2948:) devoted to the subject, the US liquid-propellant rocket engine (LPRE) industry has undergone significant changes. At least 14 US companies have been involved in the design, development, manufacture, testing, and flight support operations of various types of rocket engines from 1940 to 2000. In contrast to other countries like Russia, China, or India, where only government or pseudogovernment organisations engage in this business, the US government relies heavily on private industry. These commercial companies are essential to the continued viability of the United States and its form of governance, as they compete with one another to provide cutting-edge rocket engines that meet the needs of the government, the military, and the private sector. In the United States the company that develops the LPRE usually is awarded the production contract.
2978:
have played crucial roles in the development of liquid rocket propulsion engines (LPREs). They have conducted unbiased testing, guided work at US and some non-US contractors, performed research and development, and provided essential testing facilities including hover test facilities and simulated altitude test facilities and resources. Initially, private companies or foundations financed smaller test facilities, but since the 1950s, the U.S. government has funded larger test facilities at government laboratories. This approach reduced costs for the government by not building similar facilities at contractors' plants but increased complexity and expenses for contractors. Nonetheless, government laboratories have solidified their significance and contributed to LPRE advancements.
2970:
Propellant Rocket
Engines (LPREs), and their graduate and undergraduate education programs are considered one of their most important contributions. Universities such as Princeton University, Cornell University, Purdue University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Alabama, the Navy's Post-Graduate School, or the California Institute of Technology have conducted excellent R&D work on topics related to the rocket engine industry. One of the earliest examples of the contribution of universities to the rocket engine industry is the work of the GALCIT in 1941. They demonstrated the first jet-assisted takeoff (JATO) rockets to the Army, leading to the establishment of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
2802:, sometimes called screaming or squealing. The most immediately damaging, and the hardest to control. It is due to acoustics within the combustion chamber that often couples to the chemical combustion processes that are the primary drivers of the energy release, and can lead to unstable resonant "screeching" that commonly leads to catastrophic failure due to thinning of the insulating thermal boundary layer. Acoustic oscillations can be excited by thermal processes, such as the flow of hot air through a pipe or combustion in a chamber. Specifically, standing acoustic waves inside a chamber can be intensified if combustion occurs more intensely in regions where the pressure of the acoustic wave is maximal.
2974:
university research and commercial companies has been inconsistent and weak. Universities were not always aware of the industry's specific needs, and engineers and designers in the industry had limited knowledge of university research. As a result, many university research programs remained relatively unknown to industry decision-makers. Furthermore, in the last few decades, certain university research projects, while interesting to professors, were not useful to the industry due to a lack of communication or relevance to industry needs.
3596:
2181:
262:
304:
7447:
871:
741:
33:
47:
4796:–3 in (3.8–7.6 cm) diameter, closed at one end, packed with black powder propellant and strapped to a shaft of bamboo about 4 ft (120 cm) long. A rocket carrying about one pound of powder could travel almost 1,000 yards (910 m). These 'rockets', fitted with swords, would travel several meters in the air before coming down with sword edges facing the enemy. These were used very effectively against the British empire.
3479:), which must be balanced against the tendency of highly energetic propellants to spontaneously explode. Assuming that the chemical potential energy of the propellants can be safely stored, the combustion process results in a great deal of heat being released. A significant fraction of this heat is transferred to kinetic energy in the engine nozzle, propelling the rocket forward in combination with the mass of combustion products released.
708:
4367:
as well as effective transmitter diameters measuring 30–300 meters to propel a vehicle to LEO. Concepts operating in X-band or below must have effective transmitter diameters measured in kilometers to achieve a fine enough beam to follow a vehicle to LEO. The transmitters are too large to fit on mobile platforms and so microwave-powered rockets are constrained to launch near fixed beam director sites.
4321:~1 MW of power per kg of payload is needed to achieve orbit, relatively high accelerations, lasers are blocked by clouds, fog, reflected laser light may be dangerous, pretty much needs hydrogen monopropellant for good performance which needs heavy tankage, some designs are limited to ~600 seconds due to reemission of light since propellant/heat exchanger gets white hot
3176:
launch. In this application, the premium has typically been placed on minimum weight, and it is difficult to achieve high reliability and low weight simultaneously. In addition, if the number of flights launched is low, there is a very high chance of a design, operations or manufacturing error causing destruction of the vehicle.
3078:
would be contracted to another DB specialised in LPRE development (oftentimes each DB had expertise in specific types of LPREs with different applications, propellants, or engine sizes). This meant that the development or design study of a rocket engine was always aimed at a specific application which entailed set requirements.
3094:
vehicle intended for lunar and planetary missions, the Soviet Union developed and put into production at least two engines for each of the six stages. Additionally, they developed alternate engines for a more advanced N-l vehicle. However, the program faced multiple flight failures, and with the United States' successful
814:
lightweight fashion, although is routinely done with other forms of jet engines. In rocketry a lightweight compromise nozzle is generally used and some reduction in atmospheric performance occurs when used at other than the 'design altitude' or when throttled. To improve on this, various exotic nozzle designs such as the
2697:
chamber which burns a moment later, and again increases the chamber pressure, repeating the cycle. This may lead to high-amplitude pressure oscillations, often in ultrasonic range, which may damage the motor. Oscillations of ±200 psi at 25 kHz were the cause of failures of early versions of the
3783:
Throttling, burn termination, and reignition require special designs. Handling issues from ignitable mixture. Lower performance than liquid rockets. If grain cracks it can block nozzle with disastrous results. Grain cracks burn and widen during burn. Refueling harder than simply filling tanks. Cannot
3151:
The decision to keep fatal LPRE accidents hidden from the public eye reflects a broader ethical dilemma. The Soviet government, driven by the pursuit of scientific and technological superiority during the Cold War, sought to maintain an image of invincibility and conceal the failures that accompanied
3077:
Once a mission with a new vehicle (missile or spacecraft) was established it was passed on to a design bureau whose role was to oversee the development of the entire rocket. If none of the previously developed rocket engines met the needs of the mission, a new rocket engine with specific requirements
1704:
term represents the pressure thrust term. At full throttle, the net thrust of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude, because as atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, the pressure thrust term increases. At the surface of the Earth the pressure thrust may be reduced by up to
901:
the pressure that acts on the engine also reciprocally acts on the propellant, it turns out that for any given engine, the speed that the propellant leaves the chamber is unaffected by the chamber pressure (although the thrust is proportional). However, speed is significantly affected by all three of
5708:
According to Lord
Rayleigh's criterion for thermoacoustic processes, "If heat be given to the air at the moment of greatest condensation, or be taken from it at the moment of greatest rarefaction, the vibration is encouraged. On the other hand, if heat be given at the moment of greatest rarefaction,
4366:
MW of power per kg of payload is needed to achieve orbit depending on the propellant, and this incurs infrastructure cost for the beam director plus related R&D costs. Concepts operating in the millimeter-wave region have to contend with weather availability and high altitude beam director sites
3529:
When computing the specific reaction energy of a given propellant combination, the entire mass of the propellants (both fuel and oxidiser) must be included. The exception is in the case of air-breathing engines, which use atmospheric oxygen and consequently have to carry less mass for a given energy
3147:
While the immediate cause of the 1960 accident was attributed to a lack of protective circuits in the missile control unit, the ethical considerations surrounding LPRE accidents in the USSR extend beyond specific technical failures. The secrecy surrounding these accidents, which remained undisclosed
3089:
However, when two parallel engine development programs were supported in order to select the superior one for a specific application, several qualified rocket engine models were never used. This luxury of choice was not commonly available in other nations. However, the use of design bureaus also led
3069:
between the Soviet Union and the United States, characterised by intense competition in spaceflight achievements. Between 14 and 17 Design
Bureaus and research institutes were actively involved in developing LPREs during this period. These organisations received relatively steady support and funding
2867:
from the shock waves generated depends on the size of the rocket and on the exhaust velocity. Such shock waves seem to account for the characteristic crackling and popping sounds produced by large rocket engines when heard live. These noise peaks typically overload microphones and audio electronics,
2739:
The combustion instabilities can be provoked by remains of cleaning solvents in the engine (e.g. the first attempted launch of a Titan II in 1962), reflected shock wave, initial instability after ignition, explosion near the nozzle that reflects into the combustion chamber, and many more factors. In
2151:
In practice, the degree to which rockets can be throttled varies greatly, but most rockets can be throttled by a factor of 2 without great difficulty; the typical limitation is combustion stability, as for example, injectors need a minimum pressure to avoid triggering damaging oscillations (chugging
813:
To maintain this ideal of equality between the exhaust's exit pressure and the ambient pressure, the diameter of the nozzle would need to increase with altitude, giving the pressure a longer nozzle to act on (and reducing the exit pressure and temperature). This increase is difficult to arrange in a
809:
For optimal performance, the pressure of the gas at the end of the nozzle should just equal the ambient pressure: if the exhaust's pressure is lower than the ambient pressure, then the vehicle will be slowed by the difference in pressure between the top of the engine and the exit; on the other hand,
4836:
Goddard began to use liquid propellants in 1921, and in 1926 became the first to launch a liquid-fuelled rocket. Goddard pioneered the use of the De Laval nozzle, lightweight propellant tanks, small light turbopumps, thrust vectoring, the smoothly-throttled liquid fuel engine, regenerative cooling,
4762:
oil, then inserted into hollow wood and lit to "fly away suddenly to whatever place you wish and burn up everything". The second recipe combines one pound of sulfur, two pounds of charcoal, and six pounds of saltpeter—all finely powdered on a marble slab. This powder mixture is packed firmly into a
3554:
With liquid propellants (but not gaseous), failure to ignite within milliseconds usually causes too much liquid propellant to be inside the chamber, and if/when ignition occurs the amount of hot gas created can exceed the maximum design pressure of the chamber, causing a catastrophic failure of the
3116:
The Soviet Union encountered a series of tragic accidents and mishaps in the development and operation of rocket engines. Notably, the USSR holds the unfortunate distinction of having experienced more injuries and deaths resulting from liquid propellant rocket engine (LPRE) accidents than any other
3085:
When only one DB was picked for the development, it was often the result of the relationship between a vehicle or system's chief designer and the chief designer of a rocket engine specialised DB. If the vehicle's chief designer was happy with previous work done by a certain design bureau it was not
2875:
Generally speaking, noise is most intense when a rocket is close to the ground, since the noise from the engines radiates up away from the jet, as well as reflecting off the ground. Also, when the vehicle is moving slowly, little of the chemical energy input to the engine can go into increasing the
2245:
that make up the engine—the pumps, pipes and combustion chambers involved. The lack of inlet duct and the use of dense liquid propellant allows the pressurisation system to be small and lightweight, whereas duct engines have to deal with air which has around three orders of magnitude lower density.
833:
When exhausting into a sufficiently low ambient pressure (vacuum) several issues arise. One is the sheer weight of the nozzle—beyond a certain point, for a particular vehicle, the extra weight of the nozzle outweighs any performance gained. Secondly, as the exhaust gases adiabatically expand within
3586:
Once ignited, rocket chambers are self-sustaining and igniters are not needed and combustion usually proceeds through total consumption of the propellants. Indeed, chambers often spontaneously reignite if they are restarted after being shut down for a few seconds. Unless designed for re-ignition,
2990:
Russia and the former Soviet Union was and still is the world's foremost nation in developing and building rocket engines. From 1950 to 1998, their organisations developed, built, and put into operation a larger number and a larger variety of liquid propellant rocket engine (LPRE) designs than any
2696:
The combustion may display undesired instabilities, of sudden or periodic nature. The pressure in the injection chamber may increase until the propellant flow through the injector plate decreases; a moment later the pressure drops and the flow increases, injecting more propellant in the combustion
931:
hypersonic exhaust jet. The speed increase of a rocket nozzle is mostly determined by its area expansion ratio—the ratio of the area of the exit to the area of the throat, but detailed properties of the gas are also important. Larger ratio nozzles are more massive but are able to extract more heat
800:
Nozzle efficiency is affected by operation in the atmosphere because atmospheric pressure changes with altitude; but due to the supersonic speeds of the gas exiting from a rocket engine, the pressure of the jet may be either below or above ambient, and equilibrium between the two is not reached at
4827:
on a solid-propellant (gunpowder) rocket engine, doubling the thrust and increasing the efficiency by a factor of about twenty-five. This was the birth of the modern rocket engine. He calculated from his independently derived rocket equation that a reasonably sized rocket, using solid fuel, could
3093:
One notable example of duplication and cancellation was the development of engines for the R-9A ballistic missile. Two sets of engines were supported, but ultimately only one set was selected, leaving several perfectly functional engines unused. Similarly, for the ambitious heavy N-l space launch
2977:
Government laboratories, including the Rocket
Propulsion Laboratory (now part of Air Force Research Laboratory), Arnold Engineering Test Center, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, White Sands Proving Grounds, and NASA John H. Glenn Research Center,
2716:
development. The
Rocketdyne engines used in the Atlas family were found to suffer from this effect in several static firing tests, and three missile launches exploded on the pad due to rough combustion in the booster engines. In most cases, it occurred while attempting to start the engines with a
3641:
can be highly visible, as the propellant frequently contains metals such as elemental aluminium which burns with an orange-white flame and adds energy to the combustion process. Rocket engines which burn liquid hydrogen and oxygen will exhibit a nearly transparent exhaust, due to it being mostly
3337:/in-sec). The strongest heat fluxes are found at the throat, which often sees twice that found in the associated chamber and nozzle. This is due to the combination of high speeds (which gives a very thin boundary layer), and although lower than the chamber, the high temperatures seen there. (See
2981:
LPRE programs have been subject to several cancellations in the United States, even after spending millions of dollars on their development. For example, the M-l LOX/LH2 LPRE, Titan I, and the RS-2200 aerospike, as well as several JATO units and large uncooled thrust chambers were cancelled. The
2656:
or otherwise, must be introduced into the combustion chamber at the correct rate in order to have a controlled rate of production of hot gas. A "hard start" indicates that the quantity of combustible propellant that entered the combustion chamber prior to ignition was too large. The result is an
796:
In practice, perfect expansion is only achievable with a variable–exit-area nozzle (since ambient pressure decreases as altitude increases), and is not possible above a certain altitude as ambient pressure approaches zero. If the nozzle is not perfectly expanded, then loss of efficiency occurs.
3175:
vehicles have a reputation for unreliability and danger; especially catastrophic failures. Contrary to this reputation, carefully designed rockets can be made arbitrarily reliable. In military use, rockets are not unreliable. However, one of the main non-military uses of rockets is for orbital
2973:
However the transfer of knowledge from research professors and their projects to the rocket engine industry has been a mixed experience. While some notable professors and relevant research projects have positively influenced industry practices and understanding of LPREs, the connection between
2963:(RFPs) to solicit proposals from private companies and research institutions. Private companies and research institutions, in turn, may invest in research and development (R&D) activities to develop new rocket engine technologies that meet the needs and specifications outlined in the RFPs.
923:
in gases increases with the square root of temperature, the use of hot exhaust gas greatly improves performance. By comparison, at room temperature the speed of sound in air is about 340 m/s while the speed of sound in the hot gas of a rocket engine can be over 1700 m/s; much of this
2871:
More worryingly for space agencies, such sound levels can also damage the launch structure, or worse, be reflected back at the comparatively delicate rocket above. This is why so much water is typically used at launches. The water spray changes the acoustic qualities of the air and reduces or
1188:
in metres/second or ft/s) or as a time (seconds). For example, if an engine producing 100 pounds of thrust runs for 320 seconds and burns 100 pounds of propellant, then the specific impulse is 320 seconds. The higher the specific impulse, the less propellant is required to provide the desired
2969:
Universities provide graduate and undergraduate education to train qualified technical personnel, and their research programs often contribute to the advancement of rocket engine technologies. More than 25 universities in the US have taught or are currently teaching courses related to Liquid
2724:
The problem affecting Atlas vehicles was mainly the so-called "racetrack" phenomenon, where burning propellant would swirl around in a circle at faster and faster speeds, eventually producing vibration strong enough to rupture the engine, leading to complete destruction of the rocket. It was
2735:
In the Soviet space program, combustion instability also proved a problem on some rocket engines, including the RD-107 engine used in the R-7 family and the RD-216 used in the R-14 family, and several failures of these vehicles occurred before the problem was solved. Soviet engineering and
3448:
With regenerative cooling a second boundary layer is found in the coolant channels around the chamber. This boundary layer thickness needs to be as small as possible, since the boundary layer acts as an insulator between the wall and the coolant. This may be achieved by making the coolant
841:, exhaust gas flow detachment will occur in a grossly over-expanded nozzle. As the detachment point will not be uniform around the axis of the engine, a side force may be imparted to the engine. This side force may change over time and result in control problems with the launch vehicle.
797:
Grossly over-expanded nozzles lose less efficiency, but can cause mechanical problems with the nozzle. Fixed-area nozzles become progressively more under-expanded as they gain altitude. Almost all de Laval nozzles will be momentarily grossly over-expanded during startup in an atmosphere.
3381:
Film cooling: The engine is designed with rows of multiple orifices lining the inside wall through which additional propellant is injected, cooling the chamber wall as it evaporates. This method is often used in cases where the heat fluxes are especially high, likely in combination with
466:– holes through which the propellant escapes under pressure; but sometimes may be more complex spray nozzles. When two or more propellants are injected, the jets usually deliberately cause the propellants to collide as this breaks up the flow into smaller droplets that burn more easily.
4758:). The manuscript is composed of recipes for creating incendiary weapons from the mid-eighth to the end of the thirteenth centuries—two of which are rockets. The first recipe calls for one part of colophonium and sulfur added to six parts of saltpeter (potassium nitrate) dissolved in
4358:
operation is possible with these propellants even for small rockets, so there are no location, trajectory and shock constraints added by the rocket staging process. Microwaves are 10-100× cheaper in $ /watt than lasers and have all-weather operation at frequencies below 10 GHz.
3285:). Most construction materials will also combust if exposed to high temperature oxidiser, which leads to a number of design challenges. The nozzle and combustion chamber walls must not be allowed to combust, melt, or vaporize (sometimes facetiously termed an "engine-rich exhaust").
2593:
of any in-use chemical rocket, hydrogen's very low density (about one-fourteenth that of water) requires larger and heavier turbopumps and pipework, which decreases the engine's thrust-to-weight ratio (for example the RS-25) compared to those that do not use hydrogen (NK-33).
2664:
Explosions from hard starts usually cannot happen with purely gaseous propellants, since the amount of the gas present in the chamber is limited by the injector area relative to the throat area, and for practical designs, propellant mass escapes too quickly to be an issue.
3514:
An additional advantage of light molecules is that they may be accelerated to high velocity at temperatures that can be contained by currently available materials - the high gas temperatures in rocket engines pose serious problems for the engineering of survivable motors.
4770:
Articles and books on the subject of rocketry appeared increasingly from the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries. In the sixteenth century, German military engineer Conrad Haas (1509–1576) wrote a manuscript which introduced the construction of multi-staged rockets.
2660:
Avoiding hard starts involves careful timing of the ignition relative to valve timing or varying the mixture ratio so as to limit the maximum pressure that can occur or simply ensuring an adequate ignition source is present well prior to propellant entering the chamber.
3526:(LOX, or LO2), are the most effective propellants in terms of exhaust velocity that have been widely used to date, though a few exotic combinations involving boron or liquid ozone are potentially somewhat better in theory if various practical problems could be solved.
6084:
3955:
Easily tested on ground. High thrust/weight ratios are possible (~14) together with good fuel efficiency over a wide range of airspeeds, mach 0–5.5+; this combination of efficiencies may permit launching to orbit, single stage, or very rapid intercontinental travel.
2991:
other country. Approximately 500 different LPREs have been developed before 2003. For comparison the United States has developed slightly more than 300 (before 2003). The
Soviets also had the most rocket-propelled flight vehicles. They had more liquid propellant
2920:). Then the largest portion of the energy is dissipated in the exhaust's interaction with the ambient air, producing noise. This noise can be reduced somewhat by flame trenches with roofs, by water injection around the jet and by deflecting the jet at an angle.
2758:
Chugging can cause a worsening feedback loop, as cyclic variation in thrust causes longitudinal vibrations to travel up the rocket, causing the fuel lines to vibrate, which in turn do not deliver propellant smoothly into the engines. This phenomenon is known as
1192:
The specific impulse that can be achieved is primarily a function of the propellant mix (and ultimately would limit the specific impulse), but practical limits on chamber pressures and the nozzle expansion ratios reduce the performance that can be achieved.
730:
in air at sea level are not uncommon. About half of the rocket engine's thrust comes from the unbalanced pressures inside the combustion chamber, and the rest comes from the pressures acting against the inside of the nozzle (see diagram). As the gas expands
878:
For a rocket engine to be propellant efficient, it is important that the maximum pressures possible be created on the walls of the chamber and nozzle by a specific amount of propellant; as this is the source of the thrust. This can be achieved by all of:
660:
In order for fuel and oxidiser to flow into the chamber, the pressure of the propellants entering the combustion chamber must exceed the pressure inside the combustion chamber itself. This may be accomplished by a variety of design approaches including
715:
The hot gas produced in the combustion chamber is permitted to escape through an opening (the "throat"), and then through a diverging expansion section. When sufficient pressure is provided to the nozzle (about 2.5–3 times ambient pressure), the nozzle
4202:. The heated propellant is fed through a conventional rocket nozzle to produce thrust. The engine thrust is directly related to the surface area of the solar collector and to the local intensity of the solar radiation and inversely proportional to the
3081:
When it comes to which DBs were awarded contracts for the development of new rocket engines either a single design bureau would be chosen or several design bureaus would be given the same contract which sometimes led to fierce competition between DBs.
4081:
Similar thrust/weight ratio with ion drives (worse), thermal issues, as with ion drives very high power requirements for significant thrust, really needs advanced nuclear reactors, never flown, requires low temperatures for superconductors to work
4432:
Maximum temperature is limited by materials technology, some radioactive particles can be present in exhaust in some designs, nuclear reactor shielding is heavy, unlikely to be permitted from surface of the Earth, thrust/weight ratio is not high.
3490:
with which to dissipate energy. Of these, only translation can do useful work to the vehicle, and while energy does transfer between modes this process occurs on a timescale far in excess of the time required for the exhaust to leave the nozzle.
4496:
Difficulties in heating propellant without losing fissionables in exhaust, massive thermal issues particularly for nozzle/throat region, exhaust almost inherently highly radioactive. Nuclear lightbulb variants can contain fissionables, but cut
2982:
cancellations of these programs were not related to the specific LPRE's performance or any issues with it. Instead, they were due to the cancellation of the vehicle programs the engine was intended for or budget cuts imposed by the government.
1584:
Since, unlike a jet engine, a conventional rocket motor lacks an air intake, there is no 'ram drag' to deduct from the gross thrust. Consequently, the net thrust of a rocket motor is equal to the gross thrust (apart from static back pressure).
3086:
unusual to see continued reliance on that LPRE bureau for that class of engines. For example, all but one of the LPREs for submarine-launched missiles were developed by the same design bureau for the same vehicle development prime contractor.
3884:
Three different propellants (usually hydrogen, hydrocarbon, and liquid oxygen) are introduced into a combustion chamber in variable mixture ratios, or multiple engines are used with fixed propellant mixture ratios and throttled or shut down
3498:
an exhaust molecule has, the more rotational and vibrational modes it will have. Consequently, it is generally desirable for the exhaust species to be as simple as possible, with a diatomic molecule composed of light, abundant atoms such as
3273:
Most other jet engines have gas turbines in the hot exhaust. Due to their larger surface area, they are harder to cool and hence there is a need to run the combustion processes at much lower temperatures, losing efficiency. In addition,
3664:
The shape of the jet varies for a fixed-area nozzle as the expansion ratio varies with altitude: at high altitude all rockets are grossly under-expanded, and a quite small percentage of exhaust gases actually end up expanding forwards.
3292:, where the propellant is passed through tubes around the combustion chamber or nozzle, and other techniques, such as film cooling, are employed to give longer nozzle and chamber life. These techniques ensure that a gaseous thermal
3269:
For efficiency reasons, higher temperatures are desirable, but materials lose their strength if the temperature becomes too high. Rockets run with combustion temperatures that can reach 6,000 °F (3,300 °C; 3,600 K).
2736:
manufacturing processes never satisfactorily resolved combustion instability in larger RP-1/LOX engines, so the RD-171 engine used to power the Zenit family still used four smaller thrust chambers fed by a common engine mechanism.
3061:
were outsourced to other organisations and locations with more suitable test facilities. Many DBs also had housing complexes, gymnasiums, and medical facilities intended to support the needs of their employees and their families.
2816:
Testing for the possibility of screeching is sometimes done by exploding small explosive charges outside the combustion chamber with a tube set tangentially to the combustion chamber near the injectors to determine the engine's
2805:
Such effects are very difficult to predict analytically during the design process, and have usually been addressed by expensive, time-consuming and extensive testing, combined with trial and error remedial correction measures.
2147:
Rockets can usually be throttled down to an exit pressure of about one-third of ambient pressure (often limited by flow separation in nozzles) and up to a maximum limit determined only by the mechanical strength of the engine.
3800:
Some oxidisers are monopropellants, can explode in own right; mechanical failure of solid propellant can block nozzle (very rare with rubberised propellant), central hole widens over burn and negatively affects mixture ratio.
1346:
6092:
2614:
psi). When operated within significant atmospheric pressure, higher combustion chamber pressures give better performance by permitting a larger and more efficient nozzle to be fitted without it being grossly overexpanded.
4749:
It is stated that "the reactive forces of incendiaries were probably not applied to the propulsion of projectiles prior to the 13th century". A turning point in rocket technology emerged with a short manuscript entitled
3580:, with rockets the total injector area is less than the throat thus the chamber pressure tends to ambient prior to ignition and high pressures cannot form even if the entire chamber is full of flammable gas at ignition.
3568:
Ignition can be achieved by a number of different methods; a pyrotechnic charge can be used, a plasma torch can be used, or electric spark ignition may be employed. Some fuel/oxidiser combinations ignite on contact
2770:
In the worst case, this may result in damage to the payload or vehicle. Chugging can be minimised by using several methods, such as installing energy-absorbing devices on feed lines. Chugging may cause
Screeching.
4986:
3011:
Unlike many other countries where the development and production of rocket engines were consolidated within a single organisation, the Soviet Union took a different approach, they established numerous specialised
6375:
The official website of test pilot Erich
Warsitz (world's first jet pilot) which includes videos of the Heinkel He 112 fitted with von Braun's and Hellmuth Walter's rocket engines (as well as the He 111 with ATO
478:, used to hold a part of the combustion in a slower-flowing portion of the combustion chamber, are not needed. The dimensions of the cylinder are such that the propellant is able to combust thoroughly; different
5034:), and one failure to restart in orbit (the third-stage engine of Apollo 6). But these failures did not result in vehicle loss or mission abort (although the failure of Apollo 6's third-stage engine to restart
5105:
2859:
that sprayed 1.1 million litres (290,000 US gal) of water around the base of the rocket in 41 seconds at launch time. Using this system kept sound levels within the payload bay to 142 dB.
1772:
at the throat, and because the supersonic exhaust prevents external pressure influences travelling upstream, it turns out that the pressure at the exit is ideally exactly proportional to the propellant flow
3916:
Similar efficiency to rockets at low speed or exoatmospheric, inlet difficulties, a relatively undeveloped and unexplored type, cooling difficulties, very noisy, thrust/weight ratio is similar to ramjets.
2648:
refers to an over-pressure condition during start of a rocket engine at ignition. In the worst cases, this takes the form of an unconfined explosion, resulting in the damage or destruction of the engine.
2184:
Rocket vehicle mechanical efficiency as a function of vehicle instantaneous speed divided by effective exhaust speed. These percentages need to be multiplied by internal engine efficiency to get overall
423:
Rocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of tank, or within the combustion chamber itself, prior to being ejected from a rocket engine in the form of a fluid jet to produce thrust.
681:
is a critical part of SpaceX strategy to reduce launch vehicle fluids from five in their legacy Falcon 9 vehicle family to just two in
Starship, eliminating not only the helium tank pressurant but all
3445:) that is notably cooler than the combustion temperature. Disruption of the boundary layer may occur during cooling failures or combustion instabilities, and wall failure typically occurs soon after.
2102:
3482:
Ideally all the reaction energy appears as kinetic energy of the exhaust gases, as exhaust velocity is the single most important performance parameter of an engine. However, real exhaust species are
3152:
their advancements. This prioritisation of national prestige over the well-being and safety of workers raises questions about the ethical responsibility of the state and the organisations involved.
3132:. The explosion occurred after the second-stage rocket engine suddenly ignited, causing the fully loaded missile to disintegrate. The explosion resulted from the ignition and explosion of the mixed
897:
Since all of these things minimise the mass of the propellant used, and since pressure is proportional to the mass of propellant present to be accelerated as it pushes on the engine, and since from
759:
of the exhaust jet depends on the chamber pressure and the ratio of exit to throat area of the nozzle. As exit pressure varies from the ambient (atmospheric) pressure, a choked nozzle is said to be
3842:
Pumps needed for high performance are expensive to design, huge thermal fluxes across combustion chamber wall can impact reuse, failure modes include major explosions, a lot of plumbing is needed.
3278:
use air as an oxidant, which contains 78% largely unreactive nitrogen, which dilutes the reaction and lowers the temperatures. Rockets have none of these inherent combustion temperature limiters.
3016:(DB) which would compete for development contracts. These design bureaus, or "konstruktorskoye buro" (KB) in Russian were state run organisations which were primarily responsible for carrying out
4194:, and therefore does not require an electrical generator as most other forms of solar-powered propulsion do. A solar thermal rocket only has to carry the means of capturing solar energy, such as
3113:
point of view, the ethical implications of these incidents shed light on the complex relationship between technology, human factors, and the prioritisation of scientific advancement over safety.
711:
Rocket thrust is caused by pressures acting in the combustion chamber and nozzle. From Newton's third law, equal and opposite pressures act on the exhaust, and this accelerates it to high speeds.
2933:
The development of the US rocket engine industry has been shaped by a complex web of relationships between government agencies, private companies, research institutions, and other stakeholders.
2999: derived or converted from these decommissioned ballistic missiles than any other nation. As of the end of 1998, the Russians (or earlier the Soviet Union) had successfully launched 2573
2755:. Usually it is caused by pressure variations in feed lines due to variations in acceleration of the vehicle, when rocket engines are building up thrust, are shut down or are being throttled.
1872:
830:
have been proposed, each providing some way to adapt to changing ambient air pressure and each allowing the gas to expand further against the nozzle, giving extra thrust at higher altitudes.
571:
3288:
Rockets that use common construction materials such as aluminium, steel, nickel or copper alloys must employ cooling systems to limit the temperatures that engine structures experience.
3109:
The development of rocket engines in the Soviet Union was marked by significant achievements, but it also carried ethical considerations due to numerous accidents and fatalities. From a
1708:
Maximum efficiency for a rocket engine is achieved by maximising the momentum contribution of the equation without incurring penalties from over expanding the exhaust. This occurs when
3218:
engine, used in a cluster of five in the Saturn V second stage, and singly in the Saturn IB second stage and Saturn V third stage, had no catastrophic failures in 86 engine-flights.
1941:
1639:
2676:
on
December 21, 1932. Delayed ignition allowed the chamber to fill with alcohol and liquid oxygen, which exploded violently. Shrapnel was embedded in the walls, but nobody was hit.
2212:
employing a rocket engine the energetic efficiency is very good if the vehicle speed approaches or somewhat exceeds the exhaust velocity (relative to launch); but at low speeds the
1702:
3839:
Up to ~99% efficient combustion with excellent mixture control, throttleable, can be used with turbopumps which permits incredibly lightweight tanks, can be safe with extreme care
2966:
Alongside private companies, universities, independent research institutes and government laboratories also play a critical role in the research and development of rocket engines.
7782:
5937:
An additional coolant line takes alcohol to fine holes in the inner chamber wall. The alcohol flows alongside the wall, creating a thin, evaporating film for additional cooling.
924:
performance is due to the higher temperature, but additionally rocket propellants are chosen to be of low molecular mass, and this also gives a higher velocity compared to air.
4885:
in 1949. The first staged combustion engine was the S1.5400 used in the Soviet planetary rocket, designed by Melnikov, a former assistant to Isaev. About the same time (1959),
2721:, solving combustion instability was a high priority, and the final two Mercury flights sported an upgraded propulsion system with baffled injectors and a hypergolic igniter.
427:
Chemical rocket propellants are the most commonly used. These undergo exothermic chemical reactions producing a hot gas jet for propulsion. Alternatively, a chemically inert
3101:
These examples demonstrate the complex dynamics and challenges faced by the Soviet Union in managing the development and production of rocket engines through Design Bureaus.
3090:
to certain issues, including program cancellations and duplication. Some major programs were cancelled, resulting in the disposal or storage of previously developed engines.
3003:
with LPREs or almost 65% of the world total of 3973. All of these vehicle flights were made possible by the timely development of suitable high-performance reliable LPREs.
1752:
4931:
rocket to send humans to the Moon. The high specific impulse and low density of liquid hydrogen lowered the upper stage mass and the overall size and cost of the vehicle.
2868:
and so are generally weakened or entirely absent in recorded or broadcast audio reproductions. For large rockets at close range, the acoustic effects could actually kill.
752:, a fixed geometry nozzle with a high expansion-ratio. The large bell- or cone-shaped nozzle extension beyond the throat gives the rocket engine its characteristic shape.
6117:
3281:
The temperatures reached by combustion in rocket engines often substantially exceed the melting points of the nozzle and combustion chamber materials (about 1,200 K for
2138:
1800:
1387:
3952:
Intake air is chilled to very low temperatures at inlet before passing through a ramjet or turbojet engine. Can be combined with a rocket engine for orbital insertion.
3241:, used in a cluster of three, flew in 46 refurbished engine units. These made a total of 405 engine-flights with no catastrophic in-flight failures. A single in-flight
2238:
Rockets, of all the jet engines, indeed of essentially all engines, have the highest thrust-to-weight ratio. This is especially true for liquid-fuelled rocket engines.
1469:
3587:
when cooled, many rockets cannot be restarted without at least minor maintenance, such as replacement of the pyrotechnic igniter or even refueling of the propellants.
5109:
2790:. In extreme cases combustion can end up being forced backwards through the injectors – this can cause explosions with monopropellants. Buzzing may cause Screeching.
2144:
it is controlled by changing the area of propellant that is burning and this can be designed into the propellant grain (and hence cannot be controlled in real-time).
1574:
3464:
performance by lowering the average molecular weight of the exhaust and increasing the efficiency with which combustion heat is converted to kinetic exhaust energy.
1156:
2910:
2632:
In addition, significant temperature gradients are set up in the walls of the chamber and nozzle, these cause differential expansion of the inner liner that create
2005:
1972:
1535:
1502:
1420:
1186:
722:
and a supersonic jet is formed, dramatically accelerating the gas, converting most of the thermal energy into kinetic energy. Exhaust speeds vary, depending on the
633:
604:
510:
7584:
5585:
4595:
due to shock, minimum size for nuclear bombs is still pretty big, expensive at small scales, nuclear treaty issues, fallout when used below Earth's magnetosphere.
2740:
stable engine designs the oscillations are quickly suppressed; in unstable designs they persist for prolonged periods. Oscillation suppressors are commonly used.
834:
the nozzle they cool, and eventually some of the chemicals can freeze, producing 'snow' within the jet. This causes instabilities in the jet and must be avoided.
135:
Compared to other types of jet engine, rocket engines are the lightest and have the highest thrust, but are the least propellant-efficient (they have the lowest
5176:
4350:
and rocket payload fraction, ammonia or methane are economically superior for earth-to-orbit rockets due to their particular combination of high density and I
3811:
Propellant (such as hydrazine, hydrogen peroxide or nitrous oxide) flows over a catalyst and exothermically decomposes; hot gases are emitted through nozzle.
3460:, which lowers combustion temperatures. This reduces heat loads on the engine and allows lower cost materials and a simplified cooling system. This can also
5764:
3378:
is routed around the nozzle before being injected into the combustion chamber or preburner. This is the most widely applied method of rocket engine cooling.
2684:
The extreme vibration and acoustic environment inside a rocket motor commonly result in peak stresses well above mean values, especially in the presence of
7775:
6021:
3164:
before being put into production. For high altitude engines, either a shorter nozzle must be used, or the rocket must be tested in a large vacuum chamber.
2809:
Screeching is often dealt with by detailed changes to injectors, changes in the propellant chemistry, vaporising the propellant before injection or use of
946:
Vehicles typically require the overall thrust to change direction over the length of the burn. A number of different ways to achieve this have been flown:
3511:, most typically oxygen or an oxygen-rich species, must be introduced into the combustion process, adding mass and chemical bonds to the exhaust species.
964:
Multiple engines (often canted at slight angles) are deployed but throttled to give the overall vector that is required, giving only a very small penalty.
5898:
673:
pressurization system common to many large rocket engines or, in some newer rocket systems, by a bleed-off of high-pressure gas from the engine cycle to
5262:
5234:
1212:
372:) speed, and the reaction to this pushes the engine in the opposite direction. Combustion is most frequently used for practical rockets, as the laws of
5994:
3117:
country. These incidents brought into question the ethical considerations surrounding the development, testing, and operational use of rocket engines.
3583:
Solid propellants are usually ignited with one-shot pyrotechnic devices and combustion usually proceeds through total consumption of the propellants.
7579:
4040:
Identical to resistojet except the heating element is replaced with an electrical arc, eliminating the physical requirements of the heating element.
4273:
Only useful in space, as thrust is fairly low, but hydrogen has not been traditionally thought to be easily stored in space, otherwise moderate/low
3057:
of engines installed in vehicle stages, or simulating altitude conditions during engine tests. In certain cases, engine testing, certification and
883:
heating the propellant to as high a temperature as possible (using a high energy fuel, containing hydrogen and carbon and sometimes metals such as
3065:
The Soviet Union's LPRE development effort saw significant growth during the 1960s and reached its peak in the 1970s. This era coincided with the
7768:
984:
as well as being able to operate outside the atmosphere, and while permitting the use of low pressure and hence lightweight tanks and structure.
2629:
Worse, due to the high temperatures created in rocket engines the materials used tend to have a significantly lowered working tensile strength.
5924:
4063:
3427:
3128:
launch facility. This incident resulted in the deaths of 124 engineers and military personnel, including Marshal M.I. Nedelin, a former deputy
5418:
2717:"dry start" method whereby the igniter mechanism would be activated prior to propellant injection. During the process of man-rating Atlas for
912:
is one of the most important parameters of a rocket engine (although weight, cost, ease of manufacture etc. are usually also very important).
810:
if the exhaust's pressure is higher, then exhaust pressure that could have been converted into thrust is not converted, and energy is wasted.
352:. The fluid is usually a gas created by high pressure (150-to-4,350-pound-per-square-inch (10 to 300 bar)) combustion of solid or liquid
4600:
4455:
as their primary power source. Various types of nuclear propulsion have been proposed, and some of them tested, for spacecraft applications:
3573:), and non-hypergolic fuels can be "chemically ignited" by priming the fuel lines with hypergolic propellants (popular in Russian engines).
1802:, provided the mixture ratios and combustion efficiencies are maintained. It is thus quite usual to rearrange the above equation slightly:
2140:(usually measured in kg/s or lb/s). In liquid and hybrid rockets, the propellant flow entering the chamber is controlled using valves, in
5443:
4612:
Containment of antimatter, production of antimatter in macroscopic quantities is not currently feasible. Theoretical only at this point.
6211:
8161:
5063:. Translation of the German language original "Wege zur Raumschiffahrt," (1920). Tunis, Tunisia: Agence Tunisienne de Public-Relations.
3982:
2783:. Usually caused due to insufficient pressure drop across the injectors. It generally is mostly annoying, rather than being damaging.
1757:
Since specific impulse is force divided by the rate of mass flow, this equation means that the specific impulse varies with altitude.
3368:, is passed around the nozzle and dumped. This cooling method has various issues, such as wasting propellant. It is only used rarely.
3351:: The combustion chamber inside walls are lined with a material that traps heat and carries it away with the exhaust as it vaporizes.
2393:
1057:
5836:
4315:
Propellant is heated by light beam (often laser) aimed at vehicle from a distance, either directly or indirectly via heat exchanger
3927:
A combined cycle turbojet/rocket where an additional oxidiser such as oxygen is added to the airstream to increase maximum altitude
3797:
Quite simple, solid fuel is essentially inert without oxidiser, safer; cracks do not escalate, throttleable and easy to switch off.
3534:
have a much better effective energy output per unit mass of propellant that must be carried, but are similar per unit mass of fuel.
3098:, the program was ultimately cancelled, leaving the Soviet Union with a surplus of newly qualified engines without a clear purpose.
1768:
Due to the specific impulse varying with pressure, a quantity that is easy to compare and calculate with is useful. Because rockets
7574:
7569:
7564:
7188:
6402:
1067:
980:), very high exhaust speeds (around 10 times the speed of sound in air at sea level) and very high thrust/weight ratios (>100)
8151:
6344:
5009:, however, experienced occasional failures (some of them catastrophic) in its other use cases, as the engine for the much-flown
4247:
987:
Rockets can be further optimised to even more extreme performance along one or more of these axes at the expense of the others.
8299:
8124:
6128:
4890:
3551:
With liquid and hybrid rockets, immediate ignition of the propellants as they first enter the combustion chamber is essential.
3394:
inner combustion chamber wall and transpirates. So far, this method has not seen usage due to various issues with this concept.
2015:
6354:
6349:
5075:
3333:
that can pass through the wall are among the highest in engineering; fluxes are generally in the range of 0.8–80 MW/m (0.5-50
744:
The four expansion regimes of a de Laval nozzle: • under-expanded • perfectly expanded • over-expanded • grossly over-expanded
6301:
6276:
6243:
5820:
5483:
5369:
4867:
The turbopump was employed by German scientists in World War II. Until then cooling the nozzle had been problematic, and the
2702:
893:
using propellants which are, or decompose to, simple molecules with few degrees of freedom to maximise translational velocity
735:) the pressure against the nozzle's walls forces the rocket engine in one direction while accelerating the gas in the other.
657:
ratios. This, in combination with the high pressures, means that the rate of heat conduction through the walls is very high.
6433:
4947:
4246:
is comparable to nuclear thermal rocket, without the problems and complexity of controlling a fission reaction. Ability to
2155:
For example, some more recent liquid-propellant engine designs that have been optimised for greater throttling capability (
377:
5790:
NASA CR-566, Acoustic Prediction Methods For Rocket Engines, Including The Effects Of Clustered Engines And Deflected Flow
4819:
The modern solid- and liquid-fuelled engines became realities early in the 20th century, thanks to the American physicist
8156:
4694:, propelled a wooden bird along wires using steam. However, it was not powerful enough to take off under its own thrust.
2956:
1754:. Since ambient pressure changes with altitude, most rocket engines spend very little time operating at peak efficiency.
3441:
In all cases, another effect that aids in cooling the rocket engine chamber wall is a thin layer of combustion gases (a
8437:
7699:
3227:
3148:
for approximately three decades, raises concerns about transparency, accountability, and the protection of human life.
3129:
2945:
1050:
961:
Just the combustion chamber and nozzle is gimballed, the pumps are fixed, and high pressure feeds attach to the engine.
3206:
engine, used in a cluster of six in the Saturn I second stage, had no catastrophic failures in 36 engine-flights. The
1807:
143:, the lightest of all elements, but chemical rockets produce a mix of heavier species, reducing the exhaust velocity.
6184:
5908:
5748:
5685:
5647:
5489:
5375:
5272:
5244:
4963:
3831:
3361:
materials, which take heat flux until its outer thrust chamber wall glows red- or white-hot, radiating the heat away.
3231:
2166:
Solid rockets can be throttled by using shaped grains that will vary their surface area over the course of the burn.
927:
Expansion in the rocket nozzle then further multiplies the speed, typically between 1.5 and 2 times, giving a highly
4565:
Thermal issues in nozzle, propellant could be unstable, highly radioactive exhaust. Theoretical only at this point.
902:
the above factors and the exhaust speed is an excellent measure of the engine propellant efficiency. This is termed
8024:
5789:
5614:
5182:
4874:
3049:
which specialised in rocket engines often possessed the necessary personnel, facilities, and equipment to conduct l
2851:
of noise around its base. To reduce this, and the risk of payload damage or injury to the crew atop the stack, the
756:
5768:
5134:
1705:
30%, depending on the engine design. This reduction drops roughly exponentially to zero with increasing altitude.
522:
8467:
7903:
7098:
6070:
5393:
5320:
3847:
3141:
653:. No atmospheric nitrogen is present to dilute and cool the combustion, so the propellant mixture can reach true
312:
8073:
4886:
4763:
long and narrow case. The introduction of saltpeter into pyrotechnic mixtures connected the shift from hurled
4721:
but the principles behind it were not well understood, and it was not developed into a practical power source.
3110:
2732:. Some of the early units tested exploded during static firing, which led to the addition of injector baffles.
2340:
2007: = the thrust coefficient constant of the nozzle (dependent on nozzle geometry, typically about 2)
6380:
2835:
For all but the very smallest sizes, rocket exhaust compared to other engines is generally very noisy. As the
856:, attempt to minimize performance losses by adjusting to varying expansion ratio caused by changing altitude.
642:
The temperatures and pressures typically reached in a rocket combustion chamber in order to achieve practical
3836:
Two fluid (typically liquid) propellants are introduced through injectors into combustion chamber and burnt.
3383:
3371:
3296:
touching the material is kept below the temperature which would cause the material to catastrophically fail.
3289:
1885:
1591:
8261:
7729:
6002:. Houston, TX: NASA, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. p. 8. Archived from the original on 23 August 2022
1644:
6395:
5014:
4871:
ballistic missile used dilute alcohol for the fuel, which reduced the combustion temperature sufficiently.
3300:
845:
17:
2821:
and then evaluating the time response of the chamber pressure- a fast recovery indicates a stable system.
8109:
6321:
5675:
4813:
4267:
3863:
3423:
3161:
3054:
3050:
666:
456:
engines use a combination of solid and liquid or gaseous propellants. Both liquid and hybrid rockets use
6359:
3868:
Rocket takes off as a bipropellant rocket, then turns to using just one propellant as a monopropellant.
1506:= flow area at nozzle exit plane (or the plane where the jet leaves the nozzle if separated flow)
8401:
8292:
8104:
7880:
7719:
7053:
6772:
6734:
4952:
4820:
2786:
Buzzing is known to have adverse effects on engine performance and reliability, primarily as it causes
908:
4342:
is comparable to Nuclear Thermal rocket combined with T/W comparable to conventional rocket. While LH
4160:
Hot water is stored in a tank at high temperature / pressure and turns to steam in nozzle
3606:
Rocket jets vary depending on the rocket engine, design altitude, altitude, thrust and other factors.
3503:
being ideal in practical terms. However, in the case of a chemical rocket, hydrogen is a reactant and
2725:
eventually solved by adding several baffles around the injector face to break up swirling propellant.
431:
can be heated by a high-energy power source through a heat exchanger in lieu of a combustion chamber.
7018:
7013:
5512:
5349:
4882:
4544:
4195:
3888:
Reduces take-off weight, since hydrogen is lighter; combines good thrust to weight with high average
1641:
term represents the momentum thrust, which remains constant at a given throttle setting, whereas the
1026:
674:
389:
167:
3930:
Very close to existing designs, operates in very high altitude, wide range of altitude and airspeed
2201:
which is a reversible process, and hence they give efficiencies which are very close to that of the
8359:
8181:
8099:
7959:
7114:
6443:
5422:
4809:
4570:
3794:
Separate oxidiser/fuel; typically the oxidiser is liquid and kept in a tank and the fuel is solid.
3789:
3737:
3706:
Altitude typically limited to a few hundred feet or so (world record is 830 meters, or 2,723 feet)
3252:
3017:
2937:
2856:
2852:
2317:
1711:
669:
to advance fluid flow. Tank pressure may be maintained by several means, including a high-pressure
449:
269:
212:
7008:
5993:
Bartlett, W.; Kirkland, Z. D.; Polifka, R. W.; Smithson, J. C.; Spencer, G. L. (7 February 1966).
4728:
to propel projectiles was a precursor to the development of the first solid rocket. Ninth Century
3654:
452:
force separate fuel and oxidiser components into the combustion chamber, where they mix and burn.
8472:
8053:
7840:
7455:
6681:
6674:
6534:
6388:
5488:[«Konstruktorskoe Buro Khimavtomatiky» - Scientific-Research Complex / RD0750.]. KBKhA -
4908:
In the West, the first laboratory staged-combustion test engine was built in Germany in 1963, by
4511:
4475:
4418:
Propellant (typically, hydrogen) is passed through a nuclear reactor to heat to high temperature
4326:
4259:
3946:
3759:
3638:
3326:
Materials technology, combined with the engine design, is a limiting factor in chemical rockets.
3074:, which facilitated the continuous development of new engine concepts and manufacturing methods.
2371:
1975:
690:
650:
458:
5950:
4782:. These usually consisted of a tube of soft hammered iron about 8 in (20 cm) long and
3817:
Catalysts can be easily contaminated, monopropellants can detonate if contaminated or provoked,
2114:
1776:
1363:
8029:
7999:
7994:
7918:
7835:
7539:
7408:
7178:
7168:
6859:
6841:
5010:
4805:
4412:
4263:
4087:
3964:
3537:
Computer programs that predict the performance of propellants in rocket engines are available.
2313:
2267:
2233:
2160:
1435:
385:
171:
101:
50:
7080:
6268:
5447:
3764:
Ignitable, self-sustaining solid fuel/oxidiser mixture ("grain") with central hole and nozzle
2193:
for generating a high speed jet, as a consequence of the high combustion temperature and high
958:
and any propellant feeds reach the engine via low pressure flexible pipes or rotary couplings.
8285:
8266:
8034:
8004:
7984:
7724:
7674:
7594:
7554:
7549:
7544:
7418:
7193:
7143:
7081:
6529:
6235:
5470:
4718:
4448:
4355:
3910:
Essentially a ramjet where intake air is compressed and burnt with the exhaust from a rocket
3806:
3434:
3387:
3133:
2951:
Generally, the need or demand for a new rocket engine comes from government agencies such as
2618:
However, these high pressures cause the outermost part of the chamber to be under very large
2213:
2205:. Given the temperatures reached, over 60% efficiency can be achieved with chemical rockets.
1546:
898:
682:
513:
318:
236:
89:
7599:
5738:
4429:
can be high, perhaps 900 seconds or more, above unity thrust/weight ratio with some designs
3299:
Material exceptions that can sustain rocket combustion temperatures to a certain degree are
1131:
8354:
8251:
8214:
8166:
7928:
7694:
7689:
7684:
7679:
7669:
7103:
6415:
4935:
4861:
4714:
4481:
Nuclear reaction using a gaseous state fission reactor in intimate contact with propellant
4229:
4187:
3942:
3905:
3879:
3614:
3433:
Radiatively and film cooled combustion chamber with a radiatively cooled nozzle extension:
3375:
3071:
2960:
2883:
1983:
1950:
1513:
1480:
1398:
1164:
702:
611:
582:
488:
40:
6748:
6741:
5972:
4576:
Shaped nuclear bombs are detonated behind vehicle and blast is caught by a 'pusher plate'
3422:
Ablatively and film cooled combustion chamber with a radiatively cooled nozzle extension:
2602:
Rocket combustion chambers are normally operated at fairly high pressure, typically 10–200
2152:
or combustion instabilities); but injectors can be optimised and tested for wider ranges.
8:
8448:
8374:
8349:
7704:
7524:
7224:
7094:
6779:
6419:
6034:
5872:
5843:
5139:
5080:
4804:
Slow development of this technology continued up to the later 19th century, when Russian
4395:
3415:
Regeneratively cooled combustion chamber with an ablatively cooled nozzle extension: The
3025:
2729:
2511:
2198:
1099:
1078:
7760:
6205:
5792:
From website of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Langley (NASA Langley)
4960:, an effect of the exhaust jet of a rocket that tends to slow a vehicle's rotation speed
3275:
8319:
8119:
8068:
7519:
6154:
6015:
5060:
4980:
4972:(Nuclear Energy for Rocket Vehicle Applications), a US nuclear thermal rocket programme
4670:
4444:
3622:
2830:
2439:
1074:
643:
381:
365:
325:
284:
105:
96:
of reactive chemicals to supply the necessary energy, but non-combusting forms such as
6261:
6228:
5951:"U.S. Manned Rocket Propulsion Evolution Part 8.12: Rocketdyne F-1 Engine Description"
3933:
Atmospheric airspeed limited to same range as turbojet engine, carrying oxidiser like
3900:
Similar issues to bipropellant, but with more plumbing, more research and development
3700:
Partially filled pressurised carbonated drinks container with tail and nose weighting
3649:
The nozzle is usually over-expanded at sea level, and the exhaust can exhibit visible
967:
High-temperature vanes protrude into the exhaust and can be tilted to deflect the jet.
8146:
7938:
6297:
6272:
6239:
6180:
6046:
5904:
5816:
5744:
5681:
5643:
5268:
5240:
5026:
The J-2 had three premature in-flight shutdowns (two second-stage engine failures on
4983:, NASA development of nuclear propulsion for long-duration spaceflight, begun in 2003
4841:
4634:
4004:
3711:
3643:
3472:
3354:
3200:
2992:
2706:
2673:
2669:
2633:
2194:
1117:
874:
Typical temperature (T), pressure (p), and velocity (v) profiles in a de Laval Nozzle
732:
479:
353:
349:
331:
290:
249:
192:
129:
97:
69:
5718:
Lord Rayleigh (1878) "The explanation of certain acoustical phenomena" (namely, the
5709:
or abstracted at the moment of greatest condensation, the vibration is discouraged."
1207:
Below is an approximate equation for calculating the net thrust of a rocket engine:
8246:
8039:
8009:
7979:
7913:
7649:
7629:
6364:
4705:
4580:
4554:
4498:
4485:
4452:
4421:
4334:
4310:
4274:
4238:
4167:
4155:
4044:
4018:
4014:
of a heating element. May also be used to impart extra energy to a monopropellant.
3889:
3818:
3772:
3717:
3487:
2818:
2810:
2787:
2760:
2698:
2590:
1125:
1111:
996:
941:
865:
849:
827:
823:
136:
6309:
5735:
E. C. Fernandes and M. V. Heitor, "Unsteady flames and the Rayleigh criterion" in
5493:
5485:"Конструкторское бюро химавтоматики" - Научно-исследовательский комплекс / РД0750.
5379:
3913:
Mach 0 to Mach 4.5+ (can also run exoatmospheric), good efficiency at Mach 2 to 4
3595:
3053:. Some even had specialised facilities for testing very large engines, conducting
2657:
excessive spike of pressure, possibly leading to structural failure or explosion.
1341:{\displaystyle F_{n}={\dot {m}}\;v_{e}={\dot {m}}\;v_{e-opt}+A_{e}(p_{e}-p_{amb})}
228:
use a solid propellant in the combustion chamber, to which a second liquid or gas
8396:
8324:
8204:
7898:
7826:
7795:
7048:
6466:
5706:(2nd ed.). Macmillan (reprinted by Dover Publications in 1945). p. 226.
4934:
The record for most engines on one rocket flight is 44, set by NASA in 2016 on a
4845:
4824:
4588:, very high thrust/weight ratio, no show stoppers are known for this technology.
4255:
3531:
3508:
3476:
3058:
2941:
2864:
2718:
2623:
2586:
2242:
2221:
2175:
1037:
838:
819:
749:
723:
678:
462:
to introduce the propellant into the chamber. These are often an array of simple
361:
275:
229:
184:
85:
5508:
5345:
441:, and the propellant storage casing effectively becomes the combustion chamber.
8334:
7811:
7023:
7003:
6998:
6993:
6617:
6454:
6422:
6410:
5543:
5459:
With afterburner, reverser and nozzle ... 3,175 kg ... Afterburner ... 169.2 kN
4924:
4920:
4909:
4893:
for Korolev's orbital ICBM, GR-1. Kuznetsov later evolved that design into the
4857:
4853:
4849:
4739:
4729:
4687:
4680:
3650:
3504:
3457:
3442:
3410:
3293:
3215:
3207:
3196:
3185:
3121:
3040:
2996:
2779:
An intermediate frequency oscillation in chamber pressure between 200 and 1000
2217:
2180:
920:
727:
654:
408:
393:
373:
162:
5573:
5531:
3409:
Regeneratively cooled combustion chamber with a film cooled nozzle extension:
3051:
aboratory tests, flow tests, and ground testing of experimental rocket engines
1978:
of the combustion chamber (dependent on propellants and combustion efficiency)
437:
propellants are prepared in a mixture of fuel and oxidising components called
8461:
8406:
8384:
8171:
7969:
7943:
7028:
6812:
6728:
6654:
6473:
6308:
Includes von Braun's and Hellmuth Walter's experiments with rocket aircraft.
6200:
5692:
See Chapter 8, Section 6 and especially Section 7, re combustion instability.
4975:
4676:
4617:
4191:
4034:
4011:
3658:
3599:
3495:
3247:
2844:
1095:
1033:
779:
677:
the propellant tanks For example, the self-pressurization gas system of the
453:
428:
368:. As the gases expand through the nozzle, they are accelerated to very high (
261:
224:
147:
73:
5562:
3852:
A bipropellant thruster using gas propellant for both the oxidiser and fuel
2813:
within the combustion chambers to change the resonant modes of the chamber.
303:
8419:
8379:
8225:
8199:
8189:
8019:
7974:
6369:
5374:[RD0410. Nuclear Rocket Engine. Advanced launch vehicles]. KBKhA -
4775:
4725:
4710:
4684:
4527:
4318:
Simple in principle, in principle very high exhaust speeds can be achieved
4111:
3768:
3695:
3124:
ballistic missile suffered a catastrophic accident on the launchpad at the
3095:
2202:
2190:
2141:
475:
463:
434:
404:
400:
217:
32:
5215:
4915:
Liquid hydrogen engines were first successfully developed in America: the
3784:
be turned off after ignition; will fire until all solid fuel is depleted.
870:
740:
474:
For chemical rockets the combustion chamber is typically cylindrical, and
380:) dictate that high temperatures and pressures are desirable for the best
8424:
8344:
8329:
8308:
8094:
8089:
7908:
7806:
7798:
7118:
7085:
5677:
Rocket Propulsion Elements: An Introduction to the Engineering of Rockets
4957:
4017:
Efficient where electrical power is at a lower premium than mass. Higher
4010:
Energy is imparted to a usually inert fluid serving as reaction mass via
3922:
3630:
3307:, although both are subject to oxidation under certain conditions. Other
3137:
2728:
More significantly, combustion instability was a problem with the Saturn
2713:
2619:
1769:
916:
853:
815:
718:
647:
77:
46:
7744:* Different versions of the engine use different propellant combinations
7534:
4331:
Propellant is heated by microwave beam aimed at vehicle from a distance
3814:
Simple in concept, throttleable, low temperatures in combustion chamber
726:
the nozzle is designed for, but exhaust speeds as high as ten times the
8364:
8339:
7865:
7791:
7173:
6215:. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 446.
5868:
5719:
5308:. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
5178:
NASA SP-125, Design of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines, Second Edition
5038:
have forced a mission abort had it occurred on a crewed lunar mission).
4868:
4848:, investigated installing liquid-fuelled rockets in military aircraft (
4764:
4743:
3577:
3570:
3557:
3546:
3403:
3358:
3312:
3308:
3261:
mission. This failure had no effect on mission objectives or duration.
2840:
2836:
2764:
2685:
2653:
2252:
2111:
Rockets can be throttled by controlling the propellant combustion rate
1121:
977:
928:
789:
369:
181:
125:
109:
93:
6322:"NASA and Navy Set World Record for Most Engines in One Rocket Flight"
5397:
5371:РД0410. Ядерный ракетный двигатель. Перспективные космические аппараты
3125:
104:
also exist. Vehicles propelled by rocket engines are commonly used by
8389:
8256:
8114:
7964:
7923:
7860:
7509:
7504:
7153:
6326:
5031:
4902:
4759:
4699:
4651:
4055:
3897:, improves payload for launching from Earth by a sizeable percentage
3618:
3330:
3193:
3021:
3000:
2561:
884:
662:
245:
120:, unlike most combustion engines, so rocket engines can be used in a
3629:
and are nearly invisible to the naked eye but shine brightly in the
639:
L* is typically in the range of 64–152 centimetres (25–60 in).
8230:
7989:
7933:
7855:
7850:
7831:
7614:
7609:
7529:
7514:
7499:
7203:
6907:
5973:"U.S. Manned Rocket Propulsion Evolution Part 6: The Titan Missile"
5736:
5027:
4928:
4691:
4647:
4646:
Problems with antimatter production and handling; energy losses in
4251:
3634:
3519:
3483:
3450:
3365:
3348:
3320:
3316:
3258:
3211:
3189:
3066:
3029:
2515:
2348:
2344:
1424:= effective exhaust velocity (sometimes otherwise denoted as
1116:
The most important metric for the efficiency of a rocket engine is
686:
412:
241:
140:
117:
58:
54:
6294:
The First Jet Pilot – The Story of German Test Pilot Erich Warsitz
6058:
4606:
Nuclear pulse propulsion with antimatter assist for smaller bombs
906:, and after allowance is made for factors that can reduce it, the
7845:
7709:
7264:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7229:
6949:
6912:
6902:
6897:
6871:
6760:
6647:
6592:
6586:
4735:
4533:
A sail material is coated with fissionable material on one side.
3304:
3036:
2416:
2290:
88:, producing thrust by ejecting mass rearward, in accordance with
6047:
Complex chemical equilibrium and rocket performance calculations
5421:. National Museum of the United States Air Force. Archived from
3625:
oxidiser-based rockets and hydrogen rocket jets contain largely
2163:) can be throttled to as low as 18–20 per cent of rated thrust.
919:") at the narrowest part of the nozzle, the 'throat'. Since the
707:
146:
Rocket engines become more efficient at high speeds, due to the
27:
Non-air breathing jet engine used to propel a missile or vehicle
8277:
8014:
7870:
7664:
7398:
7393:
7362:
7331:
7326:
7321:
7316:
7311:
7301:
7290:
7284:
7279:
7274:
7269:
7213:
7163:
7038:
6982:
6975:
6959:
6943:
6937:
6932:
6927:
6922:
6917:
6852:
6846:
6836:
6712:
6705:
6544:
6495:
6374:
6204:
5992:
4779:
4732:
4199:
3523:
3398:
Rocket engines may also use several cooling methods. Examples:
3391:
3282:
3172:
3032:
2488:
2465:
1202:
955:
890:
using a low specific density gas (as hydrogen rich as possible)
670:
392:
which preclude their routine use in the Earth's atmosphere and
158:
Here, "rocket" is used as an abbreviation for "rocket engine".
121:
113:
81:
4550:
Nuclear salts are held in solution, caused to react at nozzle
3402:
Regeneratively and film cooled combustion chamber and nozzle:
482:
require different combustion chamber sizes for this to occur.
8194:
7714:
7654:
7483:
7478:
7473:
7468:
7429:
7423:
7367:
7356:
7346:
7296:
7148:
7138:
7090:
7058:
7043:
7033:
6892:
6887:
6882:
6830:
6824:
6698:
6692:
6687:
6667:
6632:
6627:
6604:
6581:
6549:
6513:
6506:
6500:
6490:
6485:
6118:"Evolving to a Depot-Based Space Transportation Architecture"
5896:
5260:
5232:
4969:
4916:
4898:
4894:
4592:
3968:
3960:
3626:
3416:
3323:
have been tried, but were given up on due to various issues.
3242:
3238:
3188:
engine, used in a cluster of eight in the first stage of the
2959:. Once the need is identified, government agencies may issue
2848:
2799:
2780:
2752:
2538:
2442:
951:
345:
344:
Rocket engines produce thrust by the expulsion of an exhaust
205:
36:
6071:
NASA Computer program Chemical Equilibrium with Applications
5135:"ITS Propulsion – The evolution of the SpaceX Raptor engine"
5076:"SpaceX reveals ITS Mars game changer via colonization plan"
4643:
Extremely energetic, very high theoretical exhaust velocity
4029:
Requires a lot of power, hence typically yields low thrust.
3210:
engine, used in a cluster of five in the first stage of the
3120:
One of the most notable disasters occurred in 1960 when the
2798:
A high frequency oscillation in chamber pressure above 1000
932:
from the combustion gases, increasing the exhaust velocity.
7351:
7341:
7133:
6969:
6808:
6723:
6622:
6611:
6570:
6564:
6559:
6524:
6365:
Design Tool for Liquid Rocket Engine Thermodynamic Analysis
4655:
4484:
Very hot propellant, not limited by keeping reactor solid,
3959:
Exists only at the lab prototyping stage. Examples include
3610:
3602:
showing visible banding (shock diamonds) in the exhaust jet
3203:
2952:
2156:
1088:
357:
6350:
Rocket Engine performance analysis with Plume Spectrometry
6267:. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/ Doubleday. p.
6234:. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/ Doubleday. p.
5321:"Blue Origin Completes BE-3 Engine as BE-4 Work Continues"
4493:
between 1,500 and 3,000 seconds but with very high thrust
4054:
Very low thrust and high power, performance is similar to
3199:, had no catastrophic failures in 152 engine-flights. The
2751:
A low frequency oscillation in chamber pressure below 200
2701:
missile second stage engines. The other failure mode is a
7790:
7644:
7639:
7634:
7624:
6174:
4746:
which were the first rocket engines to leave the ground.
4237:
Simple design. Using hydrogen propellant, 900 seconds of
3934:
3334:
3046:
3013:
2743:
Three different types of combustion instabilities occur:
2709:
formed in the combustion chamber may destroy the engine.
2097:{\displaystyle F_{n}={\dot {m}}\,v_{evac}-A_{e}\,p_{amb}}
5867:
4831:
4517:
Fission products are directly exhausted to give thrust.
6179:(Revised paperback ed.). Oxford University Press.
5743:(1st ed.). Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 4.
3609:
Carbon-rich exhausts from kerosene-based fuels such as
388:
are capable of higher efficiencies, but currently have
5842:. Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne. 2005. Archived from
5737:
F. Culick; M. V. Heitor; J. H. Whitelaw, eds. (1996).
2668:
A famous example of a hard start was the explosion of
804:
334:
expands and accelerates the gas jet to produce thrust.
293:
expands and accelerates the gas jet to produce thrust.
6259:
Von Braun, Wernher; Ordway III, Frederick I. (1976).
6226:
Von Braun, Wernher; Ordway III, Frederick I. (1976).
6177:
Aulus Gellius: An Antonine Author and his Achievement
5970:
5948:
5106:"Elon Musk Shows Off Interplanetary Transport System"
4816:, though it was not published widely for some years.
4401:
Heat from radioactive decay is used to heat hydrogen
3486:, which typically have translation, vibrational, and
2886:
2117:
2018:
1986:
1953:
1888:
1810:
1779:
1714:
1647:
1594:
1549:
1516:
1483:
1438:
1401:
1366:
1215:
1167:
1134:
614:
585:
525:
491:
6115:
5673:
5444:"Rolls-Royce SNECMA Olympus - Jane's Transport News"
5419:"Factsheets : Pratt & Whitney J58 Turbojet"
5175:
Huzel, Dexter K.; Huang, David H. (1 January 1971).
4068:
Microwave heated plasma with magnetic throat/nozzle
3937:
can be dangerous. Much heavier than simple rockets.
3780:. A thrust schedule can be designed into the grain.
2241:
This high performance is due to the small volume of
2197:. Rocket nozzles give an excellent approximation to
6804:
6258:
6225:
5996:
Apollo spacecraft liquid primary propulsion systems
2589:. Although hydrogen/oxygen burning has the highest
8162:Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS)
6260:
6227:
5640:Titian II: A History of a Cold War Missile Program
5586:"Introducing Propellant into a Combustion Chamber"
4840:During the late 1930s, German scientists, such as
4703:described in the first century BC, often known as
4658:; thermal issues. Theoretical only at this point.
3617:of the unburnt particles, in addition to the blue
3160:Rocket engines are usually statically tested at a
2904:
2132:
2096:
1999:
1966:
1935:
1866:
1794:
1746:
1696:
1633:
1568:
1529:
1496:
1463:
1414:
1381:
1340:
1180:
1150:
627:
598:
565:
504:
348:that has been accelerated to high speed through a
8195:Full Authority Digital Engine/Electronics (FADEC)
6370:Rocket & Space Technology - Rocket Propulsion
5903:(8th ed.). Wiley Interscience. p. 308.
4717:. It was created almost two millennia before the
4037:(chemical burning aided by electrical discharge)
2876:kinetic energy of the rocket (since useful power
2712:Combustion instability was also a problem during
2672:'s "1W" engine during a demonstration to General
2189:Rocket engine nozzles are surprisingly efficient
281:Pumps feed fuel and oxidiser under high pressure.
204:) are chemical rockets which use propellant in a
8459:
6020:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
4103:, can be pulsed on and off for attitude control
2872:deflects the sound energy away from the rocket.
2585:Of the liquid fuels used, density is lowest for
1867:{\displaystyle F_{vac}=C_{f}\,{\dot {m}}\,c^{*}}
976:Rocket technology can combine very high thrust (
403:, an available alternative to combustion is the
166:use an inert propellant, heated by electricity (
6111:
6109:
5637:
5170:
5168:
5166:
5164:
5162:
5160:
5158:
5156:
4987:Rocket propulsion technologies (disambiguation)
4282:if higher–molecular-mass propellants are used.
4190:would make use of solar power to directly heat
2944:) in 1941 and the first government laboratory (
1760:
8152:Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM)
6355:Rocket Engine Thrust Chamber technical article
5892:
5890:
5701:
5209:
5207:
5205:
5203:
5058:
4919:engine first flew in 1962. Its successor, the
4404:About 700–800 seconds, almost no moving parts
4064:Variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket
3386:. A more efficient subtype of film cooling is
3364:Dump cooling: A cryogenic propellant, usually
1473:= effective jet velocity when Pamb = Pe
915:For aerodynamic reasons the flow goes sonic ("
8293:
7776:
6396:
5897:George P. Sutton & Oscar Biblarz (2010).
5669:
5667:
5665:
5663:
5661:
5659:
5261:George P. Sutton & Oscar Biblarz (2010).
5233:George P. Sutton & Oscar Biblarz (2010).
5128:
5126:
5099:
5097:
4601:Antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion
4026:than monopropellant alone, about 40% higher.
3646:(water vapour), plus some unburned hydrogen.
3576:Gaseous propellants generally will not cause
3374:: The fuel (and possibly, the oxidiser) of a
1539:= static pressure at nozzle exit plane
415:, or any other readily available, inert gas.
6291:
6116:Zegler, Frank; Bernard Kutter (2010-09-02).
6106:
5500:
5476:
5362:
5337:
5153:
4738:discovered black powder in a search for the
4664:
3858:Lower performance than liquid-based engines
3771:, reasonably good mass fraction, reasonable
3555:pressure vessel. This is sometimes called a
3221:
3214:, had no failures in 65 engine-flights. The
3179:
3024:of advanced technologies usually related to
2923:
566:{\displaystyle L^{*}={\frac {V_{c}}{A_{t}}}}
265:Simplified diagram of a liquid-fuel rocket:
232:or propellant is added to permit combustion.
6345:Designing for rocket engine life expectancy
6125:AIAA SPACE 2010 Conference & Exposition
5887:
5813:History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines
5306:History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines
5200:
4166:Low overall performance due to heavy tank;
4093:Plasma is used to erode a solid propellant
3855:Higher-performance than cold gas thrusters
2691:
1349:
1158:). This is either measured as a speed (the
307:Simplified diagram of a solid-fuel rocket:
8300:
8286:
8157:Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)
7783:
7769:
6403:
6389:
6076:
5695:
5656:
5312:
5174:
5123:
5103:
5094:
5067:
3983:Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion
3668:
3006:
1607:
1578:= ambient (or atmospheric) pressure
1267:
1241:
5829:
5615:"What's the Deal with Rocket Vibrations?"
5132:
4640:Antimatter annihilation heats propellant
4629:Largely beyond current state of the art.
2227:
2077:
2044:
1932:
1921:
1853:
1840:
1693:
1630:
256:
6360:Net Thrust of a Rocket Engine calculator
6199:
5299:
5297:
5295:
5293:
5291:
5289:
5287:
5285:
5213:
4609:Smaller sized vehicle might be possible
4234:Propellant is heated by solar collector
3594:
3344:In rockets the coolant methods include:
2179:
869:
859:
739:
706:
635:is the area of the throat of the nozzle.
302:
260:
240:use a single propellant decomposed by a
80:of fluid, usually high-temperature gas.
45:
31:
5971:McCutcheon, Kimble D. (3 August 2022).
5949:McCutcheon, Kimble D. (3 August 2022).
4828:place a one-pound payload on the Moon.
4774:Rocket engines were also put in use by
4675:According to the writings of the Roman
4116:High voltages at ground and plus sides
3976:
3390:, in which propellant passes through a
3357:: The engine is made of one or several
1936:{\displaystyle v_{evac}=C_{f}\,c^{*}\,}
1634:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}\;v_{e-opt}\,}
324:Central hole in propellant acts as the
14:
8460:
6082:
5810:
5631:
5303:
5133:Belluscio, Alejandro G. (2016-10-03).
5073:
5020:
4889:began work on the closed cycle engine
4254:—an inevitable byproduct of long-term
3613:are often orange in colour due to the
2216:goes to 0% at zero speed (as with all
1697:{\displaystyle A_{e}(p_{e}-p_{amb})\,}
971:
244:. The most common monopropellants are
187:chemical reactions of the propellant:
8281:
7764:
6384:
5806:
5804:
5802:
5800:
5798:
5788:R.C. Potter and M.J. Crocker (1966).
5782:
5394:"Aircraft: Lockheed SR-71A Blackbird"
5318:
5282:
5108:. Spaceflight Insider. Archived from
4832:The era of liquid-fuel rocket engines
4536:No moving parts, works in deep space
4396:Radioisotope rocket/"Poodle thruster"
4090:(electric arc heating; emits plasma)
4078:from 1,000 seconds to 10,000 seconds
3874:Lower performance than bipropellants
3731:
3673:
3475:require a high energy per unit mass (
3456:Liquid-fuelled engines are often run
3453:in the channels as high as possible.
2936:Since the establishment of the first
2703:deflagration to detonation transition
2688:-like resonances and gas turbulence.
2396:rocket engine, three-propellant mode
766:(exit pressure greater than ambient),
748:The most commonly used nozzle is the
469:
6434:Comparison of orbital rocket engines
5861:
5704:The Theory of Sound – Volume 2
5680:(4th ed.). Wiley Interscience.
5674:G.P. Sutton & D.M. Ross (1975).
5567:
5267:(8th ed.). Wiley Interscience.
5239:(8th ed.). Wiley Interscience.
4999:
4948:Comparison of orbital rocket engines
4591:Never been tested, pusher plate may
2839:exhaust mixes with the ambient air,
2597:
2169:
76:for forming a high-speed propulsive
6059:Tool for Rocket Propulsion Analysis
5052:
4901:engines for the unsuccessful Lunar
4742:; this accidental discovery led to
3341:above for temperatures in nozzle).
3144:(unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine).
2564:rocket engine, full-thrust version
990:
935:
805:Back pressure and optimal expansion
792:forms inside the nozzle extension).
24:
8438:Timeline of heat engine technology
6175:Leofranc Holford-Strevens (2005).
6152:
5871:& various (January 17, 2012).
5795:
5612:
4812:. He was the first to develop the
4799:
4752:Liber Ignium ad Comburendos Hostes
4623:Fusion is used to heat propellant
4373:
3600:Armadillo Aerospace's quad vehicle
3228:Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster
2679:
950:The entire engine is mounted on a
778:(exit pressure less than ambient;
116:. Rocket vehicles carry their own
25:
8484:
6338:
5925:"Raketenmotor der A4 (V2)-Rakete"
5490:Chemical Automatics Design Bureau
5376:Chemical Automatics Design Bureau
4964:Model rocket motor classification
4823:. Goddard was the first to use a
4573:(exploding fission/fusion bombs)
4288:
216:use one or more propellants in a
8307:
8025:Thrust specific fuel consumption
7445:
5642:. University of Arkansas Press.
5506:
5343:
5104:Richardson, Derek (2016-09-27).
4679:, the earliest known example of
4539:Theoretical only at this point.
4522:Theoretical only at this point.
4181:
3716:A non-combusting form, used for
3428:Service propulsion system engine
3232:one notable catastrophic failure
2928:
2824:
321:initiates propellant combustion.
287:mixes and burns the propellants.
6314:
6285:
6252:
6219:
6193:
6168:
6146:
6064:
6052:
6040:
6028:
5986:
5964:
5942:
5917:
5757:
5729:
5712:
5606:
5578:
5556:
5536:
5525:
5471:Military Jet Engine Acquisition
5464:
5436:
5411:
5386:
4603:(fission and/or fusion energy)
4346:propellant offers the highest I
4122:Low thrust, needs high voltage
3871:Simplicity and ease of control
3826:is perhaps 1/3 of best liquids
3245:engine failure occurred during
2176:Rocket § Energy efficiency
887:, or even using nuclear energy)
772:(exit pressure equals ambient),
407:pressurized by compressed air,
315:(propellant) packed into casing
8074:Propeller speed reduction unit
5563:Encyclopedia Astronautica: F-1
5254:
5226:
4767:into self-propelled rocketry.
4451:methods that use some form of
4262:environment of space—for both
3590:
3111:Science and Technology Studies
2880:transmitted to the vehicle is
2639:
2341:Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593
1690:
1658:
1391:= exhaust gas mass flow
1335:
1303:
485:This leads to a number called
153:
92:. Most rocket engines use the
13:
1:
7230:RD-0202 to 0206, 0208 to 0213
5220:Rocket & Space Technology
5045:
4810:liquid-fuelled rocket engines
4327:Microwave-beam-powered rocket
3949:(combined cycle with rocket)
3563:rapid unscheduled disassembly
3437:storable propellant thrusters
2793:
2763:" or "pogo", named after the
2106:
1747:{\displaystyle p_{e}=p_{amb}}
1196:
1004:in vacuum of various rockets
801:all altitudes (see diagram).
418:
5214:Braeunig, Robert A. (2008).
5074:Bergin, Chris (2016-09-27).
4133:
3467:
3104:
782:form outside the nozzle), or
665:or, in simpler engines, via
606:is the volume of the chamber
444:
7:
7985:Engine pressure ratio (EPR)
6155:"Microwave Thermal Rockets"
5837:"Space Shuttle Main Engine"
4941:
4814:Tsiolkovsky rocket equation
4626:Very high exhaust velocity
4447:includes a wide variety of
4398:(radioactive decay energy)
3864:Dual mode propulsion rocket
3540:
3424:Lunar module descent engine
3338:
2746:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2543:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2520:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2496:
2493:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2433:
2430:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2307:
2304:
2301:
2298:
2295:
1543:
1510:
1477:
1432:
1395:
1360:
1352:
10:
8489:
8252:Auxiliary power unit (APU)
7881:Rotating detonation engine
6083:Svitak, Amy (2012-11-26).
5900:Rocket Propulsion Elements
5765:"Sound Suppression System"
5319:Foust, Jeff (2015-04-07).
5304:Sutton, George P. (2005).
5264:Rocket Propulsion Elements
5236:Rocket Propulsion Elements
4953:Rotating detonation engine
4668:
4439:
4128:
3980:
3735:
3725:Extremely low performance
3722:Non-contaminating exhaust
3544:
3264:
3155:
2828:
2774:
2231:
2173:
2133:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}
1795:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}
1761:Vacuum specific impulse, I
1577:
1538:
1505:
1472:
1423:
1390:
1382:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}
1200:
1160:effective exhaust velocity
1109:
939:
909:effective exhaust velocity
863:
700:
691:reaction-control thrusters
646:are extreme compared to a
8446:
8433:
8415:
8315:
8239:
8213:
8180:
8137:
8082:
8061:
8052:
7952:
7889:
7819:
7805:
7740:
7454:
7443:
7383:
7073:
6795:
6643:
6462:
6453:
6442:
6429:
5873:"An SSME-related request"
5726:, vol. 18, pages 319–321.
5513:Encyclopedia Astronautica
5350:Encyclopedia Astronautica
4709:, consisted of a pair of
4683:was in c. 400 BC, when a
4665:History of rocket engines
4547:(nuclear fission energy)
4545:Nuclear salt-water rocket
4530:(nuclear fission energy)
4514:(nuclear fission energy)
4478:(nuclear fission energy)
4415:(nuclear fission energy)
4407:Low thrust/weight ratio.
4311:Light-beam-powered rocket
4106:Low energetic efficiency
3530:output. Fuels for car or
3311:alloys, such as alumina,
3222:Space Shuttle (1981–2011)
3180:Saturn family (1961–1975)
3167:
3070:due to high military and
2924:Rocket engine development
2266:
2263:
2260:
2251:
1464:{\displaystyle v_{e-opt}}
696:
213:Liquid-propellant rockets
168:electrothermal propulsion
7960:Aircraft engine starting
6035:Newsgroup correspondence
5638:David K. Stumpf (2000).
5484:
5370:
4992:
4881:) was first proposed by
4620:(nuclear fusion energy)
4571:Nuclear pulse propulsion
3790:Hybrid-propellant rocket
3738:Liquid rocket propellant
3639:solid-propellant rockets
3230:, used in pairs, caused
2938:liquid-propellant rocket
2857:Sound Suppression System
2853:mobile launcher platform
2692:Combustion instabilities
2372:Pratt & Whitney F119
2222:Rocket energy efficiency
667:sufficient tank pressure
198:solid-propellant rockets
170:) or a nuclear reactor (
139:). The ideal exhaust is
7841:Pulse detonation engine
7275:RD-250 to 252, 261, 262
6212:Encyclopædia Britannica
5811:Sutton, George (2006).
5702:John W. Strutt (1896).
5574:Astronautix NK-33 entry
5059:Hermann Oberth (1970).
4512:Fission-fragment rocket
4476:Gas core reactor rocket
3760:Solid-propellant rocket
3669:Types of rocket engines
3301:carbon–carbon materials
3234:in 270 engine-flights.
3035:, aircraft components,
3007:Institutions and actors
2985:
1976:characteristic velocity
1569:{\displaystyle p_{amb}}
675:autogenously pressurize
651:airbreathing jet engine
386:Nuclear thermal rockets
102:nuclear thermal rockets
51:Viking 5C rocket engine
39:being tested at NASA's
8468:Aerospace technologies
8030:Thrust to weight ratio
8000:Overall pressure ratio
7995:Jet engine performance
7919:Centrifugal compressor
7836:Gluhareff Pressure Jet
6263:The Rockets' Red Glare
6230:The Rockets' Red Glare
6127:. AIAA. Archived from
5767:. NASA. Archived from
5181:. NASA. Archived from
4806:Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
4637:(annihilation energy)
4413:Nuclear thermal rocket
4264:orbital stationkeeping
4088:Pulsed plasma thruster
3603:
3134:hypergolic propellants
3072:spaceflight priorities
2961:requests for proposals
2906:
2293:nuclear rocket engine
2234:thrust-to-weight ratio
2228:Thrust-to-weight ratio
2186:
2134:
2098:
2001:
1968:
1937:
1868:
1796:
1748:
1698:
1635:
1570:
1531:
1498:
1465:
1416:
1383:
1342:
1182:
1152:
1151:{\displaystyle I_{sp}}
875:
745:
712:
683:hypergolic propellants
629:
600:
567:
506:
450:Liquid-fuelled rockets
390:environmental problems
341:
300:
257:Principle of operation
237:Monopropellant rockets
172:nuclear thermal rocket
61:
43:
8380:Steam (reciprocating)
8267:Ice protection system
8035:Variable cycle engine
8005:Propulsive efficiency
7751:are under development
7139:YF-20, 21, 22, 24, 25
6918:RD-107, 108, 117, 118
6296:. Pen and Sword Ltd.
6292:Lutz Warsitz (2009).
5875:. NASASpaceflight.com
5619:MIT Technology Review
5061:"Ways to spaceflight"
4837:and curtain cooling.
4719:Industrial Revolution
4713:nozzles mounted on a
4112:Ion propulsion system
3807:Monopropellant rocket
3703:Very simple to build
3598:
3545:Further information:
3411:Rocketdyne F-1 Engine
3388:transpiration cooling
3041:space launch vehicles
3018:research, development
2997:space launch vehicles
2957:Department of Defense
2942:Reaction Motors, Inc.
2907:
2905:{\displaystyle P=F*V}
2622:– rocket engines are
2183:
2174:Further information:
2135:
2099:
2002:
2000:{\displaystyle C_{f}}
1969:
1967:{\displaystyle c^{*}}
1938:
1869:
1797:
1749:
1699:
1636:
1571:
1532:
1530:{\displaystyle p_{e}}
1499:
1497:{\displaystyle A_{e}}
1466:
1417:
1415:{\displaystyle v_{e}}
1384:
1343:
1183:
1181:{\displaystyle v_{e}}
1153:
873:
860:Propellant efficiency
848:designs, such as the
846:altitude-compensating
786:grossly over-expanded
743:
710:
630:
628:{\displaystyle A_{t}}
601:
599:{\displaystyle V_{c}}
568:
514:characteristic length
507:
505:{\displaystyle L^{*}}
364:components, within a
337:Exhaust exits nozzle.
313:fuel–oxidiser mixture
306:
296:Exhaust exits nozzle.
264:
49:
35:
8167:Flight data recorder
7929:Constant speed drive
7909:Afterburner (reheat)
5382:on 30 November 2010.
5216:"Rocket Propellants"
4862:Messerschmitt Me 163
4724:The availability of
4230:Solar thermal rocket
4188:solar thermal rocket
4163:Simple, fairly safe
3977:Electrically powered
3943:Precooled jet engine
3906:Air-augmented rocket
3880:Tripropellant rocket
3661:of the exhaust gas.
3615:black-body radiation
3507:, not a product. An
3384:regenerative cooling
3376:liquid rocket engine
3372:Regenerative cooling
3290:Regenerative cooling
2884:
2115:
2016:
1984:
1974: = the
1951:
1886:
1808:
1777:
1712:
1645:
1592:
1547:
1514:
1481:
1436:
1399:
1364:
1213:
1165:
1132:
703:Rocket engine nozzle
612:
583:
523:
489:
41:Stennis Space Center
8449:Thermodynamic cycle
8360:Pistonless (Rotary)
8350:Photo-Carnot engine
7240:RD-0216, 0217, 0235
6903:RD-0107, 0108, 0110
5849:on February 8, 2012
5740:Unsteady Combustion
5140:NASASpaceFlight.com
5081:NASASpaceFlight.com
4593:throw off fragments
4562:, very high thrust
4119:Powered by battery
4007:(electric heating)
3832:Bipropellant rocket
3140:with additives and
3130:minister of defence
2847:generated over 200
2199:adiabatic expansion
1005:
972:Overall performance
185:reduction-oxidation
108:(they normally use
8069:Propeller governor
5613:Sauser, Brittany.
5279:See Equation 3-33.
5251:See Equation 2-14.
4981:Project Prometheus
4923:, was used in the
4808:first wrote about
4671:History of rockets
4445:Nuclear propulsion
4175:under 200 seconds
3732:Chemically powered
3674:Physically powered
3637:ranges. Jets from
3604:
3473:Rocket propellants
2993:ballistic missiles
2902:
2855:was fitted with a
2831:acoustic signature
2224:for more details.
2187:
2130:
2094:
1997:
1964:
1933:
1876:and so define the
1864:
1792:
1744:
1694:
1631:
1566:
1527:
1494:
1461:
1412:
1379:
1338:
1178:
1148:
995:
899:Newton's third law
876:
770:perfectly expanded
746:
713:
644:thermal efficiency
625:
596:
563:
502:
480:rocket propellants
470:Combustion chamber
382:thermal efficiency
366:combustion chamber
342:
326:combustion chamber
301:
285:Combustion chamber
193:Solid-fuel rockets
130:ballistic missiles
106:ballistic missiles
98:cold gas thrusters
90:Newton's third law
70:rocket propellants
62:
44:
8455:
8454:
8275:
8274:
8147:Annunciator panel
8133:
8132:
8048:
8047:
7939:Propelling nozzle
7758:
7757:
7700:Space Shuttle SRB
7441:
7440:
7379:
7378:
7069:
7068:
6791:
6790:
6330:. 19 August 2016.
6303:978-1-84415-818-8
6278:978-0-385-07847-4
6245:978-0-385-07847-4
5822:978-1-56347-649-5
4887:Nikolai Kuznetsov
4875:Staged combustion
4842:Wernher von Braun
4756:The Book of Fires
4662:
4661:
4635:Antimatter rocket
4437:
4436:
4371:
4370:
4286:
4285:
4179:
4178:
4126:
4125:
4005:Resistojet rocket
3974:
3973:
3767:Simple, often no
3729:
3728:
3718:vernier thrusters
3712:Cold gas thruster
3644:superheated steam
3355:Radiative cooling
3201:Pratt and Whitney
3026:military hardware
2811:Helmholtz dampers
2761:pogo oscillations
2705:; the supersonic
2674:Walter Dornberger
2670:Wernher von Braun
2634:internal stresses
2598:Mechanical issues
2583:
2582:
2214:energy efficiency
2195:compression ratio
2170:Energy efficiency
2127:
2041:
1850:
1789:
1604:
1582:
1581:
1428:in publications)
1376:
1264:
1238:
1128:(usually written
1124:, this is called
1108:
1107:
561:
350:propelling nozzle
250:hydrogen peroxide
16:(Redirected from
8480:
8302:
8295:
8288:
8279:
8278:
8262:Hydraulic system
8257:Bleed air system
8247:Air-start system
8110:Counter-rotating
8059:
8058:
8040:Windmill restart
8010:Specific impulse
7980:Compressor stall
7914:Axial compressor
7817:
7816:
7785:
7778:
7771:
7762:
7761:
7449:
7448:
7285:RD-263, 268, 273
7216:along other LREs
7078:
7077:
6938:RD-191, 151, 181
6802:
6801:
6460:
6459:
6451:
6450:
6405:
6398:
6391:
6382:
6381:
6332:
6331:
6318:
6312:
6310:English edition.
6307:
6289:
6283:
6282:
6266:
6256:
6250:
6249:
6233:
6223:
6217:
6216:
6208:
6206:"Archytas"
6197:
6191:
6190:
6172:
6166:
6165:
6163:
6161:
6150:
6144:
6142:
6140:
6139:
6133:
6122:
6113:
6104:
6103:
6101:
6100:
6091:. Archived from
6080:
6074:
6068:
6062:
6056:
6050:
6044:
6038:
6032:
6026:
6025:
6019:
6011:
6009:
6007:
6001:
5990:
5984:
5983:
5981:
5979:
5968:
5962:
5961:
5959:
5957:
5946:
5940:
5939:
5934:
5932:
5921:
5915:
5914:
5894:
5885:
5884:
5882:
5880:
5865:
5859:
5858:
5856:
5854:
5848:
5841:
5833:
5827:
5826:
5808:
5793:
5786:
5780:
5779:
5777:
5776:
5761:
5755:
5754:
5733:
5727:
5716:
5710:
5707:
5699:
5693:
5691:
5671:
5654:
5653:
5635:
5629:
5628:
5626:
5625:
5610:
5604:
5603:
5601:
5599:
5590:
5582:
5576:
5571:
5565:
5560:
5554:
5553:
5551:
5550:
5540:
5534:
5529:
5523:
5522:
5520:
5519:
5504:
5498:
5497:
5496:on 26 July 2011.
5492:. Archived from
5480:
5474:
5468:
5462:
5461:
5456:
5455:
5446:. Archived from
5440:
5434:
5433:
5431:
5430:
5415:
5409:
5408:
5406:
5405:
5396:. Archived from
5390:
5384:
5383:
5378:. Archived from
5366:
5360:
5359:
5357:
5356:
5341:
5335:
5334:
5332:
5331:
5316:
5310:
5309:
5301:
5280:
5278:
5258:
5252:
5250:
5230:
5224:
5223:
5211:
5198:
5197:
5195:
5193:
5188:on 24 March 2017
5187:
5172:
5151:
5150:
5148:
5147:
5130:
5121:
5120:
5118:
5117:
5101:
5092:
5091:
5089:
5088:
5071:
5065:
5064:
5056:
5039:
5024:
5018:
5003:
4966:lettered engines
4795:
4794:
4790:
4787:
4754:(abbreviated as
4458:
4457:
4453:nuclear reaction
4378:
4377:
4365:
4293:
4292:
4268:attitude control
4248:productively use
4212:
4211:
4156:Hot water rocket
4138:
4137:
3987:
3986:
3742:
3741:
3678:
3677:
3655:schlieren effect
3532:turbojet engines
3488:rotational modes
3329:In rockets, the
3250:
3136:, consisting of
2940:engine company (
2911:
2909:
2908:
2903:
2843:are formed. The
2819:impulse response
2788:material fatigue
2624:pressure vessels
2613:
2609:
2605:
2591:specific impulse
2249:
2248:
2243:pressure vessels
2139:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2129:
2128:
2120:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2095:
2093:
2092:
2076:
2075:
2063:
2062:
2043:
2042:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2006:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1996:
1995:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1963:
1962:
1942:
1940:
1939:
1934:
1931:
1930:
1920:
1919:
1907:
1906:
1873:
1871:
1870:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1852:
1851:
1843:
1839:
1838:
1826:
1825:
1801:
1799:
1798:
1793:
1791:
1790:
1782:
1753:
1751:
1750:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1724:
1723:
1703:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1670:
1669:
1657:
1656:
1640:
1638:
1637:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1606:
1605:
1597:
1575:
1573:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1564:
1536:
1534:
1533:
1528:
1526:
1525:
1503:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1493:
1492:
1470:
1468:
1467:
1462:
1460:
1459:
1421:
1419:
1418:
1413:
1411:
1410:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1380:
1378:
1377:
1369:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1333:
1315:
1314:
1302:
1301:
1289:
1288:
1266:
1265:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1240:
1239:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1187:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1177:
1176:
1157:
1155:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1146:
1126:specific impulse
1112:Specific impulse
1006:
994:
991:Specific impulse
942:Thrust vectoring
936:Thrust vectoring
904:exhaust velocity
866:Specific impulse
824:expanding nozzle
648:non-afterburning
634:
632:
631:
626:
624:
623:
605:
603:
602:
597:
595:
594:
572:
570:
569:
564:
562:
560:
559:
550:
549:
540:
535:
534:
511:
509:
508:
503:
501:
500:
378:Carnot's theorem
356:, consisting of
178:Chemical rockets
137:specific impulse
86:reaction engines
21:
8488:
8487:
8483:
8482:
8481:
8479:
8478:
8477:
8458:
8457:
8456:
8451:
8442:
8429:
8411:
8311:
8306:
8276:
8271:
8235:
8218:
8209:
8205:Thrust reversal
8182:Engine controls
8176:
8139:
8129:
8105:Contra-rotating
8078:
8044:
7948:
7899:Accessory drive
7891:
7885:
7827:Air turborocket
7809:
7801:
7789:
7759:
7754:
7736:
7457:
7450:
7446:
7437:
7375:
7265:RD-0255 to 0257
7260:RD-0243 to 0245
7122:
7111:
7107:
7101:
7089:
7065:
6806:
6797:
6787:
6651:
6645:
6639:
6470:
6464:
6445:
6438:
6425:
6423:launch vehicles
6409:
6341:
6336:
6335:
6320:
6319:
6315:
6304:
6290:
6286:
6279:
6257:
6253:
6246:
6224:
6220:
6198:
6194:
6187:
6173:
6169:
6159:
6157:
6153:Parkin, Kevin.
6151:
6147:
6137:
6135:
6131:
6120:
6114:
6107:
6098:
6096:
6085:"Falcon 9 RUD?"
6081:
6077:
6069:
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5021:
5004:
5000:
4995:
4944:
4879:Замкнутая схема
4846:Hellmuth Walter
4834:
4825:De Laval nozzle
4802:
4800:Modern rocketry
4792:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4673:
4667:
4586:
4560:
4504:
4491:
4442:
4427:
4376:
4374:Nuclear thermal
4363:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4340:
4291:
4280:
4258:storage in the
4256:liquid hydrogen
4244:
4208:
4184:
4173:
4136:
4131:
4102:
4077:
4050:
4024:
3985:
3979:
3895:
3824:
3778:
3740:
3734:
3676:
3671:
3593:
3549:
3543:
3509:oxidizing agent
3502:
3477:specific energy
3470:
3267:
3246:
3224:
3197:launch vehicles
3182:
3170:
3158:
3107:
3059:quality control
3009:
2988:
2931:
2926:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2865:sound intensity
2833:
2827:
2796:
2777:
2749:
2719:Project Mercury
2694:
2682:
2680:Acoustic issues
2642:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2600:
2587:liquid hydrogen
2343:
2318:SR-71 Blackbird
2269:
2236:
2230:
2178:
2172:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2112:
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2082:
2078:
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2049:
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2019:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2008:
1991:
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1911:
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1002:
993:
974:
944:
938:
868:
862:
839:de Laval nozzle
820:stepped nozzles
807:
757:static pressure
750:de Laval nozzle
724:expansion ratio
705:
699:
679:SpaceX Starship
619:
615:
613:
610:
609:
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584:
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541:
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520:
496:
492:
490:
487:
486:
472:
447:
421:
340:
299:
276:Liquid oxidiser
259:
220:fed from tanks.
180:are powered by
163:Thermal rockets
156:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8486:
8476:
8475:
8473:Rocket engines
8470:
8453:
8452:
8447:
8444:
8443:
8441:
8440:
8434:
8431:
8430:
8428:
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8409:
8404:
8402:Thermoacoustic
8399:
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8135:
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8128:
8127:
8125:Variable-pitch
8122:
8117:
8112:
8107:
8102:
8100:Constant-speed
8097:
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7868:
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7838:
7829:
7823:
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7814:
7812:jet propulsion
7803:
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7064:
7063:
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7061:
7056:
7051:
7046:
7041:
7036:
7031:
7026:
7024:LR70-NA , S-3D
7021:
7016:
7011:
7006:
7001:
6996:
6988:
6987:
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6972:
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6608:
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6503:
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6479:
6477:
6468:
6457:
6448:
6440:
6439:
6437:
6436:
6430:
6427:
6426:
6412:Rocket engines
6408:
6407:
6400:
6393:
6385:
6379:
6378:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6352:
6347:
6340:
6339:External links
6337:
6334:
6333:
6313:
6302:
6284:
6277:
6251:
6244:
6218:
6203:, ed. (1911).
6201:Chisholm, Hugh
6192:
6185:
6167:
6145:
6105:
6075:
6063:
6051:
6039:
6027:
5985:
5963:
5941:
5916:
5909:
5886:
5860:
5828:
5821:
5794:
5781:
5756:
5749:
5728:
5711:
5694:
5686:
5655:
5648:
5630:
5605:
5577:
5566:
5555:
5535:
5524:
5499:
5475:
5463:
5435:
5410:
5385:
5361:
5336:
5311:
5281:
5273:
5253:
5245:
5225:
5199:
5152:
5122:
5093:
5066:
5050:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5041:
5040:
5019:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4990:
4989:
4984:
4978:
4973:
4967:
4961:
4955:
4950:
4943:
4940:
4925:Apollo program
4921:Rocketdyne J-2
4910:Ludwig Boelkow
4850:Heinkel He 112
4833:
4830:
4821:Robert Goddard
4801:
4798:
4778:, the king of
4740:elixir of life
4681:jet propulsion
4669:Main article:
4666:
4663:
4660:
4659:
4644:
4641:
4638:
4631:
4630:
4627:
4624:
4621:
4614:
4613:
4610:
4607:
4604:
4597:
4596:
4589:
4584:
4577:
4574:
4567:
4566:
4563:
4558:
4551:
4548:
4541:
4540:
4537:
4534:
4531:
4524:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4508:
4507:
4502:
4494:
4489:
4482:
4479:
4472:
4471:
4470:Disadvantages
4468:
4465:
4462:
4441:
4438:
4435:
4434:
4430:
4425:
4419:
4416:
4409:
4408:
4405:
4402:
4399:
4392:
4391:
4390:Disadvantages
4388:
4385:
4382:
4375:
4372:
4369:
4368:
4360:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4338:
4332:
4329:
4323:
4322:
4319:
4316:
4313:
4307:
4306:
4305:Disadvantages
4303:
4300:
4297:
4290:
4289:Beamed thermal
4287:
4284:
4283:
4278:
4271:
4260:radiative heat
4250:waste gaseous
4242:
4235:
4232:
4226:
4225:
4224:Disadvantages
4222:
4219:
4216:
4206:
4183:
4180:
4177:
4176:
4171:
4164:
4161:
4158:
4152:
4151:
4150:Disadvantages
4148:
4145:
4142:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4124:
4123:
4120:
4117:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4104:
4100:
4094:
4091:
4084:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4069:
4066:
4060:
4059:
4052:
4048:
4043:1,600 seconds
4041:
4038:
4031:
4030:
4027:
4022:
4015:
4008:
4001:
4000:
3999:Disadvantages
3997:
3994:
3991:
3981:Main article:
3978:
3975:
3972:
3971:
3957:
3953:
3950:
3939:
3938:
3931:
3928:
3925:
3919:
3918:
3914:
3911:
3908:
3902:
3901:
3898:
3893:
3886:
3882:
3876:
3875:
3872:
3869:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3856:
3853:
3850:
3848:Gas-gas rocket
3844:
3843:
3840:
3837:
3834:
3828:
3827:
3822:
3815:
3812:
3809:
3803:
3802:
3798:
3795:
3792:
3786:
3785:
3781:
3776:
3765:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3754:Disadvantages
3752:
3749:
3746:
3733:
3730:
3727:
3726:
3723:
3720:
3714:
3708:
3707:
3704:
3701:
3698:
3692:
3691:
3690:Disadvantages
3688:
3685:
3682:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3657:caused by the
3651:shock diamonds
3592:
3589:
3542:
3539:
3505:reducing agent
3500:
3496:chemical bonds
3469:
3466:
3443:boundary layer
3439:
3438:
3431:
3420:
3413:
3407:
3396:
3395:
3379:
3369:
3362:
3352:
3294:boundary layer
3266:
3263:
3223:
3220:
3216:Rocketdyne J-2
3208:Rocketdyne F-1
3186:Rocketdyne H-1
3181:
3178:
3169:
3166:
3157:
3154:
3106:
3103:
3055:static firings
3047:Design Bureaus
3014:design bureaus
3008:
3005:
2987:
2984:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2892:
2889:
2829:Main article:
2826:
2823:
2795:
2792:
2776:
2773:
2748:
2745:
2693:
2690:
2681:
2678:
2652:Rocket fuels,
2641:
2638:
2610:MPa, 150–3,000
2599:
2596:
2581:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2558:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2545:
2542:
2541:rocket engine
2535:
2534:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2522:
2519:
2508:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2491:rocket engine
2485:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2468:rocket engine
2462:
2461:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2445:rocket engine
2436:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2423:
2420:
2419:rocket engine
2413:
2412:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2390:
2389:
2386:
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2377:
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2300:
2297:
2294:
2287:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2272:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2232:Main article:
2229:
2226:
2218:jet propulsion
2171:
2168:
2126:
2123:
2108:
2105:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2081:
2074:
2070:
2066:
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2055:
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2040:
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2031:
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2022:
2012:
1994:
1990:
1980:
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1947:
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1504:
1491:
1487:
1475:
1474:
1471:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1430:
1429:
1422:
1409:
1405:
1393:
1392:
1389:
1375:
1372:
1358:
1357:
1354:
1337:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1260:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1237:
1234:
1228:
1223:
1219:
1209:
1201:Main article:
1198:
1195:
1175:
1171:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1110:Main article:
1106:
1105:
1102:
1093:
1085:
1084:
1081:
1072:
1064:
1063:
1060:
1055:
1047:
1046:
1043:
1039:
1031:
1029:liquid engines
1023:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1010:
1000:
992:
989:
982:simultaneously
973:
970:
969:
968:
965:
962:
959:
940:Main article:
937:
934:
921:speed of sound
895:
894:
891:
888:
861:
858:
806:
803:
794:
793:
783:
780:shock diamonds
773:
767:
764:under-expanded
728:speed of sound
701:Main article:
698:
695:
655:stoichiometric
637:
636:
622:
618:
607:
593:
589:
574:
573:
558:
554:
548:
544:
538:
533:
529:
499:
495:
471:
468:
446:
443:
420:
417:
409:carbon dioxide
401:model rocketry
394:cislunar space
376:(specifically
374:thermodynamics
339:
338:
335:
332:Exhaust nozzle
329:
322:
316:
308:
298:
297:
294:
291:Exhaust nozzle
288:
282:
279:
273:
266:
258:
255:
254:
253:
233:
225:Hybrid rockets
221:
209:
155:
152:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8485:
8474:
8471:
8469:
8466:
8465:
8463:
8450:
8445:
8439:
8436:
8435:
8432:
8426:
8423:
8421:
8418:
8417:
8414:
8408:
8407:Manson engine
8405:
8403:
8400:
8398:
8395:
8391:
8388:
8387:
8386:
8385:Steam turbine
8383:
8381:
8378:
8376:
8373:
8371:
8368:
8366:
8363:
8361:
8358:
8356:
8353:
8351:
8348:
8346:
8343:
8341:
8338:
8336:
8333:
8331:
8328:
8326:
8323:
8321:
8320:Carnot engine
8318:
8317:
8314:
8310:
8303:
8298:
8296:
8291:
8289:
8284:
8283:
8280:
8268:
8265:
8263:
8260:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8245:
8244:
8242:
8240:Other systems
8238:
8232:
8229:
8227:
8224:
8223:
8221:
8217:and induction
8216:
8212:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8196:
8193:
8191:
8188:
8187:
8185:
8183:
8179:
8173:
8172:Glass cockpit
8170:
8168:
8165:
8163:
8160:
8158:
8155:
8153:
8150:
8148:
8145:
8144:
8142:
8136:
8126:
8123:
8121:
8118:
8116:
8113:
8111:
8108:
8106:
8103:
8101:
8098:
8096:
8093:
8091:
8088:
8087:
8085:
8081:
8075:
8072:
8070:
8067:
8066:
8064:
8060:
8057:
8055:
8051:
8041:
8038:
8036:
8033:
8031:
8028:
8026:
8023:
8021:
8018:
8016:
8013:
8011:
8008:
8006:
8003:
8001:
7998:
7996:
7993:
7991:
7988:
7986:
7983:
7981:
7978:
7976:
7973:
7971:
7970:Brayton cycle
7968:
7966:
7963:
7961:
7958:
7957:
7955:
7951:
7945:
7944:Turbine blade
7942:
7940:
7937:
7935:
7932:
7930:
7927:
7925:
7922:
7920:
7917:
7915:
7912:
7910:
7907:
7905:
7902:
7900:
7897:
7896:
7894:
7888:
7882:
7879:
7877:
7874:
7872:
7869:
7867:
7864:
7862:
7859:
7857:
7854:
7852:
7849:
7847:
7844:
7842:
7839:
7837:
7833:
7830:
7828:
7825:
7824:
7822:
7818:
7815:
7813:
7808:
7804:
7800:
7797:
7793:
7786:
7781:
7779:
7774:
7772:
7767:
7766:
7763:
7750:
7746:
7743:
7742:
7739:
7731:
7728:
7726:
7723:
7721:
7718:
7716:
7713:
7711:
7708:
7706:
7703:
7701:
7698:
7696:
7693:
7691:
7688:
7686:
7683:
7681:
7678:
7676:
7673:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7662:
7660:
7656:
7653:
7651:
7648:
7646:
7643:
7641:
7638:
7636:
7633:
7631:
7628:
7626:
7623:
7622:
7620:
7616:
7613:
7611:
7608:
7607:
7605:
7601:
7598:
7596:
7593:
7592:
7590:
7586:
7583:
7581:
7578:
7576:
7573:
7571:
7568:
7566:
7563:
7562:
7560:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7526:
7523:
7521:
7518:
7516:
7513:
7511:
7508:
7506:
7503:
7501:
7498:
7497:
7495:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7482:
7480:
7477:
7475:
7472:
7470:
7467:
7466:
7464:
7463:
7461:
7459:
7453:
7431:
7428:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7417:
7416:
7414:
7410:
7407:
7406:
7404:
7400:
7399:RD-211 to 214
7397:
7395:
7392:
7391:
7389:
7388:
7386:
7382:
7369:
7366:
7364:
7361:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7339:
7337:
7333:
7330:
7328:
7325:
7323:
7320:
7318:
7315:
7313:
7310:
7309:
7307:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7295:
7293:
7292:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7281:
7278:
7276:
7273:
7271:
7270:RD-215 to 219
7268:
7266:
7263:
7261:
7258:
7256:
7253:
7251:
7248:
7246:
7245:RD-0233, 0234
7243:
7241:
7238:
7236:
7235:RD-0207, 0214
7233:
7231:
7228:
7226:
7223:
7222:
7220:
7215:
7214:Paektusan LRE
7212:
7211:
7209:
7205:
7202:
7201:
7199:
7195:
7192:
7190:
7187:
7186:
7184:
7180:
7177:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7161:
7159:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7145:
7142:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7131:
7129:
7128:
7126:
7123:
7116:
7112:
7100:
7096:
7092:
7087:
7083:
7079:
7076:
7072:
7060:
7057:
7055:
7052:
7050:
7047:
7045:
7042:
7040:
7037:
7035:
7032:
7030:
7027:
7025:
7022:
7020:
7017:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7005:
7002:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6991:
6989:
6985:
6984:
6980:
6978:
6977:
6973:
6971:
6968:
6967:
6965:
6961:
6958:
6957:
6955:
6951:
6948:
6946:
6945:
6941:
6939:
6936:
6934:
6931:
6929:
6926:
6924:
6921:
6919:
6916:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6906:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6898:RD-0105, 0109
6896:
6894:
6891:
6889:
6886:
6884:
6881:
6880:
6878:
6874:
6873:
6869:
6868:
6866:
6862:
6861:
6857:
6855:
6854:
6850:
6848:
6845:
6843:
6840:
6838:
6835:
6833:
6832:
6828:
6826:
6823:
6822:
6820:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6810:
6803:
6800:
6794:
6782:
6781:
6777:
6775:
6774:
6770:
6769:
6767:
6763:
6762:
6758:
6757:
6755:
6751:
6750:
6746:
6744:
6743:
6739:
6737:
6736:
6732:
6730:
6727:
6725:
6722:
6721:
6719:
6715:
6714:
6710:
6708:
6707:
6703:
6701:
6700:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6684:
6683:
6679:
6677:
6676:
6672:
6670:
6669:
6665:
6664:
6662:
6661:
6659:
6656:
6652:
6642:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6613:
6609:
6607:
6606:
6602:
6601:
6599:
6595:
6594:
6590:
6588:
6585:
6583:
6582:KVD-1 (RD-56)
6580:
6579:
6577:
6573:
6572:
6568:
6566:
6563:
6561:
6558:
6557:
6555:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6542:
6540:
6536:
6533:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6522:
6520:
6516:
6515:
6511:
6509:
6508:
6504:
6502:
6499:
6497:
6494:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6483:
6481:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6471:
6461:
6458:
6456:
6452:
6449:
6447:
6441:
6435:
6432:
6431:
6428:
6424:
6421:
6417:
6413:
6406:
6401:
6399:
6394:
6392:
6387:
6386:
6383:
6377:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6358:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6346:
6343:
6342:
6329:
6328:
6323:
6317:
6311:
6305:
6299:
6295:
6288:
6280:
6274:
6270:
6265:
6264:
6255:
6247:
6241:
6237:
6232:
6231:
6222:
6214:
6213:
6207:
6202:
6196:
6188:
6186:0-19-928980-8
6182:
6178:
6171:
6156:
6149:
6134:on 2011-07-17
6130:
6126:
6119:
6112:
6110:
6095:on 2014-03-21
6094:
6090:
6089:Aviation Week
6086:
6079:
6072:
6067:
6060:
6055:
6049:, Cpropep-Web
6048:
6043:
6036:
6031:
6023:
6017:
5998:
5997:
5989:
5974:
5967:
5952:
5945:
5938:
5926:
5920:
5912:
5910:9780470080245
5906:
5902:
5901:
5893:
5891:
5874:
5870:
5864:
5845:
5838:
5832:
5824:
5818:
5814:
5807:
5805:
5803:
5801:
5799:
5791:
5785:
5771:on 2020-08-10
5770:
5766:
5760:
5752:
5750:0-7923-3888-X
5746:
5742:
5741:
5732:
5725:
5721:
5715:
5705:
5698:
5689:
5687:0-471-83836-5
5683:
5679:
5678:
5670:
5668:
5666:
5664:
5662:
5660:
5651:
5649:1-55728-601-9
5645:
5641:
5634:
5620:
5616:
5609:
5594:
5587:
5581:
5575:
5570:
5564:
5559:
5545:
5539:
5533:
5528:
5514:
5510:
5503:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5479:
5473:, RAND, 2002.
5472:
5467:
5460:
5450:on 2010-08-06
5449:
5445:
5439:
5425:on 2015-04-04
5424:
5420:
5414:
5400:on 2012-07-29
5399:
5395:
5389:
5381:
5377:
5373:
5365:
5351:
5347:
5340:
5326:
5322:
5315:
5307:
5300:
5298:
5296:
5294:
5292:
5290:
5288:
5286:
5276:
5274:9780470080245
5270:
5266:
5265:
5257:
5248:
5246:9780470080245
5242:
5238:
5237:
5229:
5221:
5217:
5210:
5208:
5206:
5204:
5184:
5180:
5179:
5171:
5169:
5167:
5165:
5163:
5161:
5159:
5157:
5142:
5141:
5136:
5129:
5127:
5112:on 2016-10-01
5111:
5107:
5100:
5098:
5083:
5082:
5077:
5070:
5062:
5055:
5051:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5023:
5017:upper stages.
5016:
5012:
5008:
5002:
4998:
4988:
4985:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4976:Photon rocket
4974:
4971:
4968:
4965:
4962:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4945:
4939:
4937:
4932:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4913:
4911:
4906:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4870:
4865:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4838:
4829:
4826:
4822:
4817:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4797:
4781:
4777:
4772:
4768:
4766:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4747:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4734:
4731:
4727:
4722:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4707:
4706:Hero's engine
4702:
4701:
4695:
4693:
4689:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4677:Aulus Gellius
4672:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4642:
4639:
4636:
4633:
4632:
4628:
4625:
4622:
4619:
4618:Fusion rocket
4616:
4615:
4611:
4608:
4605:
4602:
4599:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4587:
4583:
4578:
4575:
4572:
4569:
4568:
4564:
4561:
4557:
4552:
4549:
4546:
4543:
4542:
4538:
4535:
4532:
4529:
4526:
4525:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4495:
4492:
4488:
4483:
4480:
4477:
4474:
4473:
4469:
4466:
4463:
4460:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4431:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4417:
4414:
4411:
4410:
4406:
4403:
4400:
4397:
4394:
4393:
4389:
4386:
4383:
4380:
4379:
4361:
4357:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4324:
4320:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4308:
4304:
4301:
4298:
4295:
4294:
4281:
4277:
4272:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4241:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4227:
4223:
4220:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4210:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4196:concentrators
4193:
4192:reaction mass
4189:
4182:Solar thermal
4174:
4170:
4165:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4149:
4146:
4143:
4140:
4139:
4121:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4105:
4099:
4095:
4092:
4089:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4074:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4051:
4047:
4042:
4039:
4036:
4035:Arcjet rocket
4033:
4032:
4028:
4025:
4021:
4016:
4013:
4012:Joule heating
4009:
4006:
4003:
4002:
3998:
3995:
3992:
3989:
3988:
3984:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3951:
3948:
3944:
3941:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3920:
3915:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3903:
3899:
3896:
3892:
3887:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3877:
3873:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3861:
3857:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3845:
3841:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3816:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3804:
3799:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3787:
3782:
3779:
3775:
3770:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3757:
3753:
3750:
3747:
3744:
3743:
3739:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3709:
3705:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3693:
3689:
3686:
3683:
3680:
3679:
3666:
3662:
3660:
3659:incandescence
3656:
3652:
3647:
3645:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3607:
3601:
3597:
3588:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3574:
3572:
3566:
3564:
3560:
3559:
3552:
3548:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3527:
3525:
3521:
3516:
3512:
3510:
3506:
3497:
3492:
3489:
3485:
3480:
3478:
3474:
3465:
3463:
3459:
3454:
3452:
3446:
3444:
3436:
3432:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3419:rocket engine
3418:
3414:
3412:
3408:
3406:Rocket Engine
3405:
3401:
3400:
3399:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3370:
3367:
3363:
3360:
3356:
3353:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3339:§ Nozzle
3336:
3332:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3297:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3284:
3279:
3277:
3271:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3255:
3249:
3248:Space Shuttle
3244:
3240:
3235:
3233:
3229:
3219:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3202:
3198:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3177:
3174:
3165:
3163:
3162:test facility
3153:
3149:
3145:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3118:
3114:
3112:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3004:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2949:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2934:
2929:United States
2921:
2919:
2915:
2899:
2896:
2893:
2890:
2887:
2879:
2873:
2869:
2866:
2861:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2845:Space Shuttle
2842:
2838:
2832:
2825:Exhaust noise
2822:
2820:
2814:
2812:
2807:
2803:
2801:
2791:
2789:
2784:
2782:
2772:
2768:
2766:
2762:
2756:
2754:
2744:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2731:
2726:
2722:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2708:
2707:pressure wave
2704:
2700:
2689:
2687:
2677:
2675:
2671:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2655:
2650:
2647:
2637:
2635:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2621:
2620:hoop stresses
2616:
2595:
2592:
2588:
2563:
2560:
2559:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2518:first stage)
2517:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2467:
2464:
2463:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2437:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2350:
2347:with reheat (
2346:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2319:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2281:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2271:
2258:
2257:rocket engine
2254:
2250:
2247:
2244:
2239:
2235:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2206:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2182:
2177:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2143:
2142:solid rockets
2124:
2121:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2046:
2038:
2035:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2011:
1992:
1988:
1977:
1959:
1955:
1946:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1894:
1890:
1881:
1879:
1859:
1855:
1847:
1844:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1819:
1816:
1812:
1803:
1786:
1783:
1771:
1758:
1755:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1716:
1706:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1653:
1649:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1601:
1598:
1586:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1551:
1542:
1522:
1518:
1509:
1489:
1485:
1476:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1440:
1431:
1427:
1407:
1403:
1394:
1373:
1370:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1307:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1269:
1261:
1258:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1235:
1232:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1208:
1204:
1194:
1190:
1173:
1169:
1161:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1113:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:Space Shuttle
1066:
1065:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:Space Shuttle
1049:
1048:
1044:
1042:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:Space Shuttle
1025:
1024:
1021:, vacuum (s)
1017:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1007:
1003:
999:
988:
985:
983:
979:
966:
963:
960:
957:
953:
949:
948:
947:
943:
933:
930:
925:
922:
918:
913:
911:
910:
905:
900:
892:
889:
886:
882:
881:
880:
872:
867:
857:
855:
851:
847:
842:
840:
835:
831:
829:
825:
821:
817:
811:
802:
798:
791:
787:
784:
781:
777:
776:over-expanded
774:
771:
768:
765:
762:
761:
760:
758:
753:
751:
742:
738:
736:
734:
733:adiabatically
729:
725:
721:
720:
709:
704:
694:
692:
689:for cold-gas
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
658:
656:
652:
649:
645:
640:
620:
616:
608:
591:
587:
579:
578:
577:
556:
552:
546:
542:
536:
531:
527:
519:
518:
517:
515:
497:
493:
483:
481:
477:
476:flame holders
467:
465:
461:
460:
455:
454:Hybrid rocket
451:
442:
440:
436:
432:
430:
429:reaction mass
425:
416:
414:
410:
406:
402:
397:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
336:
333:
330:
327:
323:
320:
317:
314:
310:
309:
305:
295:
292:
289:
286:
283:
280:
277:
274:
271:
268:
267:
263:
251:
247:
243:
239:
238:
234:
231:
227:
226:
222:
219:
215:
214:
210:
207:
203:
199:
195:
194:
190:
189:
188:
186:
183:
179:
175:
173:
169:
165:
164:
159:
151:
149:
148:Oberth effect
144:
142:
138:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
74:reaction mass
71:
67:
66:rocket engine
60:
56:
52:
48:
42:
38:
34:
30:
19:
8420:Beale number
8375:Split-single
8369:
8309:Heat engines
8226:Flame holder
8200:Thrust lever
8190:Autothrottle
8020:Thrust lapse
7975:Bypass ratio
7875:
7807:Gas turbines
7799:gas turbines
7748:
7289:
7210:North Korea
6981:
6974:
6942:
6870:
6858:
6851:
6829:
6778:
6771:
6759:
6747:
6740:
6733:
6711:
6704:
6697:
6680:
6673:
6666:
6610:
6603:
6591:
6569:
6512:
6505:
6416:solid motors
6411:
6325:
6316:
6293:
6287:
6262:
6254:
6229:
6221:
6210:
6195:
6176:
6170:
6158:. Retrieved
6148:
6136:. Retrieved
6129:the original
6124:
6097:. Retrieved
6093:the original
6088:
6078:
6066:
6054:
6042:
6030:
6006:10 September
6004:. Retrieved
5995:
5988:
5978:19 September
5976:. Retrieved
5966:
5956:19 September
5954:. Retrieved
5944:
5936:
5931:19 September
5929:. Retrieved
5919:
5899:
5877:. Retrieved
5863:
5853:November 23,
5851:. Retrieved
5844:the original
5831:
5812:
5784:
5773:. Retrieved
5769:the original
5759:
5739:
5731:
5723:
5714:
5703:
5697:
5676:
5639:
5633:
5622:. Retrieved
5618:
5608:
5598:February 16,
5596:. Retrieved
5592:
5580:
5569:
5558:
5547:. Retrieved
5538:
5527:
5516:. Retrieved
5507:Wade, Mark.
5502:
5494:the original
5478:
5466:
5458:
5452:. Retrieved
5448:the original
5438:
5427:. Retrieved
5423:the original
5413:
5402:. Retrieved
5398:the original
5388:
5380:the original
5364:
5353:. Retrieved
5344:Wade, Mark.
5339:
5328:. Retrieved
5324:
5314:
5305:
5263:
5256:
5235:
5228:
5219:
5190:. Retrieved
5183:the original
5177:
5144:. Retrieved
5138:
5114:. Retrieved
5110:the original
5085:. Retrieved
5079:
5069:
5054:
5035:
5022:
5006:
5001:
4933:
4914:
4907:
4883:Alexey Isaev
4878:
4873:
4866:
4839:
4835:
4818:
4803:
4776:Tippu Sultan
4773:
4769:
4755:
4751:
4748:
4726:black powder
4723:
4711:steam rocket
4704:
4698:
4696:
4674:
4581:
4555:
4528:Fission sail
4499:
4486:
4464:Description
4443:
4422:
4384:Description
4335:
4299:Description
4275:
4239:
4218:Description
4203:
4185:
4168:
4144:Description
4097:
4072:
4045:
4019:
3993:Description
3890:
3819:
3773:
3769:moving parts
3748:Description
3696:Water rocket
3684:Description
3663:
3648:
3608:
3605:
3585:
3582:
3575:
3567:
3562:
3556:
3553:
3550:
3536:
3528:
3517:
3513:
3493:
3481:
3471:
3461:
3455:
3447:
3440:
3397:
3343:
3328:
3325:
3298:
3287:
3280:
3276:duct engines
3272:
3268:
3253:
3236:
3225:
3183:
3171:
3159:
3150:
3146:
3119:
3115:
3108:
3100:
3096:Moon landing
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3064:
3045:
3010:
2989:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2965:
2950:
2935:
2932:
2917:
2913:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2862:
2834:
2815:
2808:
2804:
2797:
2785:
2778:
2769:
2757:
2750:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2727:
2723:
2711:
2695:
2683:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2651:
2645:
2643:
2631:
2628:
2617:
2601:
2584:
2316:jet engine (
2270:weight ratio
2256:
2240:
2237:
2209:
2207:
2203:Carnot cycle
2191:heat engines
2188:
2165:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2110:
2009:
1944:
1877:
1875:
1767:
1756:
1707:
1587:
1583:
1425:
1206:
1191:
1159:
1120:per unit of
1115:
1053:solid motors
1015:
1012:Propellants
997:
986:
981:
975:
945:
926:
914:
907:
903:
896:
877:
843:
836:
832:
812:
808:
799:
795:
785:
775:
769:
763:
754:
747:
737:
717:
714:
659:
641:
638:
575:
484:
473:
457:
448:
438:
435:Solid rocket
433:
426:
422:
405:water rocket
398:
343:
235:
223:
218:liquid state
211:
201:
197:
191:
177:
176:
161:
160:
157:
145:
134:
84:engines are
68:uses stored
65:
63:
29:
18:Rocket motor
8425:West number
8345:Minto wheel
8330:Gas turbine
8140:instruments
8095:Blade pitch
8090:Autofeather
7792:Jet engines
7747:Engines in
7394:RD-109, 119
7332:RD-864, 869
7317:RD-854, 861
7280:RD-253, 275
6928:RD-170, 171
6143:See page 3.
5927:(in German)
5879:January 17,
5030:and one on
4958:Jet damping
4936:Black Brant
4744:fire arrows
4688:Pythagorean
4467:Advantages
4387:Advantages
4302:Advantages
4221:Advantages
4147:Advantages
3996:Advantages
3923:Turborocket
3751:Advantages
3687:Advantages
3631:ultraviolet
3591:Jet physics
3578:hard starts
3331:heat fluxes
3138:nitric acid
3022:prototyping
2912:for thrust
2841:shock waves
2730:F-1 engines
2640:Hard starts
2185:efficiency.
2010:And hence:
978:meganewtons
854:plug nozzle
816:plug nozzle
685:as well as
354:propellants
270:Liquid fuel
206:solid state
154:Terminology
8462:Categories
8365:Rijke tube
8083:Principles
8062:Components
8054:Propellers
7953:Principles
7904:Air intake
7892:components
7890:Mechanical
7866:Turboshaft
7134:YF-1, 2, 3
7082:Hypergolic
7054:Rutherford
6773:Prometheus
6735:Archimedes
6160:8 December
6138:2011-01-25
6099:2014-03-21
5869:Wayne Hale
5775:2017-02-09
5720:Rijke tube
5624:2018-04-27
5593:IDC Online
5549:2009-09-25
5518:2009-09-25
5454:2009-09-25
5429:2010-04-15
5404:2010-04-16
5355:2009-09-25
5330:2016-10-20
5325:Space News
5146:2016-10-03
5116:2016-10-20
5087:2016-09-27
5046:References
4765:Greek fire
4736:alchemists
4652:gamma rays
4579:Very high
4553:Very high
4449:propulsion
3736:See also:
3653:through a
3619:Swan bands
3571:hypergolic
3558:hard start
3547:Combustion
3522:(LH2) and
3435:Deep space
3359:refractory
3313:molybdenum
3309:refractory
3254:Challenger
3028:, such as
3001:satellites
2916:and speed
2837:hypersonic
2794:Screeching
2765:pogo stick
2686:organ pipe
2654:hypergolic
2646:hard start
2530:1,740,100
2503:1,773,000
2440:Rocketdyne
2268:Thrust-to-
2107:Throttling
1878:vacuum Isp
1197:Net thrust
1122:propellant
929:collimated
864:See also:
790:shock wave
663:turbopumps
419:Propellant
370:supersonic
182:exothermic
126:spacecraft
124:to propel
110:solid fuel
94:combustion
8390:Aeolipile
8115:Proprotor
7965:Bleed air
7924:Combustor
7861:Turboprop
7675:Castor 30
7555:Zefiro 40
7550:Zefiro 23
7491:SpaB-140C
6888:NK-33, 44
6798:cryogenic
6644:Methalox
6463:Hydrolox
6455:Cryogenic
6327:Space.com
6037:, 1998–99
6016:cite book
5509:"RD-0146"
5346:"RD-0410"
5032:Apollo 13
5005:The RL10
4903:N1 rocket
4700:aeolipile
4648:neutrinos
4506:in half.
4134:Preheated
4071:Variable
4056:ion drive
3494:The more
3484:molecules
3468:Chemistry
3458:fuel-rich
3194:Saturn IB
3105:Accidents
2995:and more
2897:∗
2606:bar (1–20
2562:Merlin 1D
2125:˙
2065:−
2039:˙
1960:∗
1928:∗
1860:∗
1848:˙
1787:˙
1672:−
1617:−
1602:˙
1448:−
1374:˙
1317:−
1277:−
1262:˙
1236:˙
1189:impulse.
885:aluminium
850:aerospike
844:Advanced
828:aerospike
755:The exit
532:∗
498:∗
459:injectors
445:Injection
246:hydrazine
8397:Stirling
8325:Fluidyne
8231:Jet fuel
8120:Scimitar
7990:Flameout
7934:Impeller
7856:Turbojet
7851:Turbofan
7832:Pulsejet
7796:aircraft
7690:Orbus-21
7545:Zefiro 9
7308:Ukraine
7086:Aerozine
7074:Storable
6966:Ukraine
6908:RD-0110R
6805:Kerolox
5815:. AIAA.
5544:"RD-180"
5028:Apollo 6
4942:See also
4929:Saturn V
4692:Archytas
4252:hydrogen
3635:infrared
3623:Peroxide
3541:Ignition
3520:hydrogen
3462:increase
3451:velocity
3426:(LMDE),
3366:hydrogen
3349:Ablative
3321:tungsten
3317:tantalum
3259:STS-51-F
3212:Saturn V
3190:Saturn I
3126:Tyuratam
3067:Cold War
3037:missiles
3030:turbojet
2747:Chugging
2699:Titan II
2576:185,000
2553:368,000
2527:7,740.5
2516:Saturn V
2480:933,000
2457:512,000
2408:318,000
2349:Concorde
2345:turbojet
1089:Saturn V
826:and the
687:nitrogen
413:nitrogen
362:oxidiser
242:catalyst
230:oxidiser
141:hydrogen
118:oxidiser
59:Ariane 4
57:through
55:Ariane 1
53:used on
8335:Hot air
8219:systems
7846:Propfan
7749:italics
7710:Star 48
7705:Star 37
7685:Orbus-6
7606:Israel
7540:Waxwing
7496:Europe
7488:SpaB-65
7390:Russia
7255:RD-0237
7250:RD-0236
7221:Russia
7200:Israel
7160:Europe
7004:Kestrel
6950:S1.5400
6913:RD-0124
6879:Russia
6872:SCE-200
6768:Europe
6761:RD-0169
6756:Russia
6682:Longyun
6675:Lingyun
6593:RD-0146
6587:RD-0120
6578:Russia
6535:Vulcain
6521:Europe
6444:Liquid
6420:orbital
5011:Centaur
4791:⁄
4730:Chinese
4715:bearing
4440:Nuclear
4200:mirrors
4129:Thermal
3565:(RUD).
3518:Liquid
3305:rhenium
3265:Cooling
3156:Testing
3033:engines
2955:or the
2775:Buzzing
2524:18,499
2497:21,500
2474:11,890
2431:22,000
2417:RD-0146
2402:10,188
2394:RD-0750
2385:20,500
2363:38,000
2332:34,000
2291:RD-0410
2264:Thrust
2220:). See
2210:vehicle
1945:where:
1880:to be:
1356:
1353:where:
1118:impulse
1091:stage 1
1009:Rocket
576:where:
319:Igniter
114:rockets
72:as the
8370:Rocket
8355:Piston
8138:Engine
8015:Thrust
7876:Rocket
7871:Ramjet
7665:AJ-60A
7630:KM-V2b
7621:Japan
7595:Salman
7561:India
7535:Topaze
7500:Mage 1
7465:China
7456:Solid
7363:TR-201
7327:RD-856
7322:RD-855
7312:RD-843
7302:S5.98M
7291:RD-270
7185:India
7179:Viking
7169:Astris
7164:Aestus
7154:YF-50D
7130:China
7039:RS-27A
7029:Merlin
7019:LR-105
6983:RD-810
6976:RD-801
6960:TEPREL
6956:Spain
6944:RD-193
6933:RD-180
6923:RD-120
6867:India
6860:Welkin
6853:YF-130
6847:YF-115
6842:YF-102
6837:YF-100
6821:China
6749:Aeon R
6742:Aeon 1
6729:Raptor
6713:YF-215
6706:YF-209
6699:TQ-15A
6663:China
6556:Japan
6545:CE-7.5
6541:India
6496:YF-75D
6482:China
6376:Units)
6300:
6275:
6242:
6183:
5907:
5819:
5747:
5724:Nature
5684:
5646:
5271:
5243:
5192:7 July
4858:He 176
4854:He 111
4780:Mysore
4760:laurel
4733:Taoist
4690:named
4364:
3524:oxygen
3392:porous
3283:copper
3173:Rocket
3168:Safety
2946:GALCIT
2612:
2608:
2604:
2579:180.1
2570:1,030
2556:136.7
2550:1,638
2547:2,694
2544:1,222
2521:8,391
2500:7,887
2494:9,750
2489:RD-170
2477:4,152
2471:5,393
2466:RD-180
2454:2,278
2451:7,004
2448:3,177
2405:1,413
2399:4,621
2379:3,900
2376:1,800
2360:169.2
2357:7,000
2354:3,175
2326:6,001
2323:2,722
2305:7,900
2299:4,400
2296:2,000
2285:(lbf)
2208:For a
2161:Raptor
1203:Thrust
956:gimbal
917:chokes
822:, the
719:chokes
697:Nozzle
671:helium
512:, the
311:Solid
202:motors
122:vacuum
112:) and
82:Rocket
7820:Types
7730:X-254
7725:X-248
7715:UA120
7695:Orion
7670:Algol
7655:SRB-A
7650:M-34c
7625:KM-V1
7615:RSA-3
7591:Iran
7484:FG-47
7479:FG-46
7474:FG-36
7469:FG-02
7430:XLR81
7424:RS-88
7419:Curie
7409:Gamma
7384:Other
7368:XLR81
7357:RS-88
7352:LR-91
7347:LR-87
7297:S5.92
7225:17D61
7194:Vikas
7174:Vexin
7149:YF-40
7144:YF-23
7117:, or
7097:, or
7091:UH 25
7059:XLR50
7044:RS-56
7034:RS-27
7014:LR-89
7009:LR-79
6893:RD-58
6883:NK-15
6831:TH-12
6825:TH-11
6796:Semi-
6693:TQ-12
6688:TQ-11
6668:BF-20
6633:RS-68
6628:RS-25
6605:BE-3U
6550:CE-20
6530:Vinci
6514:YF-90
6507:YF-79
6501:YF-77
6491:YF-75
6486:YF-73
6132:(PDF)
6121:(PDF)
6073:, CEA
6061:, RPA
6000:(PDF)
5847:(PDF)
5840:(PDF)
5589:(PDF)
5186:(PDF)
5036:would
4993:Notes
4970:NERVA
4917:RL-10
4899:NK-33
4895:NK-15
4685:Greek
4656:muons
4461:Type
4381:Type
4362:0.3–3
4296:Type
4215:Type
4141:Type
4096:High
3990:Type
3969:ATREX
3965:SABRE
3961:RB545
3745:Type
3681:Type
3627:steam
3561:or a
3430:(SPS)
3417:LR-91
3251:
3243:RS-25
3239:RS-25
3039:, or
2849:dB(A)
2800:Hertz
2781:Hertz
2753:Hertz
2714:Atlas
2539:NK-33
2533:94.1
2506:82.5
2483:78.5
2460:73.1
2443:RS-25
2434:38.4
2411:31.2
2388:7.95
2302:35.2
2282:(kN)
2279:(lb)
2276:(kg)
2261:Mass
1770:choke
952:hinge
837:On a
439:grain
346:fluid
37:RS-68
8215:Fuel
7810:and
7794:and
7720:SRMU
7661:USA
7645:M-34
7640:M-24
7635:M-14
7610:LK-1
7600:Rafe
7585:S200
7580:S139
7530:P230
7525:P120
7458:fuel
7415:USA
7342:AJ10
7338:USA
7204:LK-4
7099:UDMH
7049:S-3D
6990:USA
6970:RD-8
6809:RP-1
6780:M-10
6724:BE-4
6720:USA
6623:RL10
6612:BE-7
6600:USA
6571:LE-9
6565:LE-7
6560:LE-5
6525:HM7B
6446:fuel
6418:for
6414:and
6298:ISBN
6273:ISBN
6240:ISBN
6181:ISBN
6162:2016
6022:link
6008:2022
5980:2022
5958:2022
5933:2022
5905:ISBN
5881:2012
5855:2011
5817:ISBN
5745:ISBN
5682:ISBN
5644:ISBN
5600:2024
5532:SSME
5269:ISBN
5241:ISBN
5194:2017
5015:DCSS
5013:and
4897:and
4891:NK-9
4860:and
4844:and
4697:The
4356:SSTO
4266:and
4198:and
4186:The
3947:LACE
3633:and
3611:RP-1
3303:and
3237:The
3226:The
3204:RL10
3192:and
3184:The
3142:UDMH
3122:R-16
3020:and
2986:USSR
2953:NASA
2863:The
2573:825
2567:467
2425:570
2422:260
2366:5.4
2335:5.2
2329:150
2308:1.8
2157:BE-3
1588:The
1104:304
1100:RP-1
1083:313
1062:268
1058:APCP
1045:453
464:jets
399:For
360:and
358:fuel
278:tank
272:tank
248:and
196:(or
128:and
100:and
8340:Jet
7680:GEM
7575:S12
7520:P80
7515:PAP
7510:P-6
7505:P-4
7405:UK
7189:PS4
7119:HNO
7115:MON
7095:MMH
6999:H-1
6994:F-1
6813:LOX
6655:LOX
6618:J-2
6474:LOX
5007:has
4927:'s
4864:).
3935:LOX
3404:V-2
3335:BTU
3319:or
3257:'s
2512:F-1
2428:98
2382:91
2314:J58
2255:or
2253:Jet
1096:LOX
1079:MMH
1075:NTO
1070:OMS
1034:LOX
954:or
852:or
788:(a
200:or
174:).
78:jet
8464::
7570:S9
7565:S7
7113:,
7102:/
7093:,
7088:,
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6648:CH
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6324:.
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6209:.
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1019:sp
1001:sp
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7110:4
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7084:(
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2030:=
2025:n
2021:F
1993:f
1989:C
1956:c
1924:c
1917:f
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1909:=
1904:c
1901:a
1898:v
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1823:c
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1227:=
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