decemviri 5071:Imperator 4770:overthrow 4588:111915102 4343:16 August 4282:162352759 4196:162300888 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Ancient Roman technology

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