166:
599:
72:) in the form of "major and minor" races were held. The Robigalia was one of several agricultural festivals in April to celebrate and vitalize the growing season, but the darker sacrificial elements of these occasions are also fraught with anxiety about crop failure and the dependence on divine favor to avert it.
536:, whose work on Roman festivals remains a standard reference, entertained the idea that Robigus is an "indigitation" of Mars, that is, a name to be used in a prayer formulary to fix the local action of the invoked god. In support of this idea, the priest who presided was the flamen Quirinalis, and the
1179:
This dual function of Mars, contradictory perhaps to the 21st-century mind, may not have seemed so to the Romans: "In early Rome agriculture and military activity were closely bound up, in the sense that the Roman farmer was also a soldier (and a voter as well)": Beard,
1081:
562:
were held in honor of Mars and Robigo on this day. The races had two classes, "major and minor," which may represent junior and senior divisions. In chariot racing, younger drivers seem to have gained experience with a two-horse chariot
957:, he is called Quirinus." Therefore, since Quirinus is the "Mars" who presides over peace, his temple is within the city; the temple for the "Mars of war" is located outside the city limit. The name was also connected to
1234:
Precise naming, in connection with concealing a deity's true name to monopolize his or her power, was a crucial part of prayer in antiquity, as evidenced not only in the traditional religions of Greece and Rome and
1258:. See Matthias Klinghardt, “Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion,” Numen 46 (1999) 1–5; A.A. Barb, "Antaura. The Mermaid and the Devil's Grandmother: A Lecture,"
1078:
1274:
1203:
1442:
1121:
840:
526:. The color is thematic: the disease was red, the requisite puppies (or sometimes bitches) had a red coat, the red of blood recalls the distinctively Roman incarnation of
1188:
1038:
and
Robigus are also regarded as among those gods whom it is a duty to placate so that they deflect the malign influences away from us or the harvests"); Woodard,
422:
1271:
1200:
671:, which was concerned with purifying and blessing the parish and fields and which took the place of the Robigalia on April 25 of the Christian calendar. The
1588:
1439:
1537:
Emergenze storico-archeologiche di un settore del suburbio di Roma: la Tenuta dell’Acqua
Traversa. Atti della Giornata di Studio, Roma 7 giugno 2003
1400:
165:
1118:
415:
340:
175:
1581:
837:
408:
1032:
In istis autem diis, quos placari oportet, uti mala a nobis vel a frugibus natis amoliantur, Auruncus quoque habetur et
Robigus
127:
550:, his six-book calendar poem on Roman holidays which provides the most extended, though problematic, description of the day.
107:
1106:
396:
244:
1185:
1574:
362:
335:
1976:
345:
1057:
767:
482:
of agricultural disease could also prevent it. He was thus a potentially malignant deity to be propitiated, as
627:
119:
1489:
Plagues, Priests, and Demons: Sacred
Narratives and the Rise of Christianity in the Old World and the New
126:
and thus involved domestic animals whose flesh was a normal part of the Roman diet; the dog occurs as a
1986:
1981:
1251:
1114:
946:
224:
153:
55:
724:
665:
372:
847:; Eli Edward Burriss, "The Place of the Dog in Superstition as Revealed in Latin Literature,"
1910:
463:
294:
234:
1865:
1398:
Jean-Paul
Thuillier, "Le cirrus et la barbe. Questions d'iconographie athlétique romaine,"
1239:
1218:
533:
389:
382:
8:
254:
229:
653:, a wine festival on April 23. Varro considered these and the Robigalia, along with the
1955:
1885:
1760:
1533:“Lucus Robiginis in Acqua Traversa”. Un antichissimo culto al V miglio della via Clodia
1282:
1066:
969:
801:
638:
614:
604:
523:
448:
377:
1775:
1740:
1655:
1566:
311:
115:
1815:
1597:
1446:
1300:
1291:
1278:
1207:
1192:
1125:
1085:
1052:
963:
890:
844:
495:
479:
367:
212:
171:
95:
85:
51:
38:
519:
195:
1755:
1512:
936:
704:
618:
also record that on the same day the festival celebrated a particular class of
598:
566:
440:
316:
284:
63:
1560:
1970:
1905:
1890:
1830:
1309:
1023:
985:(University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 145.
672:
668:
587:
483:
323:
305:
264:
123:
514:-by-association of antiquity, was thought to be connected to the color red (
439:
and religion, the institution of the
Robigalia was attributed to the Sabine
1925:
1900:
1855:
1800:
1790:
1700:
1635:
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1265:
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81:
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1780:
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1645:
619:
459:
god of war who become identified with Mars, may suggest a Sabine origin.
99:
1369:
699:
486:
notes. But the gender of this deity is elusive. The agricultural writer
1940:
1895:
1880:
1870:
1850:
1840:
1825:
1810:
1795:
1785:
1750:
1735:
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1690:
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1640:
1620:
1500:
1374:
1322:
1236:
1070:
1035:
817:
David Soren, "Hecate and the Infant
Cemetery at Poggio Gramignano," in
675:
658:
642:
527:
139:
1930:
1820:
1805:
1765:
1745:
1685:
1625:
932:
780:
540:
were held for both Mars and Robigo. The flamen recited a prayer that
511:
487:
436:
330:
800:
85 (1981), pp. 275–276; general discussion of victims' edibility by
1935:
1720:
1705:
1675:
1665:
1650:
1615:
1101:
978:
830:
634:
583:
574:
452:
279:
135:
608:, with the entry on the "Feast of Robigo" at bottom right ("ROB").
1945:
1845:
1770:
1715:
1695:
1247:
974:
650:
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622:: "pimped-out boys," following the previous day's recognition of
1710:
1096:
941:
654:
582:
Other horse and chariot races in honor of Mars occurred at the
456:
274:
269:
131:
742:
Utopia antiqua: Readings of the Golden Age and
Decline at Rome
1630:
994:
475:
467:
259:
201:
90:
1601:
1422:
1342:
1062:
661:
late in the month, the "original" Roman holidays in April.
541:
218:
68:
1073:
regard the deity as female. A.J. Boyle and R.D. Woodard,
1299:
among them at 4.21); see W.R. Johnson, "The Return of
1139:
645:
on April 15, when a pregnant cow was sacrificed; the
1596:
1539:, a cura di F. Vistoli, Roma 2005, pp. 151–170.
1333:("Numa Pompilius established for Mars and Robigo").
142:
and two other sacrifices pertaining to grain crops.
498:, which has a reddish or reddish-brown color. Both
1563:of a modern festival of Robigalia in PiauĂ, Brazil
731:(Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 45.
678:mocks the goddess Robigo as "made up," a fiction.
633:Other April festivals related to farming were the
494:, like the word used for a form of the disease of
443:, in the eleventh year of his reign as the second
1544:Nota di aggiornamento critico e bibliografico sui
1223:The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic
62:. Its main ritual was a dog sacrifice to protect
1968:
1040:Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult
1260:Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes
1154:Burriss, "The Place of the Dog in Superstition,
821:(«L'Erma» di Bretschneider, 1999), pp. 619–621.
1141:(Catholic University of America Press, 2007),
1061:1: 236, 316) and others hold that he is male;
819:A Roman Villa and a Late Roman Infant Cemetery
649:on April 21 to ensure healthy flocks; and the
470:says that the Robigalia was named for the god
106:) and a sacrificial offering of the blood and
80:The Robigalia was held at the boundary of the
1582:
1438:(Oxford University Press, 1999, 2010), p. 32
1285:derided the proliferation of divinities as a
1042:(University of Illinois Press, 2006), p. 234.
641:, lasting for several days in mid-month; the
416:
973:. Quirinus was assimilated with the deified
967:, in contrast to military personnel and the
875:The Religious Experience of the Roman People
530:as both a god of agriculture and bloodshed.
1511:, "you see, they even make up a goddess of
1491:(Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 100.
1105:1.151. The 4th-century agricultural writer
931:, p. 75. The name Quirinus was supposed to
715:(Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 263.
387:
321:
1589:
1575:
1550:, LXIV, 1 (CCCLXIV), 2009, pp. 35–46.
981:period. See Robert Schilling, "Quirinus,"
806:Pietas: Selected Studies in Roman Religion
423:
409:
130:most often in magic and private rites for
953:, he is called Gradivus; when he is calm
1281:(in connection with compelling demons).
949:says that "when Mars rages uncontrolled
664:The Robigalia has been connected to the
597:
447:. The combined presence of Numa and the
571:before graduating to a four-horse team
1969:
1331:Numa Pompilius Marti et Robigini fecit
798:Harvard Studies in Classical Philology
1570:
1401:Mélanges de l'École française de Rome
771:1 pp. 236, 316), as cited by Woodard.
628:prostitutes regarded as professionals
877:(London, 1922), p. 108; Tertullian,
796:C. Bennett Pascal, "October Horse,"
553:
180:sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter
593:
13:
1525:
490:gives the name in the feminine as
363:Glossary of ancient Roman religion
138:, but was offered publicly at the
102:. The celebration included games (
14:
1998:
1554:
961:, Roman civilians, and the civil
58:held April 25, named for the god
1262:29 (1966), p. 4; Karen Hartnup,
586:and before the sacrifice of the
164:
1509:nam et robiginis deam finxerunt
1494:
1481:
1464:
1451:
1428:
1408:
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1336:
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1148:
1131:
1090:
1045:
1017:
1004:
988:
921:
900:
884:
867:
854:
744:(Routledge, 2008), pp. 185–188.
727:, J.A. North and S.R.F. Price.
120:public religion of ancient Rome
1351:4.905–942; Boyle and Woodard,
1264:On the Beliefs of the Greeks:
1077:(Penguin Books, 2000), p. 254
983:Roman and European Mythologies
914:, p. 106, note 129; Woodward,
824:
811:
790:
774:
760:
747:
734:
718:
687:
75:
1:
1065:, Columella (see following),
681:
804:, "Profanus, profanare," in
729:Religions of Rome: A History
7:
1445:September 21, 2023, at the
1359:on the nature of this work.
1277:September 21, 2023, at the
1206:September 21, 2023, at the
1191:September 21, 2023, at the
1124:September 21, 2023, at the
1111:contra nebulas et rubiginem
1084:September 21, 2023, at the
843:September 21, 2023, at the
435:Like many other aspects of
10:
2003:
1517:Indo-European Sacred Space
1270:(Brill, 2004), pp. 97–101
977:, possibly as late as the
916:Indo-European Sacred Space
755:Indo-European Sacred Space
1611:
1307:(1992) 173–179. See also
1252:ancient Egyptian religion
808:(Brill, 1980), pp. 25–38.
145:
64:grain fields from disease
34:
26:
1289:, "a mob of mini-gods" (
1195:and 53. See also Evans,
1014:(New York, 1921), p. 74.
544:quotes at length in the
1977:Ancient Roman festivals
1287:turba minutorum deorum
1225:(London, 1908), p. 89.
1051:In addition to Varro,
873:William Warde Fowler,
609:
388:
373:Ancient Greek religion
322:
110:of an unweaned puppy (
56:ancient Roman religion
16:Ancient Roman festival
1548:La Parola del Passato
1405:110.1 (1998), p. 377.
1268:and Popular Orthodoxy
851:30 (1935), pp. 34–35.
697:are mentioned in the
601:
510:which, following the
451:, the high priest of
187:Practices and beliefs
88:sites it in a grove (
1866:Quinquennial Neronia
1417:, boys managed by a
1240:Hellenistic religion
1219:William Warde Fowler
534:William Warde Fowler
390:Interpretatio Graeca
383:Gallo-Roman religion
1531:Alessandro Locchi,
1436:Roman Homosexuality
1434:Craig A. Williams,
935:the Sabine town of
906:Boyle and Woodard,
860:Boyle and Woodard,
849:Classical Philology
96:milestone from Rome
23:
1542:Fabrizio Vistoli,
1474:6.15–16; Fantham,
1283:Augustine of Hippo
1137:Davide Del Bello,
1109:devotes a chapter
970:comitia centuriata
939:. In his notes to
802:Hendrik Wagenvoort
630:of some standing.
610:
506:are also found as
225:funerary practices
21:
1987:April observances
1982:Agricultural gods
1964:
1963:
1459:Religions of Rome
1370:Fasti Praenestini
1182:Religions of Rome
945:1.292 and 6.859,
912:Religions of Rome
910:, p. 254; Beard,
700:Fasti Praenestini
669:feast of Rogation
637:, or festival of
615:Fasti Praenestini
605:Fasti Praenestini
602:A section of the
560:(ludi cursoribus)
554:Other observances
524:sympathetic magic
449:flamen Quirinalis
433:
432:
378:Etruscan religion
336:agricultural gods
235:mystery religions
181:
44:
43:
1994:
1776:Ludi Apollinares
1741:Ieiunium Cereris
1656:Capitoline Games
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1584:
1577:
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1498:
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1487:Daniel T. Reff,
1485:
1479:
1472:De lingua latina
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1279:Wayback Machine
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1193:Wayback Machine
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1053:Verrius Flaccus
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1010:A.M. Franklin,
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964:comitia curiata
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368:Roman mythology
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331:underworld gods
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285:Fratres Arvales
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94:) at the fifth
86:Verrius Flaccus
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1546:Robigalia, in
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1527:
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1505:De spectaculis
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1246:, but also in
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1197:Utopia antiqua
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1415:Pueri lenonii
1411:
1404:
1402:
1395:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1365:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1312:
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1310:indigitamenta
1306:
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1298:
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1024:Aulus Gellius
1020:
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1007:
1000:
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991:
984:
980:
976:
972:
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955:(tranquillus)
952:
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785:De re rustica
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673:Church Father
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631:
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621:
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588:October Horse
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531:
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484:Aulus Gellius
481:
477:
474:, who as the
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324:Indigitamenta
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306:Dii Consentes
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230:imperial cult
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124:communal meal
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61:
57:
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49:
40:
37:
33:
29:
25:
19:
1926:Tubilustrium
1901:Septimontium
1875:
1801:Meditrinalia
1791:Lusus Troiae
1701:Epulum Jovis
1636:Armilustrium
1603:
1547:
1543:
1536:
1532:
1516:
1508:
1504:
1496:
1488:
1483:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1458:
1453:
1435:
1430:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1399:
1394:
1386:
1382:
1381:5; Fantham,
1378:
1368:
1364:
1356:
1352:
1346:
1338:
1330:
1326:
1318:
1308:
1304:
1296:
1290:
1286:
1266:Leo Allatios
1263:
1259:
1256:Christianity
1254:, and later
1244:mystery cult
1237:syncretistic
1230:
1222:
1214:
1196:
1184:, pp. 47–48
1181:
1175:
1170:, pp. 90–91.
1167:
1162:
1155:
1150:
1142:
1138:
1133:
1117:and mildew (
1110:
1100:
1092:
1074:
1056:
1047:
1039:
1031:
1028:Attic Nights
1027:
1019:
1011:
1006:
998:
990:
982:
968:
962:
958:
954:
950:
940:
928:
923:
915:
911:
907:
902:
894:
886:
878:
874:
869:
861:
856:
848:
834:
826:
818:
813:
805:
797:
792:
784:
776:
766:
762:
754:
749:
741:
736:
728:
720:
712:
708:
698:
694:
689:
663:
655:Great Mother
632:
623:
613:
611:
603:
581:
572:
564:
559:
557:
545:
537:
532:
515:
507:
503:
499:
491:
471:
461:
445:king of Rome
434:
304:
217:
200:
176:head covered
157:ancient Rome
111:
103:
89:
82:Ager Romanus
79:
67:
59:
47:
45:
18:
1951:Volturnalia
1921:Tricennalia
1916:Tiberinalia
1861:Quinquatria
1836:Opiconsivia
1781:Ludi Romani
1671:Carmentalia
1646:Bacchanalia
1353:Ovid: Fasti
1075:Ovid: Fasti
933:derive from
908:Ovid: Fasti
862:Ovid: Fasti
787:10.337–343.
620:sex workers
520:homeopathic
245:Priesthoods
155:Religion in
100:Via Claudia
76:Description
1971:Categories
1956:Vulcanalia
1941:Vicennalia
1911:Terminalia
1896:Sementivae
1881:Saturnalia
1871:Regifugium
1851:Poplifugia
1841:Parentalia
1826:Neptunalia
1811:Mercuralia
1796:Matronalia
1786:Lupercalia
1751:Larentalia
1736:Furrinalia
1731:Fornacalia
1726:Fordicidia
1691:Decennalia
1681:Compitalia
1661:Caprotinia
1641:Augustalia
1621:Ambarvalia
1501:Tertullian
1375:Tertullian
1323:Tertullian
1297:dea Robigo
1156:pp. 34–35.
1071:Tertullian
929:Lupercalia
927:Franklin,
725:Mary Beard
682:References
676:Tertullian
659:Megalensia
643:Fordicidia
624:meretrices
496:wheat rust
255:Pontifices
140:Lupercalia
134:and other
98:along the
1931:Veneralia
1876:Robigalia
1821:Nemoralia
1806:Megalesia
1766:Liberalia
1746:Junonalia
1686:Consualia
1626:Amburbium
1519:, p. 136.
1403:Antiquité
1389:, p. 263.
1357:et passim
1199:, p. 188
1107:Palladius
1067:Augustine
1030:5.12.14:
918:, p. 136.
864:, p. 255.
781:Columella
757:, p. 234.
753:Woodard,
666:Christian
626:, female
512:etymology
488:Columella
437:Roman law
213:festivals
66:. Games (
48:Robigalia
22:Robigalia
1936:Vestalia
1721:Floralia
1706:Equirria
1676:Cerealia
1666:Caristia
1651:Brumalia
1616:Agonalia
1478:, p. 29.
1461:, p. 45.
1443:Archived
1305:Arethusa
1275:Archived
1204:Archived
1189:Archived
1166:Fowler,
1122:Archived
1102:Georgics
1082:Archived
1036:Auruncus
979:Augustan
959:Quirites
951:(saevit)
841:Archived
831:Plutarch
635:Cerealia
584:Equirria
575:quadriga
466:scholar
453:Quirinus
280:Epulones
275:Fetiales
270:Flamines
265:Vestales
196:libation
114:). Most
108:entrails
52:festival
39:Festival
30:April 25
27:Duration
1946:Vinalia
1886:Rosalia
1846:Parilia
1771:Lucaria
1761:Lemuria
1716:Feralia
1696:Divalia
1470:Varro,
1457:Beard,
1440:online.
1387:Book IV
1301:Tutunus
1248:Judaism
1201:online.
1079:online.
975:Romulus
947:Servius
897:18.285.
713:Book IV
651:Vinalia
647:Parilia
500:Robigus
472:Robigus
397:Decline
295:Deities
260:Augures
208:temples
118:in the
112:catulus
60:Robigus
1711:Februa
1604:(ludi)
1602:games
1385:Fasti
1272:online
1186:online
1143:passim
1115:miasma
1097:Vergil
1069:, and
942:Aeneid
711:Fasti
703:; see
508:Rubig-
504:robigo
492:Robigo
457:Sabine
455:, the
146:Origin
132:Hecate
128:victim
50:was a
1631:Argei
1561:Video
1535:, in
1476:Fasti
1383:Ovid:
1348:Fasti
1295:4.9,
1001:6.16.
995:Varro
937:Cures
891:Pliny
709:Ovid:
639:Ceres
547:Fasti
516:ruber
476:numen
468:Varro
202:votum
91:lucus
1600:and
1423:pimp
1419:leno
1343:Ovid
1242:and
1119:1.35
1063:Ovid
693:The
612:The
567:biga
542:Ovid
538:ludi
528:Mars
502:and
462:The
219:ludi
104:ludi
69:ludi
46:The
35:Type
1507:5 (
1329:5:
1303:,"
1058:CIL
768:CIL
657:'s
522:or
478:or
54:in
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1503:,
1421:,
1377:,
1373:;
1345:,
1325:,
1250:,
1221:,
1128:).
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893:,
881:5.
838:68
833:,
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573:(
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