124:
103:. Rockwell moved to West Hartford, CT, and made an additional improvement in 1921. Stanley collaborated with instrument manufacturer Charles H. Wilson of the Wilson-Mauelen Company in 1920 to commercialize his invention and develop standardized testing machines. Stanley started a heat-treating firm circa 1923, the Stanley P. Rockwell Company, which operated until 2012. The building, which still stands, was empty in 2016. The later-named Wilson Mechanical Instrument Company has changed ownership over the years, and was acquired by
20:
116:
140:
understand once given. This also prevents any reworking or finishing needing to be done to the specimen both before and after testing. However, it is critical to double check specimens as the smallest indentions made from testing could potentially result in incorrect measurements in hardness, leading to catastrophe. After time, the indenter on a
Rockwell scale can become inaccurate as well and need replacing to ensure accurate and precise hardness measurements.
132:
training to be able to operate, whereas the analog models are simpler to operate as well as very accurate and display results on a dial on the front of the machine. All bench model testers are usually found within a workshop or laboratory setting. Other testers are portable, and all portable testers will come in a digital model including a digital results screen similar to that of the bench digital model. Portable testers are practical and easy to use.
853:): HRC 55–66 (Hardened High Speed Carbon and Tool Steels such as M2, W2, O1, CPM-M4, and D2, as well as many of the newer powder metallurgy Stainless Steels such as CPM-S30V, CPM-154, ZDP-189. There are alloys that hold a HRC upwards 68-70, such as the Hitachi developed HAP72. These are extremely hard, but also somewhat brittle.)
136:
measured from a dial, on which a harder material gives a lower measure. That is, the penetration depth and hardness are inversely proportional. The chief advantage of
Rockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness values directly, thus obviating tedious calculations involved in other hardness measurement techniques.
139:
The
Rockwell test is very cost-effective as it does not use any optical equipment to measure the hardness based on the small indention made, rather all calculations are done within the machine to measure the indention in the specimen, providing a clear result in a manner in which is easy to read and
135:
The determination of the
Rockwell hardness of a material involves the application of a minor load followed by a major load. The minor load establishes the zero position. The major load is applied, then removed while still maintaining the minor load. The depth of penetration from the zero datum is
131:
The
Rockwell hardness test can be conducted on several various hardness testers. All testers, however, fall under one of three categories. Bench model hardness testers can be found either in a digital or analog model. Digital bench models utilize a digital display and typically take more technical
39:
of a material. The
Rockwell test measures the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load (major load) compared to the penetration made by a preload (minor load). There are different scales, denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or indenters. The result is a dimensionless
82:
co-invented the "Rockwell hardness tester," a differential-depth machine. They applied for a patent on July 15, 1914. The requirement for this tester was to quickly determine the effects of heat treatment on steel bearing races. The application was subsequently approved on
February 11, 1919, and
812:
Except for testing thin materials in accordance with A623, the steel indenter balls have been replaced by tungsten carbide balls of the varying diameters. When a ball indenter is used, the letter "W" is used to indicate a tungsten carbide ball was used, and the letter "S" indicates the use of a
229:
In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation. Also, readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular surface, because convex surfaces give lower readings. A correction factor can be used if the hardness of a convex
96:
After leaving the
Connecticut company, Stanley Rockwell, then in Syracuse, NY, applied for an improvement to the original invention on September 11, 1919, which was approved on November 18, 1924. The new tester holds
1134:
216:
Load an initial force: Rockwell hardness test initial test force is 10 kgf (98 N; 22 lbf); superficial
Rockwell hardness test initial test force is 3 kgf (29 N; 6.6 lbf).
821:
Rockwell scales use lower loads and shallower impressions on brittle and very thin materials. The 45N scale employs a 45-kgf load on a diamond cone-shaped Brale indenter, and can be used on dense
59:(crudely, "the cone test"). The differential-depth method subtracted out the errors associated with the mechanical imperfections of the system, such as backlash and surface imperfections. The
805:
The
Rockwell number precedes the scale abbreviations (e.g., 60 HRC), except for the "Superficial scales" where they follow the abbreviations, separated by a ‘-’ (e.g., 30N-25).
184:
1462:
1121:
842:
The B and C scales overlap, such that readings below HRC 20 and those above HRB 100, generally considered unreliable, need not be taken or specified.
1010:
880:
93:. New Departure was a major ball bearing manufacturer which in 1916 became part of United Motors and, shortly thereafter, General Motors Corp.
40:
number noted as HRA, HRB, HRC, etc., where the last letter is the respective Rockwell scale. Larger numbers correspond to harder materials.
1394:
1230:
866:
Several other scales, including the extensive A-scale, are used for specialized applications. There are special scales for measuring
1256:
238:
There are several alternative scales, the most commonly used being the "B" and "C" scales. Both express hardness as an arbitrary
1316:
889:
ISO 6508-2: Metallic materials—Rockwell hardness test—Part 2: Verification and calibration of testing machines and indenters
1053:
Stanley Pickett Rockwell - One of the Inventors of the Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine]. Retrieved on 21 November 2018.
1122:
https://hartfordpreservation.org/wp-content/uploads/296-Homestead-Stanley-Rockwell-Factory-State-Register-Nomination.pdf
1120:
CONNECTICUT STATE REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES REGISTRATION FORM – For Stanley P. Rockwell Company Factory, 5/6/2016.
209:. Its commercial popularity arises from its speed, reliability, robustness, resolution and small area of indentation.
63:
hardness test, invented in Sweden, was developed earlier – in 1900 – but it was slow, not useful on fully
1292:
992:
886:
ISO 6508-1: Metallic materials—Rockwell hardness test—Part 1: Test method (scales A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, N, T)
1452:
862:
Brass: HRB 55 (Low brass, UNS C24000, H01 Temper) to HRB 93 (Cartridge Brass, UNS C26000 (260 Brass), H10 Temper)
813:
steel ball. E.g.: 70 HRBW indicates the reading was 70 in the Rockwell B scale using a tungsten carbide indenter.
55:
The differential depth hardness measurement was conceived in 1908 by Viennese professor Paul Ludwik in his book
1482:
89:. At the time of invention, both Hugh and Stanley Rockwell worked for the New Departure Manufacturing Co. of
907:
ASTM E18: Standard methods for Rockwell hardness and Rockwell superficial hardness of metallic materials
939:
800:, is made with a conical diamond of 120° ± 0.35° included angle and a tip radius of 0.200 ± 0.010 mm.
1151:
1487:
1165:
850:
1467:
68:
146:
1398:
964:
919:
892:
ISO 6508-3: Metallic materials—Rockwell hardness test—Part 3: Calibration of reference blocks
1236:
239:
198:
are scale factors that depend on the scale of the test being used (see following section).
36:
1262:
1180:
225:
Release load; the Rockwell value will typically display on a dial or screen automatically.
8:
1334:"Indentation Hardness Measurements at Macro-, Micro-, and Nanoscale: A Critical Overview"
944:
934:
924:
1457:
1355:
901:
356:
malleable iron, titanium, deep case-hardened steel, other materials harder than 100 HRB
123:
1312:
1288:
1108:
988:
1359:
222:
Leave the main load for a "dwell time" sufficient for indentation to come to a halt.
1345:
959:
929:
294:
44:
954:
867:
791:
Except for the superficial scales where it is 3 kgf, the minor load is 10 kgf.
258:
64:
19:
1447:
1350:
1333:
1081:
1038:
1005:
99:
85:
1476:
1206:"Hardness tester, metallographic microscope, surface roughness tester – EBPU"
79:
60:
411:
Cast iron, aluminum and magnesium alloys, bearing metals, thermoset plastics
1205:
1006:
Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels
836:
202:
90:
75:
895:
ISO 2039-2: Plastics—Determination of hardness—Part 2: Rockwell hardness
835:-inch-diameter (1.588 mm) hardened steel ball, and can be used on
206:
115:
379:
Thin steel and medium case-hardened steel and pearlitic malleable iron
127:
A closeup of the indenter and anvil on a Rockwell-type hardness tester
74:
Hugh M. Rockwell (1890–1957) and Stanley P. Rockwell (1886–1940) from
667:
Thermoplastics, bearing metals, and other very soft or thin materials
603:
Thermoplastics, bearing metals and other very soft or thin materials
353:
43:
When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with
32:
983:
E.L. Tobolski & A. Fee, "Macroindentation Hardness Testing,"
949:
822:
219:
Load main load: reference below form / table 'Scales and values'.
104:
1152:"Rockwell Hardness - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
329:
Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminum alloys, malleable iron
1166:"Rockwell Test - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
985:
ASM Handbook, Volume 8: Mechanical Testing and Evaluation
856:
1420:
1375:
EBP company R-150T Rockwell hardness tester manual book.
1065:
Transactions of the American Society for Steel Treating
1311:. Hardness Testing: Elsevier Ltd. pp. 3728–3736.
1036:
H.M. Rockwell & S.P. Rockwell, "Hardness-Tester,"
571:
Bearing metals and other very soft or thin materials.
149:
1063:
S.P. Rockwell, "The Testing of Metals for Hardness,
1025:
The Principles of Metallographic Laboratory Practice
731:
Bearing metals and other very soft or thin materials
699:
Bearing metals and other very soft or thin materials
635:
Bearing metals and other very soft or thin materials
67:, and left too large an impression to be considered
1107:OpenCorporates, "STANLEY P. ROCKWELL COMPANY THE".
475:
Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable irons.
190:is the depth in mm (from the zero load point), and
1109:https://opencorporates.com/companies/us_ct/0090160
212:Legacy Rockwell hardness testers operation steps:
178:
1309:Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology
1474:
1011:Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
1421:"MatWeb, Your Source for Materials Information"
1306:
1285:Foundations of Material Science and Engineering
1181:"Rockwell Hardness Testing: The Ultimate Guide"
1178:
1067:, Vol. II, No. 11, August 1922, pp. 1013–1033.
1027:, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1949, p. 229.
1371:
1369:
1098:, Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1949, pp. 57–62.
443:Annealed copper alloy, thin soft sheet metals
1282:
1079:S. P. Rockwell, "Hardness-Testing Machine",
825:. The 15T scale employs a 15-kgf load on a
1366:
1287:(4th ed.), McGraw-Hill, p. 229,
1283:Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2001),
539:Bearing alloy, tin, hard plastic materials
1349:
1232:Fundamentals of Rockwell Hardness Testing
297:, thin steel, shallow case-hardened steel
1331:
1325:
987:, ASM International, 2000, pp. 203–211,
780:Superficial: for case-hardened materials
122:
114:
18:
1258:PMPA's Designer's Guide: Heat treatment
849:Very hard steel (e.g. chisels, quality
110:
1475:
1051:S.W. Kallee: Stanley Pickett Rockwell
143:The equation for Rockwell Hardness is
1179:Hardness Tester, JM (17 April 2019).
1141:, Vol 167 #10, October 2009, p 29-31.
1135:Hardness, Bearings, and the Rockwells
1075:
1073:
1014:, Volume 17, Number 6 / December 2008
1008:", E. J. Pavlina and C. J. Van Tyne,
1458:Rockwell to brinell conversion chart
233:
1448:Video on the Rockwell hardness test
1384:E18-08b Section 5.1.2.1 & 5.2.3
13:
1307:Sundararajan, G.; Roy, M. (2001).
1139:Advanced Materials & Processes
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760:Superficial: for soft coatings
119:Force diagram of Rockwell test
1:
1397:. 31 May 2008. Archived from
970:
728: in (12.70 mm) ball
696: in (12.70 mm) ball
664: in (12.70 mm) ball
1096:Indentation Hardness Testing
873:
757: in (1.59 mm) ball
632: in (6.35 mm) ball
600: in (6.35 mm) ball
568: in (6.35 mm) ball
536: in (3.18 mm) ball
504: in (3.18 mm) ball
472: in (1.59 mm) ball
440: in (1.59 mm) ball
408: in (3.18 mm) ball
326: in (1.59 mm) ball
7:
1210:Hardnesstesting-machine.com
913:
230:surface is to be measured.
10:
1504:
1332:Broitman, Esteban (2017).
940:Leeb Rebound Hardness Test
50:
23:A Rockwell hardness tester
1468:Rockwell Hardness Testing
1463:Hardness Conversion Table
1453:Hardness Conversion Chart
1351:10.1007/s11249-016-0805-5
804:
795:
790:
770:
741:
845:Typical values include:
352:Steel, hard cast irons,
246:Various Rockwell scales
201:It is typically used in
179:{\displaystyle HR=N-h/d}
1395:"Knife blade materials"
1124:. Retrieved 5/24/2023
1111:. Retrieved 5/24/2023
180:
128:
120:
24:
1483:Dimensionless numbers
1082:U.S. patent 1,516,207
1039:U.S. patent 1,294,171
965:Vickers hardness test
920:Brinell hardness test
777:spheroconical diamond
376:spheroconical diamond
349:spheroconical diamond
291:spheroconical diamond
181:
126:
118:
100:U.S. patent 1,516,207
86:U.S. patent 1,294,171
22:
507:Aluminum, Zinc, Lead
240:dimensionless number
147:
111:Models and operation
37:indentation hardness
945:Meyer hardness test
935:Knoop hardness test
925:Hardness comparison
247:
1185:JM Hardness Tester
902:ASTM International
245:
176:
129:
121:
25:
1338:Tribology Letters
1318:978-0-08-043152-9
859:: about HRC 45–55
809:
808:
295:Cemented carbides
234:Scales and values
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45:tensile strength
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107:Corp. in 1993.
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35:scale based on
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1488:Hardness tests
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69:nondestructive
65:hardened steel
57:Die Kegelprobe
52:
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29:Rockwell scale
16:Hardness scale
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1428:. Retrieved
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1399:the original
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1263:the original
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1405:18 February
1344:(23): 4–5.
1215:18 February
1085:, Nov 1924.
1042:, Feb 1919.
1023:G.L. Kehl,
870:specimens.
837:sheet metal
819:superficial
203:engineering
91:Bristol, CT
76:Connecticut
1477:Categories
1430:2010-06-23
1425:Matweb.com
1269:2009-06-19
1243:2010-09-10
971:References
774:15, 30, 45
745:15, 30, 45
207:metallurgy
874:Standards
354:pearlitic
163:−
1360:20603457
914:See also
823:ceramics
264:Indenter
186:, where
33:hardness
950:Mineral
830:⁄
752:⁄
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691:⁄
659:⁄
627:⁄
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321:⁄
105:Instron
78:in the
61:Brinell
51:History
1358:
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83:holds
1356:S2CID
786:1000
766:1000
251:Scale
31:is a
1407:2022
1313:ISBN
1289:ISBN
1217:2022
1192:2021
989:ISBN
857:Axes
817:The
737:500
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205:and
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27:The
1346:doi
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881:ISO
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734:130
716:150
713:HRV
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684:100
681:HRS
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649:HRR
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620:150
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510:130
489:HRH
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396:100
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382:100
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370:HRD
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346:150
343:HRC
332:130
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285:HRA
267:Use
259:kgf
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276:h
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196:h
192:N
188:d
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170:/
166:h
160:N
157:=
154:R
151:H
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