31:
803:
553:
394:
965:
231:
707:) have vegetative meiosis, also called somatic meiosis, which is a rare phenomenon. Vegetative meiosis can occur in haplodiplontic and also in diplontic life cycles. The gametophytes remain attached to and part of the sporophyte. Vegetative (non-reproductive) diploid cells undergo meiosis, generating vegetative haploid cells. These undergo many mitosis, and produces gametes.
865:
Individual organisms participating in a biological life cycle ordinarily age and die, while cells from these organisms that connect successive life cycle generations (germ line cells and their descendants) are potentially immortal. The basis for this difference is a fundamental problem in biology.
799:) uses a slug or snail as an intermediate host; the first stage larva enters the mollusk and develops to the third stage larva, which is infectious to the definitive host—the cat. If a mouse eats the slug, the third stage larva will enter the mouse's tissues, but will not undergo any development.
788:
A host in which parasites reproduce sexually is known as the definitive, final or primary host. In intermediate hosts, parasites either do not reproduce or do so asexually, but the parasite always develops to a new stage in this type of host. In some cases a parasite will infect a host, but not
179:
phase in gametic meiosis. Therefore, zygotic and gametic meiosis are collectively termed "haplobiontic" (single mitotic phase, not to be confused with haplontic). Sporic meiosis, on the other hand, has mitosis in two stages, both the diploid and haploid stages, termed "diplobiontic" (not to be
54:
when the biological context is clear) is a series of stages of the life of an organism, that begins as a zygote, often in an egg, and concludes as an adult that reproduces, producing an offspring in the form of a new zygote which then itself goes through the same series of stages, the process
413:. Haploid cells may divide again (by mitosis) to form more haploid cells, as in many yeasts, but the haploid phase is not the predominant life cycle phase. In most diplonts, mitosis occurs only in the diploid phase, i.e. gametes usually form quickly and fuse to produce diploid zygotes.
857:
and many other groups, not necessarily haploid). However, these eukaryotes probably are not primitively asexual, but have lost their sexual reproduction, or it just was not observed yet. Many eukaryotes (including animals and plants) exhibit
1662:
Salvador Soler, Noemi; GĂłmez
Garreta, Amelia; Antonia Ribera Siguan, M. (August 2009). "Somatic meiosis in the life history of Bonnemaisonia asparagoides and Bonnemaisonia clavata (Bonnemaisoniales, Rhodophyta) from the Iberian peninsula".
213:
Some terms (haplobiont and diplobiont) used for the description of life cycles were proposed initially for algae by Nils
Svedelius, and then became used for other organisms. Other terms (autogamy and gamontogamy) used in
578:. The gametophytes produce gametes via mitosis. In some plants the gametophyte is not only small-sized but also short-lived; in other plants and many algae, the gametophyte is the "dominant" stage of the life cycle.
785:—the parasite can survive and complete its life cycle without infecting that particular host species. Parasites sometimes infect hosts in which they cannot complete their life cycles; these are accidental hosts.
933:) during development. Maintenance of cell division potential of the biological life cycle over successive generations depends on the avoidance and the accurate repair of cellular damage, particularly
258:
to form either larger, multicellular individuals, or more haploid cells. Two opposite types of gametes (e.g., male and female) from these individuals or cells fuse to become a zygote.
1084:
Rodrigues, Juliany Cola
Fernandes; Godinho, Joseane Lima Prado; De Souza, Wanderley (2014). "Biology of Human Pathogenic Trypanosomatids: Epidemiology, Lifecycle and Ultrastructure".
409:
to produce a multicellular diploid individual or a group of more unicellular diploid cells. Cells from the diploid individuals then undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells or
793:
or transport hosts. The paratenic host can be useful in raising the chance that the parasite will be transmitted to the definitive host. For example, the cat lungworm (
2203:
Valero, Myriam; Richerd, Sophie; Perrot, VĂ©ronique; Destombe, Christophe (January 1992). "Evolution of alternation of haploid and diploid phases in life cycles".
770:, or the canine hookworm. They develop to the infective larval stage in the environment, then penetrate the skin of the dog directly and mature to adults in the
218:
life cycles were introduced by Karl
Gottlieb Grell. The description of the complex life cycles of various organisms contributed to the disproof of the ideas of
1753:
1176:
458:, however, their life cycle can also be interpreted as strongly heteromorphic-diplohaplontic, with a highly reduced gametophyte phase, as in the
886:
stage of the biological life cycle. In particular, Medvedev considered that the most important opportunities for information maintenance of
38:. An adult female mosquito lays eggs which develop through several stages to adulthood. Reproduction completes and perpetuates the cycle.
264:
The individuals or cells as a result of mitosis are haplonts, hence this life cycle is also called haplontic life cycle. Haplonts are:
2245:
1330:
566:
In sporic meiosis (also commonly known as intermediary meiosis), the zygote divides mitotically to produce a multicellular diploid
419:
The diploid multicellular individual is a diplont, hence a gametic meiosis is also called a diplontic life cycle. Diplonts are:
2193:
2167:
2081:
1999:
1794:
1589:
1462:
1101:
1133:
764:
Those parasites that infect a single species have direct life cycles. An example of a parasite with a direct life cycle is
757:
stage. The mosquito then bites an animal and transmits the infective larvae into the animal, where they migrate to the
17:
862:, which may be facultative or obligate in the life cycle, with sexual reproduction occurring more or less frequently.
416:
In the whole cycle, gametes are usually the only haploid cells, and mitosis usually occurs only in the diploid phase.
913:
The ancestry of each present day cell presumably traces back, in an unbroken lineage for over 3 billion years to the
934:
1387:
Lahr, Daniel J. G.; Parfrey, Laura
Wegener; Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Katz, Laura A.; Lara, Enrique (22 July 2011).
2018:
Medvedev, Zhores A. (1981). "On the immortality of the germ line: Genetic and biochemical mechanisms. A review".
1868:
Shehre-Banoo Malik; Arthur W. Pightling; Lauren M. Stefaniak; Andrew M. Schurko & John M. Logsdon Jr (2008).
1352:
Sinden, R. E.; Hartley, R. H. (November 1985). "Identification of the
Meiotic Division of Malarial Parasites".
941:
over successive cell cycle generations depends on the effectiveness of processes for avoiding DNA damage and
722:). Cells in a haploid part of the plant spontaneously duplicate their chromosomes to produce diploid tissue.
135:
life cycle — the haploid stage is multicellular and the diploid stage is a single cell, meiosis is "zygotic".
2064:
Bernstein, C.; Bernstein, H.; Payne, C. (1999). "Cell
Immortality: Maintenance of Cell Division Potential".
2232:
Mable, Barbara K.; Otto, Sarah P. (1998). "The evolution of life cycles with haploid and diploid phases".
825:
The primitive type of life cycle probably had haploid individuals with asexual reproduction. Bacteria and
1867:
1821:"Meiosis in protists. Some structural and physiological aspects of meiosis in algae, fungi, and protozoa"
77:
In some organisms, different "generations" of the species succeed each other during the life cycle. For
1173:
978:
898:; he saw these as processes within the germ line cells that were capable of restoring the integrity of
795:
777:
If a parasite has to infect a given host in order to complete its life cycle, then it is said to be an
561:
254:. This way, the organism ends its diploid phase and produces several haploid cells. These cells divide
203:
171:(growth) occurs. Zygotic meiosis and gametic meiosis have one mitotic stage: mitosis occurs during the
86:
921:
but multi-generational cell lineages. The immortality of a cell lineage depends on the maintenance of
1809:
Schmidt and
Roberts. 1985. Foundations of Parasitology 3rd Ed. Times Mirror/Mosby College Publishing
1041:
Bell, Graham; Koufopanou, Vassiliki (1991). "The
Architecture of the Life Cycle in Small Organisms".
207:
987: – Replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction, without fertilization
950:
926:
670:
1329:
DĂaz González, Tomás; Fernandez-Carvajal
Alvarez, Mª del Carmen; Fernández Prieto, José Antonio.
261:
In the whole cycle, zygotes are the only diploid cell; mitosis occurs only in the haploid phase.
219:
2270:
1579:
1020:
891:
628:
59:
1202:"Archaeal-eubacterial mergers in the origin of Eukarya: phylogenetic classification of life"
1944:
1885:
1727:
1672:
1503:
1213:
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1014:
859:
782:
67:
8:
1338:
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indicate the presence of unique information maintenance and restoration processes at the
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488:
71:
1948:
1889:
1731:
1676:
1507:
1217:
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potential. This potential may be lost in any particular lineage because of cell damage,
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2136:
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2043:
1967:
1932:
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1869:
1786:
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1527:
1413:
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1365:
1066:
1011:– Profound change in body structure during the postembryonic development of an organism
867:
199:
66:, but differs from them in stressing renewal." Transitions of form may involve growth,
1845:
1820:
993: – Biological system where sex is determined by the number of sets of chromosomes
2220:
2216:
2189:
2163:
2128:
2107:"Perspective: The evolutionary biology of aging, sexual reproduction, and DNA repair"
2087:
2077:
2035:
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1995:
1972:
1913:
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1585:
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1241:
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from the types of damage that cause irreversible ageing in non-germ line cells, e.g.
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656:
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2140:
2047:
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2027:
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1952:
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1408:
1400:
1361:
1328:
1231:
1221:
1154:
1089:
1058:
996:
834:
758:
878:. Rather Medvedev thought that known features of the biochemistry and genetics of
163:
life cycle) — multicellular diploid and haploid stages occur, meiosis is "sporic".
1898:
1739:
1180:
1002:
850:
771:
508:
459:
2073:
1661:
1093:
874:
replicative and other synthetic systems alone cannot explain the immortality of
738:
to complete their life cycles are said to have complex or indirect life cycles.
2068:. Progress in Molecular and Subcellular Biology. Vol. 24. pp. 23–50.
1937:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1870:"An Expanded Inventory of Conserved Meiotic Genes Provides Evidence for Sex in
1389:"The chastity of amoebae: re-evaluating evidence for sex in amoeboid organisms"
1206:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
970:
949:
provide an opportunity for effective repair of DNA damages in the germ line by
731:
586:
424:
381:
312:
269:
30:
1684:
802:
2264:
1630:
1523:
1197:
1008:
999: – Nonsexual mechanism for transferring genetic material without meiosis
990:
922:
883:
829:
exhibit a life cycle like this, and some eukaryotes apparently do too (e.g.,
691:
624:
610:
447:
358:
298:
278:
193:
1957:
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1976:
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746:
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439:
337:
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302:
290:
251:
189:
85:, there are two multicellular stages, and the life cycle is referred to as
2039:
1373:
1245:
2246:
10.1002/(sici)1521-1878(199806)20:6<453::aid-bies3>3.0.co;2-n
1933:"Sex is a ubiquitous, ancient, and inherent attribute of eukaryotic life"
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78:
1607:"Origin and early evolution of land plants: Problems and considerations"
1335:
Departamento de BiologĂa de Organismos y Sistemas, Universidad de Oviedo
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is a feature that unites plants, and published this result in 1851 (see
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308:
247:
94:
1718:
Lewis, Raymond J. (January 1996). "Chromosomes of the brown algae".
1559:
1547:
1492:"Nuclear Phases and Alternation of Generations in the Chlorophyceae"
710:
A different phenomenon, called vegetative diploidization, a type of
1699:
1471:
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964:
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875:
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703:
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477:
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which have three multicellular stages (or more), rather than two.
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121:
109:
101:
100:
Life cycles that include sexual reproduction involve alternating
43:
120:
is involved. To return from a diploid stage to a haploid stage,
1453:
Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004).
1292:
871:
745:
or the heartworm, has an indirect life cycle, for example. The
473:
410:
243:
196:
in organisms was carried out by many botanists and zoologists.
142:
125:
117:
58:"The concept is closely related to those of the life history,
754:
574:
then divide mitotically producing haploid individuals called
82:
1293:
DĂaz, T.E.; Fernández-Carvajal, C.; Fernández, J.A. (2004).
1145:
C. Skottsberg (1961), "Nils Eberhard Svedelius. 1873–1960",
677:, but this is not related to the haplodiplontic life cycle.
141:
life cycle — the diploid stage is multicellular and haploid
2202:
1931:
Speijer, Dave; Lukeš, Julius; Eliáš, Marek (21 July 2015).
1088:. Subcellular Biochemistry. Vol. 74. pp. 1–42.
899:
1777:
Datz, Craig (2011). "Parasitic and Protozoal Diseases".
1455:
Invertebrate Zoology: A Functional Evolutionary Approach
1083:
2063:
1393:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1386:
1818:
93:
is often used, particularly for organisms such as the
2186:
Life Cycles: Reflections of an Evolutionary Biologist
2157:
1992:
Lost Sex: The Evolutionary Biology of Parthenogenesis
1705:
1565:
1553:
1477:
1086:
Proteins and Proteomics of Leishmania and Trypanosoma
1147:
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
960:
929:
as occurs in nerve cells, or programmed cell death (
730:
Parasites depend on the exploitation of one or more
401:
In gametic meiosis, instead of immediately dividing
1990:Schön, Isa; Martens, Koen; Dijk, Peter van (2009).
1581:
Sex and Death in Protozoa: The History of Obsession
1174:
Nuclear Phases and Alternation in the Rhodophyceae.
1005: – Asexual reproduction without fertilization
789:undergo any development, these hosts are known as
570:. The sporophyte creates spores via meiosis which
1930:
2262:
2059:
2057:
1989:
1452:
2013:
2011:
1043:Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences
1017: – Branch of biology studying reproduction
1040:
981: – Reproductive cycle of plants and algae
593:(which have two sporophyte generations), some
2158:van den Hoek, C.; Mann; Jahns, H. M. (1995).
2054:
1351:
1144:
405:to produce haploid cells, the zygote divides
2008:
734:. Those that must infect more than one host
547:
1584:. Cambridge University Press. p. 11.
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1331:"Botánica: Ciclos biológicos de vegetales"
2231:
2122:
1994:. Springer Science & Business Media.
1966:
1956:
1907:
1897:
1844:
1638:
1412:
1235:
1225:
1158:
937:. In sexual organisms, continuity of the
175:phase in zygotic meiosis and during the 2
2017:
1324:
1288:
1196:
801:
551:
392:
229:
29:
1611:Communicative & Integrative Biology
1604:
1544:O. P. Sharma. Textbook of Algae, p. 189
1429:
1322:
1320:
1318:
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1306:
1304:
1286:
1284:
1282:
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1274:
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1077:
753:, where it develops into the infective
725:
388:
225:
14:
2263:
2183:
1185:Beihefte zum Botanischen Centralblatt.
1118:
781:of that host; sometimes, infection is
2104:
1717:
1489:
1023: – Type of genetic recombination
680:
2020:Mechanisms of Ageing and Development
1776:
1577:
1301:
1265:
917:. It is not actually cells that are
866:The Russian biologist and historian
315:, e.g., Ceratium, Gymnodinium, some
124:must occur. In regard to changes of
2160:Algae: An Introduction to Phycology
1706:van den Hoek, Mann & Jahns 1995
1566:van den Hoek, Mann & Jahns 1995
1554:van den Hoek, Mann & Jahns 1995
1478:van den Hoek, Mann & Jahns 1995
1457:. Thomson-Brooks/Cole. p. 26.
945:that do occur. Sexual processes in
749:must first be ingested by a female
128:, there are three types of cycles:
24:
2177:
2124:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb02155.x
1787:10.1016/B978-1-4160-4889-3.00019-X
1366:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1985.tb03113.x
1262:. Academic Press. Volume 4, p. 85.
539:: animals, some fungi (e.g., some
25:
2282:
2205:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1819:Heywood, P.; Magee, P.T. (1976).
145:are formed, meiosis is "gametic".
963:
870:considered that the accuracy of
151:life cycle (also referred to as
2105:Avise, John C. (October 1993).
2098:
1983:
1924:
1861:
1812:
1803:
1770:
1746:
1711:
1655:
1598:
1571:
1538:
1483:
1380:
1345:
816:, including infection of humans
55:repeating in a cyclic fashion.
27:Series of stages of an organism
2188:. Princeton University Press.
2162:. Cambridge University Press.
1837:10.1128/mmbr.40.1.190-240.1976
1252:
1190:
1166:
1138:
1034:
13:
1:
1665:European Journal of Phycology
1027:
250:, which is the fusion of two
2217:10.1016/0169-5347(92)90195-H
2032:10.1016/0047-6374(81)90052-X
1899:10.1371/journal.pone.0002879
1740:10.2216/i0031-8884-35-1-19.1
1337:(in Spanish). Archived from
1260:Encyclopedia of Microbiology
892:recombination during meiosis
820:
183:
116:) stages, i.e., a change of
7:
2184:Bonner, John Tyler (1995).
2074:10.1007/978-3-662-06227-2_2
1354:The Journal of Protozoology
1258:Moselio Schaechter (2009).
1094:10.1007/978-94-007-7305-9_1
956:
943:repairing those DNA damages
701:) and green algae (such as
10:
2287:
2151:
1490:Smith, Gilbert M. (1938).
1126:Biology of the Rhodophyta.
979:Alternation of generations
810:, single-celled parasite
796:Aelurostrongylus abstrusus
761:and mature into adults.
562:Alternation of generations
559:
204:alternation of generations
180:confused with diplontic).
167:The cycles differ in when
87:alternation of generations
1685:10.1080/09670260902780782
548:Haplodiplontic life cycle
1605:Bennici, Andrea (2008).
951:homologous recombination
927:terminal differentiation
671:sex-determination system
222:in the 1840s and 1850s.
1958:10.1073/pnas.1501725112
1825:Bacteriological Reviews
1779:Small Animal Pediatrics
845:, some red algae, some
238:A zygotic meiosis is a
1405:10.1098/rspb.2011.0289
1227:10.1073/pnas.93.3.1071
1160:10.1098/rsbm.1961.0023
1063:10.1098/rstb.1991.0035
817:
557:
398:
235:
220:spontaneous generation
39:
1872:Trichomonas vaginalis
1578:Bell, Graham (1988).
1021:Mitotic recombination
805:
629:plasmodiophoromycetes
555:
396:
233:
48:biological life cycle
33:
2066:Cell Immortalization
1781:. pp. 154–160.
1623:10.4161/cib.1.2.6987
1172:Svedelius, N. 1931.
1015:Reproductive biology
860:asexual reproduction
726:Parasitic life cycle
669:Some animals have a
434:Cladophora glomerata
389:Diplontic life cycle
226:Haplontic life cycle
68:asexual reproduction
1949:2015PNAS..112.8827S
1890:2008PLoSO...3.2879M
1732:1996Phyco..35...19L
1677:2009EJPhy..44..381S
1508:1938BotRv...4..132S
1399:(1715): 2081–2090.
1218:1996PNAS...93.1071M
1200:(6 February 1996).
1128:Oliver & Boyd.
1055:1991RSPTB.332...81B
880:sexual reproduction
767:Ancylostoma caninum
741:Dirofilaria immitis
720:Elachista stellaris
647:: some fungi (some
581:Haplodiplonts are:
489:Plasmopara viticola
368:: most fungi (some
72:sexual reproduction
1516:10.1007/BF02872350
1179:2013-10-05 at the
1124:Dixon, P.S. 1973.
868:Zhores A. Medvedev
818:
806:Life cycle of the
681:Vegetative meiosis
662:Other eukaryotes:
558:
399:
246:immediately after
236:
202:demonstrated that
200:Wilhelm Hofmeister
40:
18:Reproductive cycle
2195:978-0-691-00151-7
2169:978-0-521-31687-3
2083:978-3-642-08491-1
2001:978-90-481-2770-2
1943:(29): 8827–8834.
1796:978-1-4160-4889-3
1591:978-0-521-36141-5
1464:978-0-03-025982-1
1295:Curso de Botánica
1187:Band 48/1: 38–59.
1103:978-94-007-7304-2
779:obligate parasite
714:, occurs in some
16:(Redirected from
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997:Parasexual cycle
973:
968:
967:
835:Choanoflagellata
759:pulmonary artery
587:archaeplastidans
460:flowering plants
425:archaeplastidans
270:archaeplastidans
34:Life cycle of a
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1003:Parthenogenesis
969:
962:
959:
890:are created by
851:imperfect fungi
823:
772:small intestine
728:
683:
564:
550:
509:Actinosphaerium
397:Gametic meiosis
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313:dinoflagellates
234:Zygotic meiosis
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657:brewer's yeast
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625:foraminiferans
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560:Main article:
556:Sporic meiosis
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338:ascetosporeans
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149:haplodiplontic
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19:
2271:Reproduction
2237:
2233:
2211:(1): 25–29.
2208:
2204:
2185:
2159:
2114:
2110:
2100:
2065:
2023:
2019:
1991:
1985:
1940:
1936:
1926:
1884:(8): e2879.
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1761:. Retrieved
1757:
1748:
1726:(1): 19–40.
1723:
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1614:
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1357:
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1339:the original
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1294:
1259:
1254:
1209:
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1125:
1120:
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1036:
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864:
824:
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808:apicomplexan
794:
787:
776:
765:
763:
739:
729:
719:
709:
702:
696:
690:
684:
675:haplodiploid
668:
645:opisthokonts
639:myxogastrids
598:
580:
576:gametophytes
571:
565:
537:opisthokonts
531:parabasalids
507:
501:
487:
481:
467:
464:xanthophytes
440:Acetabularia
438:
432:
418:
415:
406:
402:
400:
366:opisthokonts
357:
348:parabasalids
320:
303:golden algae
289:
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190:reproduction
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157:diplobiontic
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138:
132:
113:
105:
99:
91:life history
90:
76:
57:
51:
47:
41:
1198:Margulis, L
1153:: 294–312,
904:chromosomes
847:green algae
831:Cryptophyta
783:facultative
716:brown algae
664:haptophytes
653:ascomycetes
615:brown algae
605:land plants
595:green algae
541:ascomycetes
503:Actinophrys
483:Saprolegnia
452:brown algae
429:green algae
407:mitotically
403:meiotically
378:ascomycetes
374:zygomycetes
354:amoebozoans
274:green algae
256:mitotically
252:cell nuclei
194:development
89:. The term
60:development
1763:2021-05-18
1754:"VetFolio"
1720:Phycologia
1028:References
947:eukaryotes
935:DNA damage
896:DNA repair
888:germ cells
839:Euglenozoa
621:rhizarians
568:sporophyte
517:alveolates
498:heliozoans
334:euglyphids
330:rhizarians
322:Plasmodium
309:alveolates
52:life cycle
2234:BioEssays
2111:Evolution
1693:217511084
1631:1942-0889
1524:0006-8101
931:apoptosis
876:germlines
843:Amoebozoa
821:Evolution
791:paratenic
689:(such as
687:red algae
655:like the
635:amoebozoa
591:red algae
527:excavates
500:" (e.g.,
478:oomycetes
469:Vaucheria
344:excavates
248:karyogamy
184:Discovery
161:dibiontic
139:diplontic
133:haplontic
95:red algae
81:and many
50:(or just
2265:Category
2254:11841044
2225:21235940
2141:29262885
2133:28564887
2092:10547857
2048:35719466
1977:26195746
1918:18663385
1878:PLOS ONE
1649:19513262
1423:21429931
1177:Archived
1112:24264239
985:Apomixis
957:See also
939:germline
919:immortal
855:rotifers
751:mosquito
712:apomixis
704:Prasiola
649:chytrids
521:ciliates
496:, some "
494:opalines
472:), most
462:), some
370:chytrids
64:ontogeny
36:mosquito
2152:Sources
2040:6173551
1968:4517231
1945:Bibcode
1909:2488364
1886:Bibcode
1728:Bibcode
1673:Bibcode
1640:2686025
1532:4353174
1504:Bibcode
1414:3107637
1374:3906103
1246:8577716
1214:Bibcode
1051:Bibcode
853:, some
841:, many
837:, many
827:archaea
813:Babesia
736:species
718:(e.g.,
698:Lemanea
673:called
651:, some
623:: many
613:: most
597:(e.g.,
529:: some
480:(e.g.,
476:, some
474:diatoms
466:(e.g.,
456:Fucales
450:: some
431:(e.g.,
427:: some
411:gametes
376:, some
346:: some
332:: some
319:(e.g.,
311:: many
301:: some
285:Zygnema
276:(e.g.,
272:: some
240:meiosis
216:protist
169:mitosis
143:gametes
122:meiosis
110:diploid
102:haploid
44:biology
2252:
2223:
2192:
2166:
2139:
2131:
2090:
2080:
2046:
2038:
1998:
1975:
1965:
1916:
1906:
1855:773364
1853:
1846:413949
1843:
1793:
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1647:
1637:
1629:
1588:
1530:
1522:
1461:
1421:
1411:
1372:
1244:
1234:
1132:
1110:
1100:
1069:
872:genome
849:, the
755:larval
244:zygote
126:ploidy
118:ploidy
108:) and
79:plants
2250:S2CID
2137:S2CID
2044:S2CID
1689:S2CID
1528:JSTOR
1237:40032
1071:55494
1067:JSTOR
732:hosts
685:Some
454:(the
291:Chara
242:of a
159:, or
83:algae
70:, or
2221:PMID
2190:ISBN
2164:ISBN
2129:PMID
2088:PMID
2078:ISBN
2036:PMID
1996:ISBN
1973:PMID
1914:PMID
1851:PMID
1791:ISBN
1645:PMID
1627:ISSN
1586:ISBN
1520:ISSN
1459:ISBN
1419:PMID
1370:PMID
1242:PMID
1183:In:
1130:ISBN
1108:PMID
1098:ISBN
902:and
894:and
695:and
600:Ulva
572:also
192:and
62:and
46:, a
2242:doi
2213:doi
2119:doi
2070:doi
2028:doi
1963:PMC
1953:doi
1941:112
1904:PMC
1894:doi
1841:PMC
1833:doi
1783:doi
1736:doi
1681:doi
1635:PMC
1619:doi
1512:doi
1409:PMC
1401:doi
1397:278
1362:doi
1232:PMC
1222:doi
1155:doi
1090:doi
1059:doi
1047:332
900:DNA
643:In
633:In
619:In
609:In
603:),
585:In
535:In
525:In
515:In
492:),
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
