Roman Forum - Knowledge

893: 560: 1281: 1740: 1621:, who began clearing the debris from the Arch of Septimius Severus in 1803 marked the beginning of clearing the Forum. Excavations were officially begun in 1898 by the Italian government under the Minister of Public Instruction, Dr. Baccelli. The 1898, restoration had three main objectives: restore fragmented pieces of columns, bases, and cornices to their original locations in the Forum, reach the lowest possible level of the Forum without damaging existing structures, and to identify already half-excavated structures, along with the Senate house and Basilica Aemilia. These state-funded excavations were led by Dr. 991: 1014: 1660: 152: 1344: 710: 47: 1227: 971:). There seems to have been something of a surge in development of the Forum in the last quarter of the 7th century BC, as many of the changes date from 625 to 600 BC. Archaeologically, there is substantial evidence for development of the Forum in the 6th century BC: parts of the paving have been found and a large number of fragments of terracotta decorations from this area suggests that structures around the Forum were becoming more elaborate and highly decorated. 138: 6290: 980: 786: 144: 3337: 1948: 912:, as more people began to settle between the two hills. Archaeological evidence shows that by the end of the 7th century BC, the ground level of the Forum was raised significantly in some places to overcome the problems of poor drainage and provide a foundation for a pebble-paved area. In the middle of the 7th century BC thatch-and-timber huts were demolished on the route of the 761:. The urn containing the ashes of the deceased was placed inside a large earthenware jar, along with grave goods, and then buried in a cavity cut into the ground and covered with a capstone. There were also a small number of inhumation burials. On current evidence, it is likely that burials in the Forum ceased in the late 9th century BC and that the 845:

and marketplace role. As political speeches, civil trials, and other public affairs began to take up more and more space in the Forum, additional fora throughout the city began to emerge to expand on specific needs of the growing population. Fora for cattle, pork, vegetables and wine specialised in their niche products and the associated deities.

1707:. At each temple, animal sacrifices and rituals were done in front of the religious sites. These acts were meant to provide good fortune to those entering and using the temple. Since the Temple of Saturn also functioned as a bank, and since Saturn was the god of the Golden Age, sacrifices were made there in the hope of financial success. 951:. It has been suggested that the earliest ancient materials collected in the area of the Vulcanal are from the second half of the 8th century BC. It appears that the Romans were aware of the sites’ archaic origins: the foundation of the Comitium and Vulcanal were attributed to Romulus himself while the first 1463:

in North Africa. To prepare the Forum for the procession intended to imitate the pageantry of the ancient Roman triumph, the papal authorities undertook sweeping demolitions of the many medieval structures on the site, to reveal and better display the ancient monuments. This required the clearance of

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After the eighth century, the structures of the Forum were dismantled, rearranged, and used to build towers and castles within the local area. In the 13th century, these rearranged structures were torn down and the site became a dumping ground. This, along with the debris from the dismantled medieval

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over Italia, much of the city of Rome fell into ruin, from famine, warfare, and lack of authority. The population of Rome was reduced from hundreds of thousands to tens of thousands, as the populated areas contracted to the river, largely abandoning the forum. Strenuous efforts were made to keep the

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The Forum was outside the walls of the original Sabine fortress, which was entered through the Porta Saturni. These walls were mostly destroyed when the two hills were joined. The original Forum functioned as an open-air market abutting on the Comitium, but eventually outgrew its day-to-day shopping

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From the 17th through the 19th century, the Roman Forum was a site for many artists and architects studying in Rome to sketch. The focus of many of these works produced by visiting Northern artists was on the current state of the Roman Forum, known locally as the Campo Vaccino, or "cow field", from

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and his two sons against Pescennius Niger and is one of the most visible landmarks there today. The arch closed the Forum's central area. Besides the Arch of Augustus, which was also constructed following a Roman victory against the Parthians, it is the only triumphal arch in the Forum. The Emperor

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Within the context of these disputes over jurisdiction, ruins in the forum were increasingly exploited and stripped. In 1426, a papal license authorized the destruction of the foundations of a structure called the "Templum Canapare" for burning into lime, provided that half the stone quarried be

1394:, who visited the city in 663 AD, stripped the lead roofs of the monumental buildings, exposing the structures to the weather and hastening their deterioration. By the 8th century, the whole space was surrounded by Christian churches taking the place of abandoned and ruined temples. 1674:

was one of the more significant buildings located in the Roman Forum. Little is known about when the temple was built, as the original temple is believed to have been burnt down by the Gauls early in the fourth century. However, it is understood that it was also rebuilt by

1144:, major work was done on the Forum including the raising of the plaza level by almost a meter and the laying of permanent marble paving stones. Remarkably, this level of the paving was maintained more or less intact for over a millennium: at least until the sack of Rome by 832:

women. Because the valley lay between the two settlements, it was the designated place for the two peoples to meet. Since the early Forum area included pools of stagnant water, the most easily accessible area was the northern part of the valley which was designated as the

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saw themselves as guardians of Rome's ancient legacy and zealously protected the ruins in the Forum from further destruction, but in the 15th century the Papacy gradually encroached upon these prerogatives. The Bull of 1425 strengthened the powers of the

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inaugurating a campaign of civic improvement and rebuilding in the city, which was depopulated and dominated by ruins. The demand for building materials consequently increased significantly, making the Forum a convenient quarry for stone and marble.

935:. Around 650–630 BC the area of the Comitium was excavated into a deep triangular depression. The area was paved with a beaten earth pavement and later replaced with a more substantial gravel one. Nearby was located an archaic sanctuary dedicated to 1308:(r. 284–305) was the last of the great builders of Rome's city infrastructure and he did not omit the Forum from his program. By his day it had become highly cluttered with honorific memorials. He refurbished and reorganized it, building anew the 1025:

During the Republican period, the Comitium continued to be the central location for all judicial and political life in the city. However, to create a larger gathering place, the Senate began expanding the open area between the Comitium and the

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The first archaeological finds on the sites of the key public buildings point to a transformation of the Forum from a cemetery to a public site in the 8th century BC. Part of the Forum was paved over. The earliest finds in the sites of the

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in 42 BC. The eight remaining columns are all that is left of the illustrious temple. Though its exact date of completion is not known, it stands as one of the oldest buildings in the Forum. The temple originally was to be built to the

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and the erosion of the surrounding hills have been raising the level of the Forum floor for centuries. Excavated sequences of remains of paving show that sediment eroded from the surrounding hills was already raising the level in early

1573:(1499), all by papal license. The worst destruction in the forum occurred under Paul III, who in 1540 revoked previous excavation licenses and brought the forum exclusively under the control of the Deputies of the Fabric of the new 1523:, which absorbed that power into the Vatican. From then on only two authorities in Rome had the power to issue such licenses: the Vatican and the Conservators. This dual, overlapping authority was recognized in 1462 by a Bull of 966:

have revealed an important group of 7th-century-BC buildings. The archaeologists have identified them as the early phases of the Regia (House of the kings), House of the Vestals, and Domus Publica (official residence of the

512:, refocusing both the judicial offices and the Senate itself. This new Forum, in what proved to be its final form, then served as a revitalized city square where the people of Rome could gather for commercial, political, 1640:. Around the wall, pottery remains and food scraps allowed archaeologists to date the likely construction of the wall to the 8th or 9th century BC, over a century before the traditional date of Rome's founding. 757:, was used as a cemetery (10th century BC), possibly by the communities based on the Palatine and Capitoline hills. Most of the burials were cremations of the same type which is also found in the other sites in 1710:

Inside the Temple, there were multiple vaults for the public and private ones for individuals. There were also sections of the Temple for public speaking events and feasts which often followed the sacrifices.

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there (both in 29 BC). The Temple of Caesar was placed between Caesar's funeral pyre and the Regia. The Temple's location and reconstruction of adjacent structures resulted in greater organization akin to the

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by purchasing existing private homes and removing them for public use. Building projects of several consuls repaved and built onto both the Comitium and the adjacent central plaza that was becoming the Forum.

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Forum (and the Palatine structures) intact, not without some success. In the 6th century, some of the old edifices within the Forum began to be transformed into Christian churches. On 1 August 608, the

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in Rome. Excavations in the Forum continue, with discoveries by archaeologists working in the Forum since 2009 leading to questions about Rome's exact age. One of these recent discoveries includes a

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In the 15th century, the Vatican escalated the issuance of excavation licenses, which gave broad permission to individuals to mine specific sites or structures for stone. In 1452, the ability of the

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Many of the traditions from the Comitium, such as the popular assemblies, funerals of nobles, and games, were transferred to the Forum as it developed. Especially notable was the move of the

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on the summit of the Capitol. Lavish public banquets ensued back down on the Forum. (In addition to the Via Sacra, the Forum was accessed by several storied roads and streets, including the

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During these early Imperial times, much economic and judicial business transferred away from the Forum to larger and more extravagant structures to the north. After the building of

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was added at the northwest end of the Forum close to the foot of the Capitoline Hill and adjacent to the old, vanishing Comitium. It was dedicated in 203 AD to commemorate the

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in 1367 led to an increased interest in ancient monuments, partly for their moral lesson and partly as a quarry for new buildings being undertaken in Rome after a long lapse.

1577:, who exploited the site for stone and marble. Monuments which fell victim to dismantling and the subsequent burning of their materials for lime included the remains of the 577:—the Roman Forum developed gradually, organically, and piecemeal over many centuries. This is the case despite attempts, with some success, to impose some order there, by 589:

and others. By the Imperial period, the large public buildings that crowded around the central square had reduced the open area to a rectangle of about 130 by 50 meters.

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were placed on the Forum Romanum, as well. First, they stood next to the senate house; during the late Roman Republic, they were placed in front of the Basilica Porcia.

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An important function of the Forum, during both Republican and Imperial times, was to serve as the culminating venue for the celebratory military processions known as

709: 437:, the Forum today is a sprawling ruin of architectural fragments and intermittent archaeological excavations attracting 4.5 million or more sightseers yearly. 896:

Fragment of a terracotta frieze plaque from the Regia at the east end of the Forum showing a minotaur and felines, c. 600–550 BC, Antiquarium Museo del Foro Romano

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on the south—defined its long sides and its final form. The Forum proper included this square, the buildings facing it and, sometimes, an additional area (the

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was dedicated on the north side of the Forum square in 179 BC. (It was rebuilt and renamed several times, as Basilica Fulvia et Aemilia, Basilica Paulli,

892: 1186:'s rearrangements before his assassination in 44 BC. That year, two events were witnessed by the Forum, perhaps the most famous ever to transpire there: 667: 1054:—originally facing north towards the Senate House to the assembled politicians and elites—put the orator's back to the people assembled in the Forum. A 1241:, Augustus finished his great-uncle's work, giving the Forum its final form. This included the southeastern end of the plaza where he constructed the 1320:. The latter represents the best-preserved tetrarchic building in Rome. He also reconstructed the rostra at each end of the Forum and added columns. 1062:(consul in 361 BC) is said to have been the first to turn away from the elite towards the Forum, an act symbolically repeated two centuries later by 2589: 1834:

removed most of the medieval and Baroque strata and built the Via dei Fori Imperiali road between the Imperial Fora and the Forum. There are also:

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had set out from the palace to meet rebels but was so feeble that he had to be carried in a litter. He was immediately met by a troop of his rival

1601:. The Conservators protested vehemently against the ruination of their heritage, as they perceived it, and on one occasion applied fruitlessly to 1073:, in which even young nobles were expected to speak to the people from the Rostra. Gracchus was thus credited with (or accused of) disturbing the 1444:

The Forum Romanum suffered some of its worst depredations during the Italian Renaissance, particularly in the decade between 1540 and 1550, when

1214:). Almost two years later, Marc Antony added to the notoriety of the Rostra by publicly displaying the severed head and right hand of his enemy 5557: 1800:

existed in other areas of the city; remains of most of them, sometimes substantial, still exist. The most important of these are several large

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Watkin, David, and Watkin, David. Wonders of the World Ser.: The Roman Forum. Cumberland, US: Harvard University Press, 2009. ProQuest ebrary.

1331:(312 AD), the last significant expansion of the Forum complex. This restored much of the political focus to the Forum until the fall of the 5162: 3465: 1647:

and a circular altar dating to the 6th century BC. Experts disagree whether it is a memorial tomb dedicated to Rome's legendary founder,

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Ashley and Peter Larkin Series in Greek and Roman Culture: Restoration of the Roman Forum in Late Antiquity: Transforming Public Space

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Ashley and Peter Larkin Series in Greek and Roman Culture: Restoration of the Roman Forum in Late Antiquity: Transforming Public Space

1765:("Views of Rome"), in which the Forum figured significantly. (Many of the features documented in Piranesi's views have now vanished.) 1175:, whose spacious hall was sometimes used as a meeting place by the Senators). After the verdict, they were led to their deaths at the 5965: 5462: 5233: 4565: 2005: 6342: 4525: 4810: 1487:

Since the 12th century, when Rome's civic government was formed, responsibility for protecting the ruins of the forum fell to the

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In 2008, heavy rains caused structural damage to the modern concrete covering holding the "Black Stone" marble together over the

429:, it has been called the most celebrated meeting place in the world, and in all history. Located in the small valley between the 206: 5542: 5122: 4690: 1156: 444:'s earliest shrines and temples were located on the southeastern edge. These included the ancient former royal residence, the 6317: 5907: 2318: 2100: 716: 489:

itself—began. The Senate House, government offices, tribunals, temples, memorials and statues gradually cluttered the area.

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Map of the Roman Forum. Structures of Republican Rome are shown in red and those of Imperial Rome in black. From Platner's

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Pottery deposits discovered in the Forum, Palatine and Capitoline demonstrated that humans occupied these areas in the

1688:; historians are unsure why. The building was not used solely for religious practice; the temple also functioned as a 5780: 5512: 5382: 4600: 3953: 3718: 3474: 3403: 3306: 2573: 2503: 688: 655:. Excavations in the 19th century revealed one layer on top of another. The deepest level excavated was 3.60 meters 5930: 5577: 5522: 5497: 5152: 4740: 3923: 2537:

Richmond, Ian Archibald, et al. (1996), Entry, "Forum Romanum", In: Hornblower, Simon and Antony Spawforth (eds.),

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As the ground around buildings rose, residents simply paved over the debris that was too much to remove. Its final

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Other markets were known but remain unidentifiable due to a lack of precise information on each site's function.

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reports that the Forum was already falling apart at that time. During the Middle Ages, though the memory of the

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and the public burning of Caesar's body occurred on a site directly across from the Rostra around which the

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Many of the oldest and most important structures of the ancient city were located on or near the Forum. The

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The Roman Forum has been a source of inspiration for visual artists for centuries. Especially notable is

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shows the extent to which the buildings in the Forum were buried under sediment. Renowned British artist

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persisted, its monuments were for the most part buried under debris, and its location was designated the

1039: 873: 390:) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the centre of the city of 354: 100: 1739: 1155:(Records Hall) was built at the Capitoline Hill end of the Forum by order of the consuls for that year, 812:

According to Roman historical tradition, the Forum's beginnings are connected with the alliance between

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Carter, Jesse Benedict (March 1910). "A Decade of Forum Excavation and the Results for Roman History".

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some 200 houses and several churches, the excavation of a new "Via Sacra" to pass under the arches of

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were votive offerings. They indicate that the area was dedicated to a celebration of religious cults.

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eventually faded from the writings of the ancients. The former is last mentioned in the reign of

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would meet at the site of the Sabine conflict. He is said to have converted that temple into the

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Unlike the later imperial fora in Rome—which were self-consciously modelled on the ancient Greek

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At the western end of the Forum, excavations near the House of the Vestals and the sanctuary of

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The earliest structures in the Forum were discovered in two separate locations: the site of the

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A more generous estimate, including the surrounding buildings, would be about 200 by 75 meters.

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in protecting the ruins, but in conferring papal authority the Vatican essentially brought the

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was replaced by the larger adjacent Forum, and the focus of judicial activity moved to the new

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and his Normans in 1084, when neglect finally allowed debris to begin to accumulate unabated.

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The 5th century BC witnessed the earliest Forum temples with known dates of construction: the

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that, according to the story, the two parties laid down their weapons and formed an alliance.

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Filippi, Dunia, 2017 (edition in Italian in 2012), 'Region VIII. Forum Romanum Magnum', in

1570: 1492: 1398: 1332: 1199: 999: 928: 904:, the Forum was drained in the 7th century BC with the building of the first structures of 857: 762: 656: 548: 453: 2756: 8: 6247: 6101: 5710: 5248: 4625: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4407: 4206: 4196: 4172: 4109: 4086: 3890: 3863: 3735: 3667: 3590: 3543: 2446:, 2.50.2 (attributes the foundation of the Vulcanal to Romulus and Titus Tatius); Varro, 1953: 1681: 1367: 1296: 1087:

provided buildings in the Forum neighborhood with balconies, which were called after him

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Its long dimension was oriented northwest to southeast and extended from the foot of the

2990: 1659: 394:. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space, originally a marketplace, as the 6148: 6042: 5858: 5820: 5810: 5447: 5292: 5287: 5132: 4840: 4730: 4417: 4359: 4331: 4266: 4201: 3968: 3885: 3622: 3580: 3230: 3222: 3187: 3179: 3144: 3136: 3060: 3019: 2909:

The Ruins and excavations of ancient Rome: a companion book for students and travellers

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The Atlas of Ancient Rome. Biography and Portraits of the City. Vol. 1. Text and Images

2201: 2193: 1685: 1453: 1118: 936: 881: 683: 628: 3381: 670:) and circumnavigated the Palatine Hill (counterclockwise) before proceeding from the 6143: 5970: 5940: 5853: 5457: 5307: 5228: 5067: 5016: 4906: 4825: 4645: 4447: 4387: 4261: 4250: 4216: 4143: 4053: 4033: 3938: 3750: 3740: 3652: 3637: 3399: 3312: 3234: 3191: 3148: 2686: 2569: 2499: 2450:, 5.74 (attributes the institution of the Vulcanal to Titus Tatius alone); Plutarch, 2314: 2304: 2205: 2096: 1827: 1812: 1696: 1602: 1343: 1300: 1270: 1172: 1134: 1043: 995: 963: 853: 746: 532: 116: 334: 46: 6242: 6237: 6122: 6086: 6028: 5975: 5955: 5631: 5527: 5392: 5347: 5337: 5102: 5031: 4991: 4916: 4864: 4855: 4845: 4780: 4505: 4353: 4325: 4068: 3973: 3880: 3796: 3698: 3647: 3597: 3563: 3533: 3347: 3214: 3171: 3128: 3050: 2400: 2185: 1861: 1676: 1671: 1664: 1582: 1536: 1532: 1384: 1372: 1363: 1348: 1309: 1242: 1207: 1114: 1035: 956: 869: 605: 497: 418: 375: 92: 84: 64: 2061:"La Stampa – La top ten dei monumenti più visti Primo il Colosseo, seconda Pompei" 1553:. Between 1431 and 1462 the huge travertine wall between the Senate House and the 1472:, and the excavation of the more prominent monuments to reveal their foundations. 1179:, the nearby dungeon which was the only known state prison of the ancient Romans. 828:. An alliance formed after combat had been halted by the prayers and cries of the 6217: 6189: 6065: 6060: 6032: 6000: 5979: 5840: 5825: 5766: 5728: 5587: 5238: 5177: 5041: 5006: 4986: 4941: 4931: 4640: 4453: 4236: 4038: 3978: 3900: 3810: 3803: 3693: 3672: 3642: 3602: 3568: 3548: 3518: 3493: 3393: 3205:

Richardson, L. (1 January 1980). "The Approach to the Temple of Saturn in Rome".

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Richardson, L. (1 January 1980). "The Approach to the Temple of Saturn in Rome".

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Richardson, L. (1 January 1980). "The Approach to the Temple of Saturn in Rome".

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The Urbanisation of Rome and Latium Vetus. From the Bronze Age to the Archaic Era

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This article is about the ancient centre of Rome. For the type of structure, see

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buildings and ancient structures, helped contribute to the rising ground level.

1390:. This proved to be the last monumental addition made to the Forum. The emperor 547:(312 AD). This returned the political centre to the Forum until the fall of the 413:

For centuries, the Forum was the centre of day-to-day life in Rome: the site of

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lake where waters from the surrounding hills drained. This was drained by the

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Eventually, much economic and judicial business would transfer away from the

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The Temple stood in the forum along with four other temples, the temples of

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close to where the Senate originally met in an old Etruscan hut. In 600 BC

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was added in the following century, possibly by the soldier and statesman

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saw the construction of the last major expansion of the Forum complex—the

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The Destruction of Ancient Rome: A Sketch of the History of the Monuments

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delivered his famous speech denouncing the companions of the conspirator

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The Roman Forum and the Palatine According to the Latest Discoveries ...

1907:, near the barracks of the cohortes urbanae in the northern part of the 1890:, between the Capitoline hill and the Tiber, in the area of the current 6262: 5372: 5282: 4150: 3824: 3789: 3064: 3023: 2556: 1480: 1305: 1152: 648: 52: 3226: 3183: 3140: 3094:"Romulus mystery: Experts divided on 'tomb of Rome's founding father'" 2197: 1512:

under its control and away from the independence of the Conservators.

666:. Victorious generals entered the city by the western Triumphal Gate ( 6153: 6020: 5622: 5397: 5367: 4182: 3917: 3523: 1925: 1870: 1769: 1747: 1720:

the livestock who grazed on the largely ignored section of the city.

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Rendering of the Roman Forum as it may have appeared during the Late

1176: 913: 700: 675: 513: 422: 3443: 2306:

The Roman Forum and the Palatine According to the Latest Discoveries

6277: 6184: 5805: 5097: 4122: 3997: 3218: 3175: 3132: 3055: 3038: 2478: