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433:" to Monroe to campaign in 1961 for integrated interstate bus travel, the local NAACP chapter served as their base. They were housed in Newtown, the black section of Monroe. Pickets marched daily at the courthouse, put under a variety of restraints by the Monroe police, such as having to stand 15 feet apart. During this campaign, Freedom Riders were beaten by violent crowds in Anniston, Alabama and Birmingham.
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563:... the U.S.C.P. has openly come out against my position on the Negro struggle. In fact, the party has sent special representatives here to sabotage my work on behalf of U.S. Negro liberation. They are pestering the Cubans to remove me from the radio, ban THE CRUSADER and to take a number of other steps in what they call 'cutting Williams down to size.' ...
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accompanying the KKK caravan to watch for possible law violations. The article quoted
Williams: "These things have happened," Williams insisted. "Police try to make it appear that I have been exaggerating and trying to stir up trouble. If police tell me I am in no danger and that they can't confirm these events, why then has my insurance been cancelled?"
858:, University Publications of America, Bethesda, MD, 2002. The linked-to document is a guide to a microfilmed version of the Robert F Williams Papers, which are at the Bentley Historical Library of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. It contains notes on the content of the papers and an introductory essay by Timothy Tyson.
548:. In a public speech, he advocated armed violence against the United States during the Vietnam War, congratulated China on obtaining its own nuclear weapons (which Williams referred to as "The Freedom Bomb"), and showed his solidarity with the North Vietnamese against the United States military attacks against that country.
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Lynn wrote
Williams in a letter on January 24, 1968: "You are wise in not making a decision to come back until the financial situation is assured." Because no financial backing could be found, no 1968 "Williams for President" campaign was ever launched by Williams' supporters in the United States. By
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In 1958 Williams as head of the NAACP chapter defended two young black boys, ages seven and nine, who were jailed and beaten in Monroe after a white girl kissed each of them on the cheek and told her mother, who became enraged. The incident was covered internationally and
Williams became known around
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in 1969. Williams had chosen to return via
Detroit because he could obtain political and financial support from the Republic of New Africa there and because he had greater faith in the Michigan courts than elsewhere in the United States. Federal agents immediately arrested him and he was released on
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was canceling
Williams' collision and comprehensive coverage, effective that day. They first canceled all of his automobile insurance, but decided to reinstate his liability and medical payments coverage, enough for Williams to retain his car license. The company said that Williams' affiliation with
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Williams insisted his position was defensive, as opposed to a declaration of war. He relied on numerous black military veterans from the local area, as well as financial support from across the country. In Harlem, particularly, fundraisers were frequently held and proceeds devoted to purchasing arms
301:
acists consider themselves superior beings and are not willing to exchange their superior lives for our inferior ones. They are most vicious and violent when they can practice violence with impunity. It has always been an accepted right of
Americans, as the history of our Western states proves, that
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The only thing that prevents my acceptance and willingness to make an immediate return is the present lack of adequate financial assurance for a fight against my being railroaded to jail and an effective organization to arouse the people. I don't think it will be wise to announce my nomination and
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We cannot rely on the law. We can get no justice under the present system. If we feel that injustice is done, we must then be prepared to inflict justice on these people. Since the federal government will not bring a halt to lynching, and since the so-called courts lynch our people legally, if it's
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the public swimming pools, which were funded and operated by taxpayer monies. He had followers form picket lines around the pool. The NAACP members organized peaceful demonstrations, but opponents fired on their lines. No one was arrested or punished, although law enforcement officers were present.
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was still supportive of
Williams and his advocacy for using armed self defense against white oppression. Forman, who would also promote Williams' armed self-defense message during a visit to his home in Monroe, North Carolina, also agreed to assist Williams in organizing a Freedom Ride in Monroe.
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Newtown was the black residential area of Monroe. In the summer of 1957, there were rumors that the KKK was going to attack the house of Dr. Albert E. Perry, a practicing physician and vice-president of the Monroe NAACP. Williams and his men of the Armed Guard went to Perry's house to defend it,
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caravan had swapped gunfire with a group of blacks outside the home of Dr. Albert E. Perry, vice president of the local NAACP chapter. The article quoted police chief A. A. Maurey as denying part of that story. He said, "I know there was no shooting." He said that he had had several police cars
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the local public library and swimming pool in Monroe. At a time of high racial tension and official abuses, Williams promoted armed Black self-defense in the United States. In addition, he helped gain support for gubernatorial pardons in 1959 for two young
African-American boys who had received
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who traveled to Monroe in the summer of 1961 in a test of integrating interstate buses. In August 1961 he and his wife left the United States for several years to avoid kidnapping charges after a white couple got lost in the black part of town in Monroe. The local police and the FBI allegedly
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and its future. Williams predicted a long and difficult fight. Mao responded that
Williams could be patient because of his age, and that a revolutionary program must be planned and sustained because its goal is to change society permanently. After National Day, the Williamses toured China.
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Williams opposed what he described as "fake
Marxists" who argued that black people should be patient and seek intervention through the courts and the electoral process. In Williams' view, African Americans had the right to use any means to oppose violent policies which targeted them.
279:(NRA) for a charter for a local rifle club. He called the Monroe Chapter of the NRA the Black Armed Guard; it was made up of about 50–60 men, including some veterans like him. They were determined to defend the local black community from racist attacks, a goal similar to that of the
137:
convinced the couple to say Williams had kidnapped them, and the FBI put out a warrant for his arrest, causing him to flee to Cuba, and, later, the People's Republic of China. These charges were dropped by the state when his trial opened in 1975 following his return in 1970.
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Williams, Robert F., "Speech Delivered at the International Conference for Solidarity with the People of Vietnam Against U.S. Imperialist Aggression for the Defense of Peace. Hanoi, Democratic Republic of Vietnam November 25–29, 1965" (March 1965).
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When he decided to return to the United States, Williams began to raise funds for his bail and legal defense. During that time, he decreased his rhetoric about armed revolution in an effort to avoid complicating the upcoming legal proceedings.
179:, on February 26, 1925, to Emma Carter and John L. Williams who worked as a railroad boiler washer. He had two sisters, Lorraine Garlington and Jessie Link, and two brothers, John H. Williams and Edward S. Williams. His grandmother, a former
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While you are armed, remember this is your only chance to be free. ... This is your only chance to stop your people from being treated worse than dogs. We'll take care of the front, Joe, but from the back, he'll never know what hit him. You
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the NAACP was not a factor; they noted "that rocks had been thrown at his car and home several times by people driving by his home at night. These incidents just forced us to get off the comprehensive and collision portions of his policy."
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offered him pay to broadcast for them. So far he has refused. But he has not foreclosed making a deal with the government or the far right. He takes the position that he is entitled to make any maneuver to keep from going to jail for
381:
quoted him as saying "the Negro in the South cannot expect justice in the courts. He must convict his attackers on the spot. He must meet violence with violence, lynching with lynching." It is not known where these quotes originated.
290:"After this clash the same city officials who said the Klan had a constitutional right to organize met in an emergency session and passed a city ordinance banning the Klan from Monroe without a special permit from the police chief."
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in August 1963 in support of the African American struggle against discrimination. On August 10, China's ambassador to Cuba invited Williams to the Chinese embassy to be presented with a copy of Mao's statement. Later that month,
783:. Parks gave the eulogy at Williams' funeral in 1996, praising him for "his courage and for his commitment to freedom". She concluded, "The sacrifices he made, and what he did, should go down in history and never be forgotten."
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in North Carolina. At the age of 11, Williams witnessed the beating and dragging of a black woman by police officer Jesse Helms Sr. Helms Sr., later the Monroe chief of police, was the father of future United States Senator
326:
the world. His publicity campaign, inviting a barrage of headlines castigating Monroe and the US in the global press, was instrumental in shaming the officials involved. Authorities eventually released the boys, who were
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In 1969, Williams returned to the United States to fight the legal charges against him in North Carolina. Williams' wife, Mabel Williams returned first, in September. Williams returned via London, England, reaching
1434:
A new debate over nonviolence Militant: A fiery black advocate of violence in the 1960s has returned to the spotlight with recent revelations that Thurgood Marshall passed information about him to the FBI
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The following year, Williams was so incensed with the decision of a Monroe court to acquit two white men of raping a pregnant black woman, Mary Reid, that he replied by saying on the courthouse steps:
485:
in 1962, Williams used Radio Free Dixie to urge black soldiers in the U.S. armed forces, who were then preparing for a possible invasion of Cuba, to engage in insurrection against the United States.
555:
members opposed Williams' positions, suggesting they would divide the working class in the U.S. along racial lines. In a May 18, 1964, letter from Havana to his U.S. lawyer, civil rights attorney
234:
In 1947, Williams married a 16-year-old African American woman named Mable Ola Robinson, a fellow civil rights activist. They had two children named John C. Williams and Robert F. Williams, Jr.
1508:, quotes Williams as saying "This court has proved that Negroes cannot receive justice from the courts. They must convict their attackers on the spot. They must meet violence with violence!".
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Williams described China as last hope for African Americans, contending that "Without China, there can be no Black struggle in America." In a speech at a demonstration against United States
517:
During his time in Cuba, Williams increased his efforts to obtain international support and publicity for the concept of African American armed self-defense. Following requests by Williams,
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to refuse to deliver foreign-origin publications deemed to be "communist political propaganda" except at the specific prior request of the addressee was declared unconstitutional under the
510:
and in later years Mauricelm-Lei Millere, the founder of African American Defense League. Despite his absence from the United States, in 1964 Williams was elected president of the US-based
751:
represented Williams in court. North Carolina prosecutors dismissed the charges against Williams on January 16, 1976, stating that its major witness was too weak to appear in court.
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before the American Civil War attempting to arm and free enslaved Black people. Williams' attempts to contact the U.S. government in order to return were consistently rebuffed.
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Following his statements about meeting violence with violence, Williams was removed from his NAACP position in 1959. Williams disavowed any reference to lynching, rejecting
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November 1969, Williams apparently had become disillusioned with the U.S. left. As his lawyer, Conrad Lynn, noted in a November 7, 1969 letter to W. Haywood Burns of the
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University of North Carolina Press, 2004. History of the Deacons' civil rights activity and organizing in Louisiana and elsewhere; they supported armed self-defense.
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Williams now clearly takes the position that he has been deserted by the left. How and whether he fits black militant organizations into that category I don't know.
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published a statement by Williams in which Williams stated that the dignity required self-defense and self-defense required a willingness to counterattack.
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fortifying it with sandbags. When numerous KKK members appeared and shot from their cars, Williams and his followers returned the fire, driving them away.
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Williams resigned from his position as President of Republic of New Africa and focused on his legal case and disseminating information about China.
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to avoid prosecution for kidnapping. The FBI document lists Williams as a "freelance writer and janitor ... ... has previously been diagnosed as a
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prompted by labor competition between white and black Americans. Drafted in 1944, he served for a year and a half as a private in the then
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Williams was suspected by the Justice Department of wanting to fill the vacuum of influence left after the assassinations of his friends
146:(1962) has been reprinted many times, most recently in 2013. It details his experience with violent racism and his disagreement with the
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traveled to China in June 1968 and met with Williams. Williams accepted the presidency and proposed diplomatic initiatives for the RNA.
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In late September 1963, Robert and Mable Williams visited China. China treated Williams as a major leader, including presenting an
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and has advocated and threatened violence ... considered armed and extremely dangerous." Williams fled to Cuba, and then to China.
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in 1966, Williams praised what he described as the militant friendship between the Chinese and the revolutionary American people.
570:'s idiots ... I hope to depart from here, if possible, soon. I am writing you to stand by in case I am turned over to the FBI ...
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where the law is unable, or unwilling, to enforce order, the citizens can, and must act in self-defense against lawless violence.
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necessary to stop lynching with lynching, then we must be willing to resort to that method. We must meet violence with violence.
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Conrad Lynn to Haywood Burns, November 7, 1969, Conrad Lynn Papers, Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center, Boston University.
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by the governor of North Carolina, but the state never apologized for its treatment of them. The controversy was known as the "
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Rucker, Walter (2006). "Crusader In Exile: Robert F. Williams and the International Struggle for Black Freedom in America".
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Williams went to Cuba in 1961 by way of Canada and Mexico. He regularly broadcast addresses from Cuba to Southern blacks on
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Robert F Williams: Self Respect Self Defense and Self Determination; An Audio Documentary as told by Mabel Williams
870:, 37 pp. N.Y. Committee to Aid the Monroe Defendants, n.d. (1962 or 1963?). Illustrated wraps. With hand-drawn map.
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665:. In January 1968, Conrad Lynn wrote to encourage Williams to return to the U.S., to which Williams responded:
612:, Williams met with Mao in advance of the National Day parade. Mao asked Williams about the development of the
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chaired his defense committee and a broad range of left wing activists arrived to support him. Noted attorney
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In 1959, Williams was in a shoot-out with Ku Klax Klan members and local police officers, from which he fled.
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First they worked to integrate the public library. After that success, in 1957 Williams also led efforts to
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Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams: "Black Power" and the Roots of African American Freedom Struggle",
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2004:
The Robert F. Williams Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
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In March 1968, a group of several hundred African American leaders met in Detroit and declared the
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chapter. The press estimated it had 7,500 members, while the city had a total of 12,000 residents.
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and African American Defense League founder Mauricelm-Lei Millere cited it as a major inspiration.
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2079:"Growing up Revolutionary: An Interview with John Williams, son of Mabel and Robert F. Williams"
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People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War
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1861:"In Memory of Robert F. Williams:A Voice for Armed Self-Defense and Black Liberation– Forum"
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1747:"Robert F. Williams, "Black Power," and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle"
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1726: (U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia (3-judge court) June 17, 1970).
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Black Power Encyclopedia: From "Black is Beautiful" to Urban Uprisings [2 volumes]
1017:"Robert F. Williams: 'Black Power' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle"
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1793:(Baltimore, Maryland), August 30 or September 6, 1969; p. 22, accessed November 17, 2013.
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1252:"In Memory of Robert F. Williams: A Voice for Armed Self-Defense and Black Liberation",
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Williams was extradited from Michigan to North Carolina in December 1975. The historian
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for Williams and his followers. He called it "armed self-reliance" in the face of white
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Investigating U.S. History (City University of New York); accessed October 3, 2016.
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One Minute to Midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War,
1414:. Vol. 104, no. 3. Baltimore, MD: Crisis Publishing Company. p. 17.
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The whole thing is due to the fact that I absolutely refuse to take direction from
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who established chapters in Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama in 1964–1965.
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BlackAcademics radio interview with Mabel Williams about Robert F. Williams' life
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1905:"Press and Photos – Negroes With Guns – Rob Williams and Black Power"
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Also in 1963, Williams attended Mao's 70th birthday party as an honored guest.
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Hoover received reports that blacks looked to Williams as a figure similar to
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Alarmed at the threat to civil rights activists, Williams had applied to the
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Williams returned to Monroe, North Carolina and became the president of the
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ancestry, gave Williams his grandfather's rifle. His grandfather had been a
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From 1966 to 1969, Williams lived in China, where he continued to publish
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3429:
3424:
3289:
3169:
3139:
3079:
3044:
2305:
2150:
1482:, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000, second printing, p. 176.
1275:, c. Summer 1980; the article appeared in a special issue devoted to the
631:
556:
201:
159:
147:
2114:
2103:
1965:
1543:
Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams: NAACP "Warrior and Rebel," p. 17.
849:(Baltimore, Maryland, USA), August 30 or September 6, 1969; p. 22 .
5574:
5554:
5234:
5051:
5041:
4985:
4899:
4818:
4733:
4156:
3814:
3744:
3714:
3584:
3559:
3504:
3404:
3019:
2989:
1773:
1456:
ed. Susan M. Glisson, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littefield, 2006, p. 236
1214:
Umoja, Akinyele; Stanford, Karin L.; Young, Jasmin A. (July 11, 2018).
909:, 1968, New York: World View Publishers. Opposes Vietnam War. 40 pages.
768:
590:
518:
4591:
1187:
Robert F Williams's United States World War II Army Enlistment Records
311:. Threats against Williams' life and his family became more frequent.
5122:
4134:
3604:
3589:
804:"USA: The Potential of a Minority Revolution" 1965. In August Meier
693:
308:
32:
1931:
Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement,
1883:"Independent Lens . NEGROES WITH GUNS: Rob Williams and Black Power"
1765:
1160:
Fighting on the Cultural Front: U.S.-China Relations in the Cold War
1023:, Rowman & Littlefield, 2006, pp. 227–54; accessed May 12, 2011.
670:
immediate return unless the kind of money is positively available...
3494:
2135:
567:
4083:
2131:
2087:: National Black Newspaper. May 18, 2005. Retrieved May 23, 2005.
1991:
Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power
1324:
Timothy Tyson, "Robert Franklin Williams: A Warrior for Freedom;"
855:
The Black Power Movement, Part 2: The Papers of Robert F Williams
733:
358:
reported that Williams had said that six months before, a 50-car
180:
1660:(Baltimore, Maryland), August 30 or September 6, 1969 (unclear).
4151:
1326:
Timothy Tyson, "Introduction" to Robert Williams Papers, p. vi.
830:
While God Lay Sleeping: The Autobiography of Robert F. Williams
327:
946:. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK:
128:
and set up a rifle club to defend Black people in Monroe from
2886:
704:, the militant abolitionist who attacked a federal armory at
541:
416:
The FBI's wanted poster alerted people to an armed kidnapper.
132:
or other attackers. The local chapter of the NAACP supported
109:
104:
leader and author best known for serving as president of the
2082:
2005:
1829:"Robert Franklin Williams: A Warrior For Freedom, 1925-1996"
887:"Robert Franklin Williams: A Warrior For Freedom, 1925-1996"
100:(February 26, 1925 – October 15, 1996) was an American
1596:(1 ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 196.
1567:
Pure Fire: Self-defense as Activism in the Civil Rights Era
1467:
Pure Fire: Self-defense as Activism in the Civil Rights Era
638:
474:. He established the station with approval of Cuban leader
1290:
People with Strength: The Story of Monroe, North Carolina'
1556:, Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2013, p. 125.
1506:
People With Strength: The Story of Monroe, North Carolina
1374:
People with Strength: The Story of Monroe, North Carolina
1045:
2091:"Robert Williams's letter to Ambassador Adlai Stevenson"
1993:. 416 pages. University of North Carolina Press (2001).
1410:(1997). "Robert F. Williams, NAACP: Warrior and rebel".
4336:
Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
4114:"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"
1787:"Exile Robert Williams' Wife Returns to US from Africa"
1654:"Exile Robert Williams' Wife Returns to US from Africa"
843:"Exile Robert Williams' Wife Returns to US from Africa"
117:
lengthy reformatory sentences in what was known as the
4360:
African American founding fathers of the United States
2713:
Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
2578:
John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
2105:
Negroes with Guns: Rob Williams and Black Power (2004)
2058:
Series of six video interviews with Robert F. Williams
1554:
NAACP Youth and the Fight for Black Freedom, 1936–1965
971:
Robert Franklin Williams in North Carolina Birth Index
215:. He worked in factories in Detroit. He witnessed the
140:
Williams advocated black self-defense. Williams' book
2185:
896:
Timothy B Tyson, "Introduction", to Boehm and Lewis,
5762:
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
2074:, pamphlet addressed to American soldiers in Vietnam
1296:(San Francisco: Freedom Archives, 2005), pp. 55, 59.
876:
Greg Thomas, "Spooks, Sex & Socio-Diagnostics",
771:, an activist known for sparking the bus boycott in
4408:
Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
1469:, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2005, p. 59.
944:
The Fear of Chinese Power: An International History
821:"The Black Scholar Interviews: Robert F Williams,"
818:. 1968; New York, NY: World View Publishers. 40 pp.
420:Despite losing much support, civil rights activist
1269:Williams, Robert F. "1957: Swimming Pool Showdown"
1213:
801:. Reprinted by Wayne State University Press, 1998.
1454:The Human Tradition in the Civil Rights Movement,
5643:
5610:Revolutionary People's Constitutional Convention
2944:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
1021:The Human Tradition in the Civil Rights Movement
439:On August 28, 1961, the FBI issued a warrant in
401:
251:NAACP chapter in 1951. He wanted to change the
2934:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
2867:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
2758:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
2027:African American Involvement in the Vietnam War
1850:(San Francisco: Freedom Archives, 2005), p. 38.
997:Robert Franklin Williams in Michigan Obituaries
914:Negroes with Guns: Rob Williams and Black Power
867:People With Strength. The Story of Monroe, N.C.
5457:The Black Panthers: Vanguard of the Revolution
4413:Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
1818:, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
797:(with input by his wife; 1962), New York, NY:
5412:Charles Garry: Streetfighter in the Courtroom
4607:
4321:List of lynching victims in the United States
2659:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
2171:
2051:"Speech by U.S. Negro Leader Robert Williams"
1982:Robert F. Williams: A Rhetoric of Revolution,
211:, traveling north for industrial work during
5717:History of civil rights in the United States
2130:. Audio CD and 84-page booklet. Produced by
1386:
1384:
1382:
385:
346:, a North Carolina newspaper, reported that
255:town to protect the civil rights of blacks.
112:in the 1950s and into 1961. He succeeded in
5677:Activists for African-American civil rights
2788:Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
1495:, Jun-Jul 1959, Vol. 66, no. 6, p. 327-329.
763:on October 15, 1996. He had been living in
4614:
4600:
2837:Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
2178:
2164:
2044:
191:campaigner and publisher of the newspaper
31:
16:American civil rights activist (1925–1996)
5707:Deaths from lymphoma in the United States
4393:Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
1448:
1446:
1379:
1361:Robert and Mabel Williams Resource Guide
1294:Robert and Mabel Williams Resource Guide'
810:Black Protest Thought in the 20th Century
242:
5346:Black Power, We're Goin' Survive America
4428:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
2468:University of Georgia desegregation riot
1848:Robert and Mabel Williams Resource Guide
1629:Robert and Mabel Williams Resource Guide
1617:Robert and Mabel Williams Resource Guide
1241:Robert and Mabel Williams Resource Guide
1083:Robert and Mabel Williams Resource Guide
585:
411:
237:
4621:
4342:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence
4079:"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
4074:"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
1264:
1262:
1011:
1009:
601:was translated and published in China.
5667:Military personnel from North Carolina
5644:
4256:African-American women in the movement
2708:White House Conference on Civil Rights
2539:"Segregation now, segregation forever"
1943:
1940:University of Washington Press (1997).
1688:
1591:
1443:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
988:
986:
984:
982:
229:
5777:20th-century African-American writers
4595:
2697:Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
2159:
1780:
1744:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1517:
1406:
1339:, section: "Sadistic White Insanity".
1109:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1091:
941:
937:
935:
933:
931:
502:. It had a significant influence on
494:Williams also published a newspaper,
175:Robert Franklin Williams was born in
124:Williams obtained a charter from the
4465:St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
2929:Regional Council of Negro Leadership
2877:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
2823:Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
2300:Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
2225:Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
1938:The Making of Black Revolutionaries,
1745:Tyson, Timothy B. (September 1998).
1259:
1006:
649:, in which the statute allowing the
270:
207:As a young man, Williams joined the
5757:American Black separatist activists
5118:Lowndes County Freedom Organization
2872:Lowndes County Freedom Organization
2808:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
2478:Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
1724:314 Federal Supplement 1356
1594:The Making of Black Revolutionaries
1580:The Making of Black Revolutionaries
1480:The Making of Black Revolutionaries
1337:Spooks, Sex & Socio-Diagnostics
1318:"In Memory of Robert F. Williams",
979:
454:
154:. The text was widely influential;
13:
5662:People from Monroe, North Carolina
4316:African-American churches attacked
2882:Montgomery Improvement Association
2857:Georgia Council on Human Relations
2842:Council of Federated Organizations
2813:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
2571:16th Street Baptist Church bombing
2529:Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
2335:1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
2239:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
1952:(2). Taylor & Francis: 19–34.
1923:
1803:"Charges Dropped Against Williams"
1677:
1351:, Ann Coulter blog, 18 April 2012.
1157:
1088:
928:
14:
5788:
5752:People from Lake County, Michigan
5591:Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song
5326:Revolutionary Black Panther Party
4388:Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
4261:Jews in the civil rights movement
2097:
2011:
1518:Cowan, Paul S. (March 16, 1963).
852:Randolph Boehm and Daniel Lewis,
535:
263:At that time, Monroe had a large
226:before returning home to Monroe.
5623:
5622:
5550:1968 Olympics Black Power salute
4582:Civil rights movement portal
4575:
4423:Freedom Riders National Monument
4165:The Kingdom of God Is Within You
2677:1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
2636:1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
2523:Second Emancipation Proclamation
1984:M.A. Thesis, SUNY Buffalo, 1970.
593:meeting with Robert F. Williams.
5379:Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther
5311:New Afrikan Black Panther Party
5098:Deacons for Defense and Justice
4814:Jalil Muntaqim (Anthony Bottom)
4450:Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
4438:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
2914:National Council of Negro Women
2852:Deacons for Defense and Justice
1897:
1875:
1853:
1841:
1821:
1796:
1754:The Journal of American History
1738:
1729:
1711:
1663:
1647:
1634:
1622:
1610:
1585:
1572:
1559:
1546:
1537:
1511:
1498:
1485:
1472:
1459:
1426:
1400:
1366:
1354:
1342:
1329:
1312:
1299:
1282:
1246:
1234:
1207:
1195:
1180:
898:The Papers of Robert F Williams
645:, he won a lawsuit against the
314:
5772:Deaths from cancer in Michigan
5570:New Haven Black Panther trials
5406:In the Event Anyone Disappears
5260:Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi
2330:Mansfield school desegregation
1958:10.1080/00064246.2006.11413354
1809:(UPI). January 17, 1976, p. 2.
1076:
1050:
1035:
1026:
964:
832:(completed 1996, unpublished).
1:
5747:20th-century American writers
5742:American gun rights activists
5737:FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives
5722:American expatriates in China
5321:New Panther Vanguard Movement
5296:Black Riders Liberation Party
4460:National Voting Rights Museum
4403:Civil Rights Movement Archive
4202:Lynching in the United States
4089:"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
2544:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
2517:University of Chicago sit-ins
2284:Davis v. Prince Edward County
1279:, accessed November 17, 2013.
1019:, in Susan M. Glisson (ed.),
921:
759:Williams died at age 71 from
540:In 1965 Williams traveled to
512:Revolutionary Action Movement
498:. In 1962, he wrote his book
402:Freedom Rides and prosecution
398:if attacked by white people.
337:
165:
5727:American expatriates in Cuba
5712:Deaths from Hodgkin lymphoma
5702:American community activists
5692:American radio personalities
5687:American non-fiction writers
5301:Black Women's Defense League
5167:United Front Against Fascism
5052:Akua Njeri (Deborah Johnson)
4455:National Civil Rights Museum
4311:March on Washington Movement
4296:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
2765:Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
2023:Robert Williams Bibliography
882:, volume 1.1, October 2002 .
812:. Indianapolis and New York.
348:Nationwide Insurance Company
195:during the hard years after
7:
5672:Writers from North Carolina
5465:Judas and the Black Messiah
5149:Free Breakfast for Children
4099:"This Little Light of Mine"
2847:Dallas County Voters League
2793:Atlanta Negro Voters League
2556:Letter from Birmingham Jail
2263:Brown v. Board of Education
1491:"The Robert Williams Case",
91:Civil rights leader, author
10:
5793:
5565:Murder of Betty Van Patter
5393:The Murder of Fred Hampton
5372:Interview with Bobby Seale
4433:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
4301:Holt Street Baptist Church
4271:16th Street Baptist Church
3255:Annie Bell Robinson Devine
2899:Nashville Student Movement
2829:An Appeal for Human Rights
2116:Deacons for Defense (2003)
2016:
1816:Bentley Historical Library
836:
466:American fugitives in Cuba
463:
445:unlawful interstate flight
405:
318:
277:National Rifle Association
126:National Rifle Association
5618:
5542:
5483:
5338:
5278:
5182:
5175:
5136:
5085:
5060:
5024:
4968:
4842:
4706:
4693:
4652:
4631:
4571:
4473:
4375:
4189:
4122:
4064:
4043:
3930:Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
3900:Modjeska Monteith Simkins
2972:
2964:Women's Political Council
2959:Wednesdays in Mississippi
2954:United Auto Workers (UAW)
2939:Southern Regional Council
2909:Northern Student Movement
2818:Committee for Freedom Now
2778:
2725:Memphis sanitation strike
2691:Voting Rights Act of 1965
2613:
2434:Savannah Protest Movement
2396:
2254:
2215:Journey of Reconciliation
2207:
2194:
2138:. Retrieved May 23, 2005.
2006:http://bentley.umich.edu/
1504:Nelson on pages 65-66 in
1220:. ABC-CLIO. p. 822.
1164:Columbia University Press
722:
614:Black Liberation movement
443:, charging Williams with
441:Charlotte, North Carolina
386:Suspension from the NAACP
87:
68:
42:
30:
23:
5682:American autobiographers
5352:Black Panthers: A Report
5190:American Indian Movement
4955:Michael "Cetewayo" Tabor
2798:Atlanta Student Movement
2747:Civil Rights Act of 1968
2672:1964–1965 Scripto strike
2653:Civil Rights Act of 1964
2551:1963 Birmingham campaign
2444:Civil Rights Act of 1960
2368:Civil Rights Act of 1957
2034:Learning From Rosa Parks
1695:Cornell University Press
1689:Minami, Kazushi (2024).
786:
754:
677:Legal Defense Foundation
641:and human rights lawyer
581:
170:
98:Robert Franklin Williams
47:Robert Franklin Williams
5427:All Power to the People
5316:New Black Panther Party
5306:Huey P. Newton Gun Club
5210:Black Panthers (Israel)
4890:Marshall "Eddie" Conway
4784:Elbert "Big Man" Howard
4350:Voter Education Project
4104:"We Shall Not Be Moved"
3765:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
3200:Josephine Dobbs Clement
2626:Chester school protests
2621:Twenty-fourth Amendment
2583:Detroit Walk to Freedom
2325:Tallahassee bus boycott
2246:Baton Rouge bus boycott
2045:Writings and interviews
1807:Wilmington Morning Star
1465:Christopher B. Strain,
1335:In Thomas (Chapter 4),
942:Crean, Jeffrey (2024).
647:U.S. Postmaster General
459:
5441:A Huey P. Newton Story
5225:George Jackson Brigade
5215:British Black Panthers
5195:Black Guerrilla Family
4779:Raymond "Masai" Hewitt
4563:Movement photographers
3805:Bernice Johnson Reagon
3525:Martin Luther King Sr.
3520:Martin Luther King Jr.
3090:William Holmes Borders
2862:Highlander Folk School
2752:Poor People's Campaign
2605:St. Augustine movement
2455:Gomillion v. Lightfoot
2378:Katz Drug Store sit-in
2349:Royal Ice Cream sit-in
2311:Montgomery bus boycott
2093:, History Is a Weapon.
2084:San Francisco Bay View
1592:Forman, James (1997).
1569:, p. 60, 66, 181, 206.
1397:, May 12, 1958, p. 15.
777:Martin Luther King Jr.
713:Republic of New Africa
698:Martin Luther King Jr.
690:
672:
594:
575:
544:, then the capital of
521:issued a statement in
492:
417:
373:
304:
243:Early NAACP activities
217:1943 Detroit race riot
177:Monroe, North Carolina
106:Monroe, North Carolina
61:Monroe, North Carolina
5767:United States Marines
5516:Revolutionary Suicide
5291:Black Panther Militia
5200:Black Liberation Army
5137:Programs and projects
4981:Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin
4950:Russell Maroon Shoatz
4398:Civil Rights Memorial
4286:Bethel Baptist Church
3935:Charles Kenzie Steele
3380:Audrey Faye Hendricks
3285:Myrlie Evers-Williams
3265:Patricia Stephens Due
3235:Abraham Lincoln Davis
3170:Colia Lafayette Clark
2924:Operation Breadbasket
2919:National Urban League
2666:Katzenbach v. McClung
2534:Atlanta's Berlin Wall
2187:Civil rights movement
2147:"Story of Old Monroe"
1980:Schaich, Diane Hope.
1834:July 8, 2013, at the
1254:Revolutionary Worker,
1158:Li, Hongshan (2024).
1042:Jesse Helms: Timeline
873:Assata Shakur's site.
799:Marzani & Munsell
681:
667:
589:
561:
487:
415:
406:Further information:
368:
342:On May 12, 1958, the
299:
238:Civil rights movement
152:Civil Rights Movement
5605:Black power movement
5580:Rice–Poindexter case
5532:Black Against Empire
5386:Finally Got the News
5339:Films and television
4443:other King memorials
4418:Freedom Rides Museum
4355:1960s counterculture
4306:Edmund Pettus Bridge
3985:Walter Francis White
3890:Alexander D. Shimkin
2404:New Year's Day March
2373:Ministers' Manifesto
2220:Executive Order 9981
2067:Robert F. Williams,
1814:Papers (1939-1991),
1812:Gwendolyn Midlo Hall
1322:, November 17, 1996;
1320:Revolutionary Worker
1307:People with Strength
1064:on February 26, 2017
1058:"Jesse Helms Center"
900:, 2002, cited above.
828:Williams, Robert F.
745:Gwendolyn Midlo Hall
608:for his arrival. On
483:Cuban Missile Crisis
5732:American kidnappers
5630:Black Panther Party
5265:White Panther Party
5245:Polynesian Panthers
4996:Robert Hillary King
4915:Denise Oliver-Velez
4624:Black Panther Party
4181:Mary McLeod Bethune
4142:Sermon on the Mount
4109:"We Shall Overcome"
3690:William Lewis Moore
3470:Frank Minis Johnson
3445:Richie Jean Jackson
3400:Donald L. Hollowell
3205:Charles E. Cobb Jr.
3010:Gwendolyn Armstrong
3005:William G. Anderson
2985:Victoria Gray Adams
2949:The Freedom Singers
2803:Black Panther Party
2588:March on Washington
2501:Garner v. Louisiana
2462:Boynton v. Virginia
2040:, November 9, 2005.
1524:The Harvard Crimson
1520:"Negroes With Guns"
1391:Insurance cancelled
1349:"Negroes With Guns"
948:Bloomsbury Academic
903:Robert F Williams,
773:Montgomery, Alabama
637:Represented by the
553:Communist Party USA
281:Deacons for Defense
230:Marriage and family
156:Black Panther Party
5697:COINTELPRO targets
5400:Teach Our Children
5286:Assata's Daughters
5128:Robert F. Williams
5068:Stokely Carmichael
4935:George W. Sams Jr.
4875:Veronza Bowers Jr.
4764:Barbara Easley-Cox
4714:JoNina Abron-Ervin
4498:Michael Eric Dyson
4383:In popular culture
4266:Fifth Circuit Four
4250:Loving v. Virginia
4243:Hernandez v. Texas
4222:Buchanan v. Warley
4214:Separate but equal
4208:Plessy v. Ferguson
4171:Frederick Douglass
4005:Robert F. Williams
3915:Kelly Miller Smith
3895:Fred Shuttlesworth
3820:Frederick D. Reese
3800:George Raymond Jr.
3790:A. Philip Randolph
3770:Fay Bellamy Powell
3685:Queen Mother Moore
3570:Z. Alexander Looby
3515:Coretta Scott King
3460:Barbara Rose Johns
3440:Jimmie Lee Jackson
3365:William E. Harbour
3145:Stokely Carmichael
3060:Randolph Blackwell
2730:King assassination
2719:Loving v. Virginia
2703:March Against Fear
2683:How Long, Not Long
2561:Children's Crusade
2512:Cambridge movement
2449:Ax Handle Saturday
2414:Greensboro sit-ins
2341:Give Us the Ballot
1863:. Assatashakur.org
1827:Timothy B. Tyson,
1776:– via JSTOR.
1719:Williams v. Blount
1256:November 17, 1996.
1015:Timothy B. Tyson,
781:marches in Alabama
767:. At his funeral,
761:Hodgkin's lymphoma
659:Due Process Clause
595:
559:, Williams wrote:
418:
295:Negroes with Guns,
193:The People's Voice
25:Robert F. Williams
5639:
5638:
5334:
5333:
5255:The Pink Panthers
5162:Rainbow Coalition
5155:The Black Panther
5144:Ten-Point Program
5081:
5080:
4870:Dhoruba bin Wahad
4809:Joan Tarika Lewis
4729:William Lee Brent
4589:
4588:
4366:Eyes on the Prize
4281:A.G. Gaston Motel
4276:Kelly Ingram Park
4236:Sweatt v. Painter
3920:Mary Louise Smith
3880:Cleveland Sellers
3865:Michael Schwerner
3830:Gloria Richardson
3610:Thurgood Marshall
3530:Bernard Lafayette
3260:John Wesley Dobbs
2774:
2773:
2493:Birmingham attack
2473:Rock Hill sit-ins
2424:Sibley Commission
2419:Nashville sit-ins
2291:Gebhart v. Belton
2277:Briggs v. Elliott
2270:Bolling v. Sharpe
2231:Sweatt v. Painter
2134:. Distributed by
2032:Kazembe Balagun,
1988:Tyson, Timothy B.
1946:The Black Scholar
1791:The Afro American
1658:The Afro American
1408:Tyson, Timothy B.
1309:, pp. 49, 60, 65.
1273:Southern Exposure
1227:978-1-4408-4007-4
957:978-1-350-23394-2
891:Southern Exposure
885:Timothy B Tyson,
847:The Afro American
823:The Black Scholar
794:Negroes with Guns
765:Baldwin, Michigan
685:Radio Free Europe
599:Negroes with Guns
506:, founder of the
500:Negroes with Guns
392:retaliatory force
297:Williams writes:
271:Black Armed Guard
143:Negroes with Guns
95:
94:
80:Baldwin, Michigan
50:February 26, 1925
5784:
5631:
5626:
5625:
5585:Robert Templeton
5560:Intercommunalism
5543:Related articles
5524:A Taste of Power
5449:Night Catches Us
5205:Black Liberators
5180:
5179:
5103:W. E. B. Du Bois
4960:James Dixon York
4843:East Coast based
4707:West Coast based
4704:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4670:Kathleen Cleaver
4665:Eldridge Cleaver
4625:
4616:
4609:
4602:
4593:
4592:
4580:
4579:
4543:Charles M. Payne
4528:Steven F. Lawson
4518:David Halberstam
4488:Clayborne Carson
4229:Hocutt v. Wilson
4176:W. E. B. Du Bois
4025:Sammy Younge Jr.
4010:Q. V. Williamson
3975:Wyatt Tee Walker
3840:Bernice Robinson
3785:Lincoln Ragsdale
3775:Rodney N. Powell
3670:Douglas E. Moore
3545:Sanford R. Leigh
3480:J. Charles Jones
3355:Fannie Lou Hamer
3270:Joseph Ellwanger
3230:Jonathan Daniels
3220:Claudette Colvin
3210:Annie Lee Cooper
3195:Kathleen Cleaver
3190:Eldridge Cleaver
3165:Shirley Chisholm
3055:Gloria Blackwell
2646:workers' murders
2593:"I Have a Dream"
2488:Anniston bombing
2439:Greenville Eight
2354:Little Rock Nine
2317:Browder v. Gayle
2205:
2204:
2180:
2173:
2166:
2157:
2156:
2132:Freedom Archives
2070:Listen, Brother!
2059:
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1288:Truman Nelson, '
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779:in the peaceful
749:William Kunstler
651:U.S. Post Office
597:In Summer 1963,
472:Radio Free Dixie
455:Exile and return
75:
72:October 15, 1996
57:
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37:Williams in 1961
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5176:Inspired groups
5171:
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5073:Connie Matthews
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4865:Kuwasi Balagoon
4850:Mumia Abu-Jamal
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4548:Thomas E. Ricks
4538:Diane McWhorter
4523:Vincent Harding
4508:Adam Fairclough
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4326:Freedom Schools
4185:
4118:
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4060:
4051:Omaha, Nebraska
4039:
3955:Hartman Turnbow
3945:Dorothy Tillman
3905:Glenn E. Smiley
3885:Charles Sherrod
3845:Jo Ann Robinson
3720:Charles Neblett
3710:Elijah Muhammad
3675:Harriette Moore
3635:Floyd McKissick
3620:Franklin McCain
3555:Stanley Levison
3420:T. R. M. Howard
3370:Vincent Harding
3300:Walter Fauntroy
3185:Xernona Clayton
3135:John H. Calhoun
3120:Aurelia Browder
3110:Stanley Branche
3105:Raylawni Branch
3085:Joseph E. Boone
3070:Ezell Blair Jr.
3065:Unita Blackwell
3040:Harry Belafonte
2980:Ralph Abernathy
2968:
2904:Nation of Islam
2780:
2770:
2609:
2566:Birmingham riot
2507:Albany Movement
2429:Atlanta sit-ins
2409:Sit-in movement
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2388:Biloxi wade-ins
2360:Cooper v. Aaron
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2038:The Indypendent
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1936:Forman, James.
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663:Fifth Amendment
655:First Amendment
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573:Sincerely, Rob.
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2077:Sahir, Wanda.
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2012:External links
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1693:. Ithaca, NY:
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1674:6(3), pp. 1-5.
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1552:Thomas Bynum,
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706:Harper's Ferry
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536:Visit to Hanoi
534:
530:People's Daily
524:People's Daily
508:Black Panthers
504:Huey P. Newton
461:
458:
456:
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431:Freedom Riders
408:Freedom Riders
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319:Main article:
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197:Reconstruction
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134:Freedom Riders
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3:
2:
5789:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5753:
5750:
5748:
5745:
5743:
5740:
5738:
5735:
5733:
5730:
5728:
5725:
5723:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5713:
5710:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5660:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5649:
5647:
5632:
5621:
5620:
5617:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5600:
5599:Panther Power
5596:
5593:
5592:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5547:
5545:
5541:
5534:
5533:
5529:
5526:
5525:
5521:
5518:
5517:
5513:
5510:
5509:
5505:
5502:
5501:
5497:
5494:
5493:
5489:
5488:
5486:
5482:
5475:
5474:
5473:The Big Cigar
5470:
5467:
5466:
5462:
5459:
5458:
5454:
5451:
5450:
5446:
5443:
5442:
5438:
5435:
5432:
5429:
5428:
5424:
5421:
5420:
5416:
5413:
5410:
5407:
5404:
5401:
5398:
5395:
5394:
5390:
5387:
5384:
5381:
5380:
5376:
5373:
5370:
5367:
5364:
5361:
5360:
5356:
5353:
5350:
5347:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5337:
5327:
5324:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5283:
5281:
5277:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5230:Gray Panthers
5228:
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5187:
5185:
5181:
5178:
5174:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5156:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5141:
5139:
5135:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5113:Harry Haywood
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5090:
5088:
5084:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5065:
5063:
5059:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5047:Marion Stamps
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5029:
5027:
5025:Chicago based
5023:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4973:
4971:
4967:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4945:Assata Shakur
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4920:Larry Pinkney
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4905:Warren Kimbro
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4847:
4845:
4841:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4754:Emory Douglas
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4739:Bunchy Carter
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4711:
4709:
4705:
4702:
4699:
4692:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4657:
4655:
4651:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4636:
4634:
4630:
4626:
4617:
4612:
4610:
4605:
4603:
4598:
4597:
4594:
4584:
4583:
4578:
4570:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4553:Timothy Tyson
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4483:Taylor Branch
4481:
4480:
4478:
4472:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4444:
4441:
4440:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4368:
4367:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4343:
4339:
4338:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4331:Freedom songs
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4251:
4247:
4245:
4244:
4240:
4238:
4237:
4233:
4231:
4230:
4226:
4224:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4212:
4211:
4210:
4209:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4197:Jim Crow laws
4195:
4194:
4192:
4188:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4149:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4131:
4128:
4127:
4125:
4121:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4094:"Oh, Freedom"
4092:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4071:
4069:
4063:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4048:
4046:
4042:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4020:Whitney Young
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
4000:Kale Williams
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3960:Albert Turner
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3950:A. P. Tureaud
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3855:Bayard Rustin
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3705:William Moyer
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3640:Joseph McNeil
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3625:Charles McDew
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3615:Benjamin Mays
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3600:Vivian Malone
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3575:Joseph Lowery
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3500:Clyde Kennard
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3490:Vernon Jordan
3488:
3486:
3485:Matthew Jones
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3450:T. J. Jemison
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3435:Jesse Jackson
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3325:Robert Graetz
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3315:Golden Frinks
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3275:Charles Evers
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3225:Vernon Dahmer
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3180:Septima Clark
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3100:Bruce Boynton
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3025:James Baldwin
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2995:Mathew Ahmann
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2977:
2975:
2971:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2893:
2892:Youth Council
2890:
2889:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2777:
2767:
2766:
2762:
2760:
2759:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2698:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2684:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2667:
2663:
2661:
2660:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2616:
2612:
2606:
2603:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2549:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2483:Freedom Rides
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2463:
2459:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2362:
2361:
2357:
2356:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2342:
2338:
2337:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2292:
2288:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2208:Prior to 1954
2206:
2203:
2200:
2193:
2188:
2181:
2176:
2174:
2169:
2167:
2162:
2161:
2158:
2152:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2117:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2101:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2066:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1999:0-8078-4923-5
1996:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1939:
1935:
1932:
1929:Hill, Lance.
1928:
1927:
1907:. Jou.ufl.edu
1906:
1900:
1884:
1878:
1862:
1856:
1849:
1844:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1824:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1792:
1788:
1783:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1741:
1732:
1725:
1720:
1714:
1706:
1704:9781501774157
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1673:
1666:
1659:
1655:
1650:
1644:Knopf (2008).
1643:
1637:
1630:
1625:
1618:
1613:
1605:
1603:9780295976594
1599:
1595:
1588:
1581:
1575:
1568:
1562:
1555:
1549:
1540:
1525:
1521:
1514:
1507:
1501:
1494:
1488:
1481:
1478:James Forman,
1475:
1468:
1462:
1455:
1449:
1447:
1439:
1438:Baltimore Sun
1435:
1432:James Bock, "
1429:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1403:
1396:
1395:Raleigh Eagle
1392:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1375:
1369:
1362:
1357:
1350:
1345:
1338:
1332:
1321:
1315:
1308:
1302:
1295:
1291:
1285:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1263:
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1203:Family Search
1198:
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1173:9780231207058
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975:Family Search
972:
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949:
945:
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934:
932:
927:
917:, a 2004 film
916:
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862:Truman Nelson
860:
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717:Imari Obadele
714:
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689:
688:kidnapping...
686:
680:
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664:
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656:
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648:
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643:Michael Tigar
640:
635:
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621:
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579:
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546:North Vietnam
543:
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531:
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497:
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449:schizophrenic
446:
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356:Raleigh Eagle
352:
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344:Raleigh Eagle
335:
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88:Occupation(s)
86:
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5439:
5434:Public Enemy
5433:
5425:
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5411:
5405:
5399:
5391:
5385:
5377:
5371:
5365:
5357:
5351:
5345:
5183:Contemporary
5154:
5127:
5108:Frantz Fanon
4991:James Forman
4976:H. Rap Brown
4940:Afeni Shakur
4930:Nile Rodgers
4925:Alex Rackley
4895:Jamal Joseph
4799:Bobby Hutton
4789:John Huggins
4774:Reggie Forte
4744:Mark Comfort
4719:Richard Aoki
4680:Fred Hampton
4660:Elaine Brown
4573:
4513:David Garrow
4493:John Dittmer
4364:
4291:Brown Chapel
4248:
4241:
4234:
4227:
4220:
4206:
4163:
4015:Andrew Young
4004:
3970:A. T. Walden
3965:C. T. Vivian
3925:Maxine Smith
3760:Homer Plessy
3740:James Orange
3695:Irene Morgan
3650:William Ming
3630:Ralph McGill
3565:Viola Liuzzo
3550:Jim Letherer
3535:James Lawson
3465:Vernon Johns
3455:Esau Jenkins
3410:Myles Horton
3360:Fred Hampton
3350:Prathia Hall
3340:Dick Gregory
3310:Marie Foster
3305:James Forman
3295:James Farmer
3280:Medgar Evers
3240:Angela Davis
3175:Ramsey Clark
3155:James Chaney
3150:Johnnie Carr
3130:Ralph Bunche
3125:H. Rap Brown
3115:Ruby Bridges
3075:Joanne Bland
3050:Claude Black
3030:Marion Barry
3000:Muhammad Ali
2827:
2763:
2756:
2717:
2695:
2664:
2657:
2499:
2460:
2453:
2383:Kissing Case
2358:
2315:
2298:
2289:
2282:
2275:
2268:
2261:
2237:
2229:
2149:, ballad by
2126:
2115:
2104:
2083:
2069:
2037:
2026:
1990:
1981:
1949:
1945:
1937:
1930:
1909:. Retrieved
1899:
1887:. Retrieved
1877:
1865:. Retrieved
1855:
1847:
1843:
1823:
1806:
1798:
1790:
1782:
1757:
1753:
1740:
1731:
1718:
1713:
1690:
1672:The Crusader
1671:
1665:
1657:
1649:
1641:
1636:
1631:, pp. 20-21.
1628:
1624:
1616:
1612:
1593:
1587:
1579:
1574:
1566:
1561:
1553:
1548:
1539:
1527:. Retrieved
1523:
1513:
1505:
1500:
1492:
1487:
1479:
1474:
1466:
1461:
1453:
1428:
1411:
1402:
1394:
1376:, pp. 62-63.
1373:
1368:
1360:
1356:
1344:
1336:
1331:
1319:
1314:
1306:
1301:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1277:Ku Klux Klan
1272:
1253:
1248:
1240:
1236:
1216:
1209:
1197:
1182:
1159:
1082:
1078:
1068:February 25,
1066:. Retrieved
1062:the original
1052:
1037:
1028:
1020:
966:
943:
912:
905:
897:
890:
878:
866:
854:
846:
829:
822:
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805:
792:
758:
742:
739:
730:
726:
710:
691:
682:
673:
668:
636:
629:
625:The Crusader
624:
622:
619:
610:National Day
603:
598:
596:
576:
572:
565:
562:
550:
539:
529:
522:
516:
499:
496:The Crusader
495:
493:
488:
480:
476:Fidel Castro
469:
438:
435:
429:dispatched "
422:James Forman
419:
396:self-defense
389:
376:
374:
369:
365:
360:Ku Klux Klan
355:
353:
343:
341:
332:Kissing Case
324:
321:Kissing Case
315:Kissing Case
305:
300:
294:
292:
289:
285:
274:
265:Ku Klux Klan
257:
249:Union County
246:
233:
213:World War II
206:
192:
174:
150:wing of the
141:
139:
130:Ku Klux Klan
123:
119:Kissing Case
102:civil rights
97:
96:
74:(1996-10-15)
18:
5657:1996 deaths
5652:1925 births
5492:Soul on Ice
5270:Young Lords
5240:Ngā Tamatoa
5157:(newspaper)
5093:Black power
5006:Malik Rahim
5001:Pete O'Neal
4749:Aaron Dixon
4644:Bobby Seale
4533:Doug McAdam
4503:Chuck Fager
4130:Nonviolence
4035:James Zwerg
4030:Bob Zellner
3990:Roy Wilkins
3940:Hank Thomas
3875:Pete Seeger
3870:Bobby Seale
3735:Jack O'Dell
3730:Edgar Nixon
3660:Amzie Moore
3655:Jack Minnis
3595:Mae Mallory
3580:Clara Luper
3540:Bernard Lee
3430:Cecil Ivory
3425:Ruby Hurley
3395:Oliver Hill
3390:Aaron Henry
3290:Chuck Fager
3250:Dave Dennis
3140:Guy Carawan
3080:Julian Bond
3045:James Bevel
3035:Daisy Bates
2306:Emmett Till
2189:(1954–1968)
2151:Pete Seeger
1529:November 5,
1032:pp. 227-28.
632:imperialism
606:honor guard
557:Conrad Lynn
481:During the
202:Jesse Helms
160:Huey Newton
148:non-violent
114:integrating
5646:Categories
5575:Panther 21
5555:COINTELPRO
5279:Subsequent
5235:I Wor Kuen
5086:Influences
5042:Bobby Rush
5032:Mark Clark
4986:Mark Essex
4900:Chaka Khan
4819:Pat Parker
4734:Ed Bullins
4675:Donald Cox
4653:Leadership
4476:historians
4157:Satyagraha
4123:Influences
3815:James Reeb
3750:James Peck
3745:Rosa Parks
3715:Diane Nash
3585:Danny Lyon
3560:John Lewis
3505:A. D. King
3405:James Hood
3020:Ella Baker
2990:Zev Aelony
1911:August 27,
1889:August 27,
1867:August 27,
1760:(2): 564.
1493:The Crisis
922:References
879:Proudflesh
769:Rosa Parks
702:John Brown
591:Mao Zedong
519:Mao Zedong
464:See also:
338:Harassment
253:segregated
221:segregated
189:Republican
166:Early life
54:1925-02-26
5628:Category|
5123:Malcolm X
4769:Kent Ford
4135:Padayatra
4084:"Kumbaya"
4044:By region
3700:Bob Moses
3605:Bob Mants
3590:Malcolm X
3510:C.B. King
3330:Fred Gray
2973:Activists
2614:1964–1968
2397:1960–1963
2255:1954–1959
1974:141760146
1420:1559-1573
995:ancestry
694:Malcolm X
309:terrorism
260:integrate
121:of 1958.
5601:" (2000)
4632:Founders
4065:Movement
3495:Tom Kahn
2779:Activist
2199:timeline
2136:AK Press
2029:website.
1966:41069202
1832:Archived
1619:, p. 19.
1578:Forman,
1565:Strain,
1372:Nelson,
1363:, p. 12.
1305:Nelson,
1085:, p. 36.
657:and the
568:Gus Hall
328:pardoned
158:founder
5419:Panther
4697:Members
4190:Related
3780:Al Raby
2735:funeral
2598:Big Six
2063:YouTube
2017:General
1774:2567750
1243:, p. 9.
837:Sources
825:, 1970.
808:(eds),
737:bail.
734:Detroit
661:of the
514:(RAM).
224:Marines
52: (
5594:(1971)
5535:(2013)
5527:(1992)
5519:(1973)
5511:(1972)
5503:(1970)
5495:(1968)
5476:(2024)
5468:(2021)
5460:(2015)
5452:(2010)
5444:(2001)
5436:(1999)
5430:(1996)
5422:(1995)
5414:(1992)
5408:(1974)
5402:(1973)
5396:(1971)
5388:(1970)
5382:(1969)
5374:(1969)
5368:(1969)
5366:Mayday
5362:(1968)
5354:(1968)
5348:(1968)
5061:Others
4376:Legacy
4152:Ahimsa
2781:groups
2242:(1950)
2234:(1950)
2195:Events
2072:(1968)
1997:
1972:
1964:
1772:
1722:,
1701:
1600:
1582:, 159.
1418:
1412:Crisis
1224:
1170:
993:Yoruba
954:
806:et al.
723:Return
185:Yoruba
82:, U.S.
63:, U.S.
5484:Books
4474:Noted
4067:songs
2887:NAACP
2740:riots
1970:S2CID
1962:JSTOR
1885:. PBS
1770:JSTOR
1750:(PDF)
787:Works
755:Death
582:China
551:Some
542:Hanoi
425:When
181:slave
171:Youth
110:NAACP
2121:IMDb
2110:IMDb
1995:ISBN
1913:2010
1891:2010
1869:2010
1699:ISBN
1598:ISBN
1531:2019
1416:ISSN
1222:ISBN
1168:ISBN
1070:2017
952:ISBN
696:and
639:ACLU
490:dig?
460:Cuba
427:CORE
375:The
354:The
69:Died
43:Born
2119:at
2108:at
2061:on
1954:doi
1762:doi
1436:,"
1046:PBS
334:".
293:In
183:of
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56:)
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