Reflection seismology

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not be detectable in conventional seismic. Time lapse surveys consist of a baseline survey and a monitor or repeat survey, acquired after the field has been in production. Most of these surveys have been repeated NATS surveys as they are cheaper to acquire and most fields historically already had a NATS baseline survey. Some of these surveys are collected using ocean-bottom cables because the cables can be accurately placed in their previous location after being removed. Better repetition of the exact source and receiver location leads to improved repeatability and better signal to noise ratios. A number of 4D surveys have also been set up over fields in which ocean bottom cables have been purchased and permanently deployed. This method can be known as life of field seismic (LoFS) or permanent reservoir monitoring (PRM).

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that has been collected is no longer stored on the solid-state hard drive and all data recorded since it was deployed on the sea floor will be lost. Therefore, a node with a 30-day battery life must be deployed, record data, be recovered and reaped within that 30-day period. This also ties in with the number of nodes that are to be deployed as this is closely related to battery life too. If too many nodes are deployed and the OBN crew's resources are not sufficient to recover these in time or external factors such as adverse weather limits recovery operations, batteries can expire and data can be lost. Disposable or non-rechargeable batteries can also create a significant waste management issue as batteries must be transported to and from an operation and the drained batteries disposed of by a licensed contractor ashore.

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the geological interpretation. The aim of this is to produce structural maps that reflect the spatial variation in depth of certain geological layers. Using these maps hydrocarbon traps can be identified and models of the subsurface can be created that allow volume calculations to be made. However, a seismic dataset rarely gives a picture clear enough to do this. This is mainly because of the vertical and horizontal seismic resolution but often noise and processing difficulties also result in a lower quality picture. Due to this, there is always a degree of uncertainty in a seismic interpretation and a particular dataset could have more than one solution that fits the data. In such a case, more data will be needed to constrain the solution, for example in the form of further seismic acquisition,

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obstructions, they can be dragged by third party vessel anchors and caught by trawling fishing vessels. The threat of these types of potential hazards to this equipment should normally be identified and assessed during the project planning phase, especially in oilfield locations where well heads, pipelines and other subsea structures exist and where any contact with these must be avoided, normally achieved by adopting exclusion zones. Since it is possible for node lines to be moved after deployment, the issue of node position on recovery is critical and therefore positioning during both deployment and recovery is a standard navigation quality control check. In some case, node lines may need to be recovered and re-laid if the nodes have moved outside of the contract specifications.

2309:(more commonly known as JNCC) is "...the public body that advises the UK Government and devolved administrations on UK-wide and international nature conservation." has had a long term vested interest in the impact of geophysical or seismic surveys on the marine environment for many years. Even back in the 1990s, it was understood at a government level that the impact of the sound energy produced by seismic surveys needed to be investigated and monitored. JNCC guidelines have been and continue to be one of the references used internationally as a possible baseline standard for surveys in seismic contracts world-wide, such as the 'JNCC guidelines for minimising the risk of injury to marine mammals from geophysical surveys (seismic survey guidelines)', 2017. 160: 1890:

from a recovered node when it is placed within a computerised system that copies the hard drive data from the node), there is an assumption that the data will be recorded as there is no real-time quality control element to a node's operating status as they are self-contained and not connected to any system once they are deployed. The technology is now well-established and very reliable and once a node and its battery system has passed all of its set up criteria there is a high degree of confidence that a node will work as specified. Technical downtime during node projects, i.e. individual node failures during deployment are usually in single figures as a percentage of the total nodes deployed.

1955:) technology to handle and place nodes at their pre-plotted positions. This type of deployment and recovery method uses a basket full of nodes which is lowered into the water. An ROV will connect with the compatible node basket and remove individual nodes from a tray in a pre-defined order. Each node will be placed on its allocated pre-plot position. On recovery, the process works in reverse; the node to be recovered is picked up by the ROV, placed into the node basket tray until the basket is full when it is lifted back to the surface. The basket is recovered onto the node vessel, the nodes are removed from the basket and reaped. 183:. Ludger Mintrop, a German mine surveyor, devised a mechanical seismograph in 1914 that he successfully used to detect salt domes in Germany. He applied for a German patent in 1919 that was issued in 1926. In 1921 he founded the company Seismos, which was hired to conduct seismic exploration in Texas and Mexico, resulting in the first commercial discovery of oil using the refraction seismic method in 1924. The 1924 discovery of the Orchard salt dome in Texas led to a boom in seismic refraction exploration along the Gulf Coast, but by 1930 the method had led to the discovery of most of the shallow 1580:– The transition zone is considered to be the area where the land meets the sea, presenting unique challenges because the water is too shallow for large seismic vessels but too deep for the use of traditional methods of acquisition on land. Examples of this environment are river deltas, swamps and marshes, coral reefs, beach tidal areas and the surf zone. Transition zone seismic crews will often work on land, in the transition zone and in the shallow water marine environment on a single project in order to obtain a complete map of the subsurface. 1698: 1361: 445: 2079: 147: 1959:

demands may impact upon production. Umbilical's and other high technology spares for ROV's can be extremely expensive and repairs to ROVs which require onshore or third-party specialist support will stop a node project. Due to extreme water depths, the node deployment and recovery production rate will be much lower due to the time for node basket transit from surface to seafloor and there will almost certainly be weather or sea condition limitation for ROV operations in open ocean areas. The

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technique failed to properly image the subsurface due to out of plane reflections and other artefacts. Spatial aliasing is also an issue with 2D data due to the lack of resolution between the lines. Beginning with initial experiments in the 1960s, the seismic technique explored the possibility of full three-dimensional acquisition and processing. In the late 1970s the first large 3D datasets were acquired and by the 1980s and 1990s this method became widely used.

1753: 5876: 270:, but since the oil price crash of 2015, providers of seismic services have continued to struggle financially such as Polarcus, whilst companies that were seismic acquisition industry leaders just ten years ago such as CGG and WesternGeco have now removed themselves from the seismic acquisition environment entirely and restructured to focus upon their existing seismic data libraries, seismic data management and non-seismic related oilfield services. 1722: 1737: 1647: 1862: 1690: 1584: 1745: 1561:. The size and scale of seismic surveys has increased alongside the significant increases in computer power since the late 20th century. This led the seismic industry from laboriously – and therefore rarely – acquiring small 3D surveys in the 1980s to routinely acquiring large-scale high resolution 3D surveys. The goals and basic principles have remained the same, but the methods have slightly changed over the years. 1770:

frequency response of the resulting air bubble from the array when fired can be changed depending upon the combination and number of guns in a specific array and their individual volumes. Guns can be located individual on an array or can be combined to form clusters. Typically, source arrays have a volume of 2000 cubic inches to 7000 cubic inches, but this will depend upon the specific geology of the survey area.

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a specific frequency distribution and amplitude. It produces a low energy density, allowing it to be used in cities and other built-up areas where dynamite would cause significant damage, though the large weight attached to a Vibroseis truck can cause its own environmental damage. Dynamite is an impulsive source that is regarded as the ideal geophysical source due to it producing an almost perfect

1655: 412:) into the Earth, where each layer within the Earth reflects a portion of the wave's energy back and allows the rest to refract through. These reflected energy waves are recorded over a predetermined time period (called the record length) by receivers that detect the motion of the ground in which they are placed. On land, the typical receiver used is a small, portable instrument known as a 32: 1706: 86: 1935:

limitation as to how far into shore they can safely navigate into; the usual cutoff will be between 15 and 20 metres water depth depending on the vessel and its in-water equipment. Specialist shallow water boats can then be used for deploying and recovering nodes in water depths as shallow as 1 to 3 metres. These shallow water nodes can then be used to tie-in with

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detected by an underwater acoustic positioning transducer which allows a pinging vessel or the node vessel itself to establish a definite sea floor position for each node on deployment. Depending on the contract, pingers can be located on every node or every third node, for example. Pinging and pinging equipment is the industry shorthand for the use of USBL or

1714: 2359:, the legal requirements will be clearly stated at the contract level and both contractor and client will comply with the regulations as the consequences of non-compliance can be severe such as substantial fines or withdrawal of permits for exploration blocks. However, there are some countries which have a varied and rich marine 2222:

use pre-existing non-straight tracks and trails. With careful planning, this can greatly reduce the environmental impact of a land seismic survey. The more recent use of inertial navigation instruments for land survey instead of theodolites decreased the impact of seismic by allowing the winding of survey lines between trees.

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length (see diagram). Modern streamer vessels normally tow multiple streamers astern which can be secured to underwater wings, commonly known as doors or vanes that allow a number of streamers to be towed out wide to the port and starboard side of a vessel. Current streamer towing technology such as seen on the PGS operated

2262:, as these mammals use sound as their primary method of communication with one another. High-level and long-duration sound can cause physical damage, such as hearing loss, whereas lower-level noise can cause temporary threshold shifts in hearing, obscuring sounds that are vital to marine life, or behavioural disturbance. 1404:. Low velocity, low frequency and high amplitude Rayleigh waves are frequently present on a seismic record and can obscure signal, degrading overall data quality. They are known within the industry as ‘Ground Roll’ and are an example of coherent noise that can be attenuated with a carefully designed seismic survey. The 2230:(EIA) reports prior to any work starting. Project planning also needs to recognise that once a project has completed, what impact if any, will be left behind. It is the contractors and clients responsibility to manage the remediation plan as per the contract and as per the laws where the project has been conducted. 1801:

the source vessels each time and eventually creating the effect of a survey with 4 times the number of streamers. The end result was a seismic dataset with a larger range of wider azimuths, delivering a breakthrough in seismic imaging. These are now the three common types of marine towed streamer seismic surveys.

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with OBN technology, surveys can cover thousands of square kilometres of ocean and can continue for years, all of the time putting sound energy into the ocean 24 hours a day from multiple energy sources. One current example of this is the 85,000 square kilometre mega seismic survey contract signed by the

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Depending upon the size of a project, land seismic operations can have a significant local impact and a sizeable physical footprint, especially where storage facilities, camp utilities, waste management facilities (including black and grey water management), general and seismic vehicle parking areas,

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ROV operations are normally used for deep water node projects, often in water depths to 3000 metres in the open ocean. However, there are some issues with ROV operations that need to be considered. ROV operations tend to be complex, especially deep water ROV operations and so the periodic maintenance

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Mineral exploration – The traditional approach to near-surface (<300 m) mineral exploration has been to employ geological mapping, geochemical analysis and the use of aerial and ground-based potential field methods, in particular for greenfield exploration, in the recent decades reflection seismic

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Sound production typically begins with a “soft-start” or “ramp-up” that involves a gradual increase of the sound level from the air gun source from a very low level to full operational levels at the beginning of the seismic lines – usually over 20 to 40 minutes. This soft-start procedure is intended

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and listening devices are used to visually and acoustically monitor that zone for marine mammals and other protected species before any sound-producing operations begin. These observers help ensure adherence to the protective practices during operations and their detailed reports provide information

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will leave a minimum 3 km gap between themselves and an operating seismic vessel, with resting humpback whale pods with cows exhibiting increased sensitivity and leaving an increased gap of 7–12 km. Conversely, the study found that male humpback whales were attracted to a single operating

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Archeological considerations are also important and project planning must accommodate legal, cultural and social requirements that will have to be considered. Specialist techniques can be used to assessed safe working distances from buildings and archeological structures to minimise their impact and

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disturbance may occur and many governments require seismic companies to follow strict rules regarding destruction of the environment; for example, the use of dynamite as a seismic source may be disallowed. Seismic processing techniques allow for seismic lines to deviate around natural obstacles, or

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Time lapse or 4D surveys are 3D seismic surveys repeated after a period of time, the 4D term refers to the fourth dimension which in this case is time. Time lapse surveys are acquired in order to observe reservoir changes during production and identify areas where there are barriers to flow that may

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Unlike OBC operations, a node vessel does not connect to a node line, whereas ocean bottom cables need to be physically attached to a recorder vessel to record data in real-time. With nodes, until the nodes are recovered and the data reaped from them (reaping is the industry term used to remove data

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The development of node technology came as a direct development from that of ocean bottom cable technology, i.e. that ability to place a hydrophone in direct contact with the seafloor to eliminate the seafloor to hydrophone sea water space that exists with towed streamer technology. The ocean bottom

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Marine survey acquisition is not just limited to seismic vessels; it is also possible to lay cables of geophones and hydrophones on the sea bed in a similar way to how cables are used in a land seismic survey, and use a separate source vessel. This method was originally developed out of operational

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and dynamite. Vibroseis is a non-impulsive source that is cheap and efficient but requires flat ground to operate on, making its use more difficult in undeveloped areas. The method comprises one or more heavy, all-terrain vehicles lowering a steel plate onto the ground, which is then vibrated with

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within the Earth were first observed on recordings of earthquake-generated seismic waves. The basic model of the Earth's deep interior is based on observations of earthquake-generated seismic waves transmitted through the Earth's interior (e.g., Mohorovičić, 1910). The use of human-generated seismic

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is a process that tries to extract the reflectivity series of the Earth, under the assumption that a seismic trace is just the reflectivity series of the Earth convolved with distorting filters. This process improves temporal resolution by collapsing the seismic wavelet, but it is nonunique unless

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This method requires the node to be attached to a steel wire or a high specification rope. Each node will be evenly spaced along the rope which will have special fittings to securely connect the node to the rope, for example every 50 metres depending upon the prospect design. This rope is then laid

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in detail. This will identify any possible hazards that could impact the safe navigation of node and source vessels and also to identify any issues for node deployment including subsea obstructions, wrecks, oilfield infrastructure or sudden changes in water depths from underwater cliffs, canyons or

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In addition to the operational advantages, OBC also has geophysical advantages over a conventional NATS survey that arise from the increased fold and wider range of azimuths associated with the survey geometry. However, much like a land survey, the wider azimuths and increased fold come at a cost

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in 2004. This type of survey involved 1 vessel solely towing a set of 8 streamers and 2 separate vessels towing seismic sources that were located at the start and end of the last receiver line (see diagram). This configuration was "tiled" 4 times, with the receiver vessel moving further away from

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Streamer vessels also tow high energy sources, principally high pressure air gun arrays that operate at 2000psi that fire together to the create a tuned energy pulse into the seabed from which the reflected energy waves are recorded on the streamer receiver groups. Gun arrays are tuned, that is the

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but where the environmental laws are weak and where a regulator is ineffective or even non-existent. This situation, where the regulatory framework is not robust can severely compromise any attempts at protecting marine environments: this is frequently found where state-owned oil and gas companies

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A complicating factor in the discussion of seismic sound energy as a disruptive factor to marine mammals is that of the size and scale of seismic surveys as they are conducted into the 21st century. Historically, seismic surveys tended to have a duration of weeks or months and to be localised, but

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The goal of seismic interpretation is to obtain a coherent geological story from the map of processed seismic reflections. At its most simple level, seismic interpretation involves tracing and correlating along continuous reflectors throughout the 2D or 3D dataset and using these as the basis for

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4D seismic surveys using towed streamer technology can be very challenging as the aim of a 4D survey it to repeat the original or baseline survey as accurately as possible. Weather, tides, current and even the time of year can have a significant impact upon how accurately such a survey can achieve

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built between 2013 and 2017 has pushed the number of streamers up to 24 in total on these vessels. For vessels of this type of capacity, it is not uncommon for a streamer spread across the stern from 'door to door' to be in excess on one nautical mile. The precise configuration of the streamers on

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A land seismic survey requires substantial logistical support; in addition to the day-to-day seismic operation itself, there must also be support for the main camp for resupply activities, medical support, camp and equipment maintenance tasks, security, personnel crew changes and waste management.

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but it has obvious environmental drawbacks. For a long time, it was the only seismic source available until weight dropping was introduced around 1954, allowing geophysicists to make a trade-off between image quality and environmental damage. Compared to Vibroseis, dynamite is also operationally

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The original seismic reflection method involved acquisition along a two-dimensional vertical profile through the crust, now referred to as 2D data. This approach worked well with areas of relatively simple geological structure where dips are low. However, in areas of more complex structure, the 2D

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is similar to ground roll but occurs at the sea-floor (fluid/solid interface) and it can possibly obscure and mask deep reflections in marine seismic records. The velocity of these waves varies with wavelength, so they are said to be dispersive and the shape of the wavetrain varies with distance.

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Node lines are usually recovered by anchor or grapple hook dragging to recover the node line back on board the vessel. Handling systems on node vessels are used to store, deploy and recover nodes and their specific design will depend upon the node design. Small nodes can include a manual handling

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along a pre-defined node line. The nodes are ‘landed’ onto pre-plotted positions with an agreed and acceptable error radius, for example, a node must be placed within a 12.5 metre radius from the navigation pre-plot positions. They are often accompanied by pingers, small transponders that can be

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packs or replaceable non-rechargeable batteries - the design and the specification of the node will determine what battery technology is used. The battery life of a node unit is a critical consideration in the design of a node project; this is because once the battery runs out on a node, the data

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Towed streamer marine seismic surveys are conducted using specialist seismic vessels that tow one or more cables known as streamers just below the surface typically between 5 and 15 metres depending upon the project specification that contain groups of hydrophones (or receiver groups) along their

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and by advances in computer processing capacity. AVO studies attempt with some success to predict the fluid content (oil, gas, or water) of potential reservoirs, to lower the risk of drilling unproductive wells and to identify new petroleum reservoirs. The 3-term simplification of the Zoeppritz

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will avoid its regular migratory and feeding grounds by >30 km in areas of seismic testing. Similarly the breathing of gray whales was shown to be more rapid, indicating discomfort and panic in the whale. It is circumstantial evidence such as this that has led researchers to believe that

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Node on a rope is normally used where there is shallow water within the prospect, for example less than 100 metres or a transition zone area close to a beach. For deeper water operations, a dynamic positioning vessel is used to ensure accurate deployment of nodes, but these larger vessels have a

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Unlike in marine seismic surveys, land geometries are not limited to narrow paths of acquisition, meaning that a wide range of offsets and azimuths is usually acquired and the largest challenge is increasing the rate of acquisition. The rate of production is obviously controlled by how fast the

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of the physical system being studied. In the case of reflection seismology, the experimental data are recorded seismograms, and the desired result is a model of the structure and physical properties of the Earth's crust. In common with other types of inverse problems, the results obtained from

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Offering another point of view, a joint paper from the International Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC) and the International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (IOGP) argue that the noise created by marine seismic surveys is comparable to natural sources of seismic noise, stating:

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Another important consideration is that of synchronising the timing of individual node clock units with an internal clock drift correction. Any error in synchronising nodes properly before they are deployed can create unusable data. Because node acquisition is often multi-directional and from a

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There are some issues with this approach which make them vulnerable to damage or loss on a project and these all must be risk assessed and mitigated. Since nodes connected together on a rope sit on the sea floor unattended: they can be moved due to strong currents, the ropes can snag on seabed

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waves at a planar interface for an incident P-wave as a function of the angle of incidence and six independent elastic parameters. These equations have 4 unknowns and can be solved but they do not give an intuitive understanding for how the reflection amplitudes vary with the rock properties

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OBN has proven to be another very good way to accurately repeat a seismic acquisition. The world's first 4D survey using nodes was acquired over the Atlantis Oil Field in 2009, with the nodes being placed by a ROV in a water depth of 1300–2200 metres to within a few metres of where they were

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Nodes are self-contained 4-component units which include a hydrophone and three horizontal and vertical axis orientation sensors. Their physical dimensions vary depending on the design requirement and the manufacturer, but in general nodes tend to weigh in excess of 10 kilograms per unit to

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Land seismic surveys tend to be large entities, requiring hundreds of tons of equipment and employing anywhere from a few hundred to a few thousand people, deployed over vast areas for many months. There are a number of options available for a controlled seismic source in a land survey and

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reflection seismology are usually not unique (more than one model adequately fits the data) and may be sensitive to relatively small errors in data collection, processing, or analysis. For these reasons, great care must be taken when interpreting the results of a reflection seismic survey.

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element whereas larger nodes are automatically handled by robotic systems for moving, storing, recharging and reaping nodes. Node vessels also use systems such as spoolers to manage rope lines and rope bins to store the many kilometres of ropes often carried onboard node on a rope vessels.

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source (Vibroseis in this case) can be fired and then move on to the next source location. Attempts have been made to use multiple seismic sources at the same time in order to increase survey efficiency and a successful example of this technique is Independent Simultaneous Sweeping (ISS).

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The reflection and transmission coefficients, which govern the amplitude of each reflection, vary with angle of incidence and can be used to obtain information about (among many other things) the fluid content of the rock. Practical use of non-normal incidence phenomena, known as AVO (see

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is a robust process that uses the fact that a particular location in the subsurface will have been sampled numerous times and at different offsets. This allows a geophysicist to construct a group of traces with a range of offsets that all sample the same subsurface location, known as a

2036:. The average amplitude is then calculated along a time sample, resulting in significantly lowering the random noise but also losing all valuable information about the relationship between seismic amplitude and offset. Less significant processes that are applied shortly before the 1053:

equations that is most commonly used was developed in 1985 and is known as the "Shuey equation". A further 2-term simplification is known as the "Shuey approximation", is valid for angles of incidence less than 30 degrees (usually the case in seismic surveys) and is given below:

1788:(MAZ) which tried to break the limitations of the linear acquisition pattern of a NATS survey by acquiring a combination of NATS surveys at different azimuths (see diagram). This successfully delivered increased illumination of the subsurface and a better signal to noise ratio. 1594:– The marine zone is either in shallow water areas (water depths of less than 30 to 40 metres would normally be considered shallow water areas for 3D marine seismic operations) or in the deep water areas normally associated with the seas and oceans (such as the Gulf of Mexico). 1814:, without having the compromise the resultant image quality. Ocean bottom cables (OBC) are also extensively used in other areas that a seismic vessel cannot be used, for example in shallow marine (water depth <300m) and transition zone environments, and can be deployed by 1766:

any project in terms of streamer length, streamer separation, hydrophone group length and the offset or distance between the source centre and the receivers will be dependent upon the geological area of interest below the sea floor that the client is trying to get data from.

202:, E. A. Eckhardt, William P. Haseman, and Burton McCollum. In 1920, Haseman, Karcher, Eckhardt and McCollum founded the Geological Engineering Company. In June 1921, Karcher, Haseman, I. Perrine and W. C. Kite recorded the first exploration reflection seismograph near 213:"As one who personally tried to introduce the method into general consulting practice, the senior writer can definitely recall many times when reflections were not even considered on a par with the divining rod, for at least that device had a background of tradition." 2234:

workshops and maintenance facilities and living accommodation are required. Contact with local people can cause potential disruptions to their normal lives such as increased noise, 24-hour operations and increased traffic and these have to be assessed and mitigated.

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is the process by which seismic events are geometrically re-located in either space or time to the location the event occurred in the subsurface rather than the location that it was recorded at the surface, thereby creating a more accurate image of the subsurface.

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A head wave refracts at an interface, travelling along it, within the lower medium and produces oscillatory motion parallel to the interface. This motion causes a disturbance in the upper medium that is detected on the surface. The same phenomenon is utilised in

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Reasnor, Micah; Beaudoin, Gerald; Pfister, Michael; Ahmed, Imtiaz; Davis, Stan; Roberts, Mark; Howie, John; Openshaw, Graham; Longo, Andrew (2010). "Atlantis time-lapse ocean bottom node survey: A project team's journey from acquisition through processing".

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through the interface. At its most basic, the seismic reflection technique consists of generating seismic waves and measuring the time taken for the waves to travel from the source, reflect off an interface and be detected by an array of receivers (as

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to acquire them. Another company is then hired to process the data, although this can often be the same company that acquired the survey. Finally the finished seismic volume is delivered to the oil company so that it can be geologically interpreted.

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Exclusion zones are typically established around the seismic source to further protect marine fauna from any potentially detrimental effects of sound. The exclusion zone is typically a circle with a radius of at least 500 meters around the sound

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Threadgold, Ian M.; Zembeck-England, Kristin; Aas, Per Gunnar; Fontana, Philip M.; Hite, Damian; Boone, William E. (2006). "Implementing a wide azimuth towed streamer field trial: The what, why and mostly how of WATS in Southern Green Canyon".

1574:– The land environment covers almost every type of terrain that exists on Earth, each bringing its own logistical problems. Examples of this environment are jungle, desert, arctic tundra, forest, urban settings, mountain regions and savannah. 2286:

all showed alarm and avoidance behaviour in the presence of an approaching seismic source. It is difficult to compare reports on the effects of seismic survey noise on marine life because methods and units are often inadequately documented.

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and the Earth's crust was pioneered in the 1970s by groups such as the Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling (COCORP), who inspired deep seismic exploration in other countries such as BIRPS in Great Britain and ECORS in France. The

2098:. Similarly to the mentality of a seismic processor, a seismic interpreter is generally encouraged to be optimistic in order encourage further work rather than the abandonment of the survey area. Seismic interpretation is completed by both 1791:

The seismic properties of salt poses an additional problem for marine seismic surveys, it attenuates seismic waves and its structure contains overhangs that are difficult to image. This led to another variation on the NATS survey type, the

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When a seismic P-wave encounters a boundary between two materials with different acoustic impedances, some of the energy in the wave will be reflected at the boundary, while some of the energy will be transmitted through the boundary. The

373:) at the surface. Knowing the travel times from the source to various receivers, and the velocity of the seismic waves, a geophysicist then attempts to reconstruct the pathways of the waves in order to build up an image of the subsurface. 3866: 2050:. Unlike marine seismic data, land seismic data has to be corrected for the elevation differences between the shot and receiver locations. This correction is in the form of a vertical time shift to a flat datum and is known as a 2321:

in 2018 with an estimated duration into 2024 across a range of deep-water areas, coastal areas, islands and shallow water locations. It may be very difficult to assess the long-term impact of these huge operations on marine life.

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The potential impact of any seismic survey on land needs to be assessed at the planning stage and managed effectively. Well regulated environments would generally require Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) or

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Some operations may also operate smaller 'fly' camps that are set up remotely where the distance is too far to travel back to the main camp on a daily basis and these will also need logistical support on a frequent basis.

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By observing changes in the strength of reflections, seismologists can infer changes in the seismic impedances. In turn, they use this information to infer changes in the properties of the rocks at the interface, such as

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Particularly important in urban environments (i.e. power lines), it is hardly removable. Some particular sensor as microelectromechanical systems (MEMs) are used to decrease these interference when in such environments.

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Seismic attribute analysis involves extracting or deriving a quantity from seismic data that can be analysed in order to enhance information that might be more subtle in a traditional seismic image, leading to a better

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Reflection seismology, more commonly referred to as "seismic reflection" or abbreviated to "seismic" within the hydrocarbon industry, is used by petroleum geologists and geophysicists to map and interpret potential

2181:(BIRPS) was started up as a result of oil hydrocarbon exploration in the North Sea. It became clear that there was a lack of understanding of the tectonic processes that had formed the geological structures and 1830:), but more recent developments have expanded the method to use four-component sensors i.e. a hydrophone and three orthogonal geophones. Four-component sensors have the advantage of being able to also record 217:

The Geological Engineering Company folded due to a drop in the price of oil. In 1925, oil prices had rebounded, and Karcher helped to form Geophysical Research Corporation (GRC) as part of the oil company

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waves to map in detail the geology of the upper few kilometers of the Earth's crust followed shortly thereafter and has developed mainly due to commercial enterprise, particularly the petroleum industry.

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Stewart, Jonathan; Shatilo, Andrew; Jing, Charlie; Rape, Tommie; Duren, Richard; Lewallen, Kyle; Szurek, Gary (2004). "A comparison of streamer and OBC seismic data at Beryl Alpha field, UK North Sea".

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The node type and specification will determine the node handling system design and the deployment and recovery modes. At present there are two mainstream approaches; node on a rope and ROV operations.

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hydrophone concept itself is not new and has been used for many years in scientific research, but its rapid use as a data acquisition methodology in oil and gas exploration is relatively recent.

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Malehmir, Alireza; Zhang, Fengjiao; Dehghannejad, Mahdieh; Lundberg, Emil; Döse, Christin; Friberg, Olof; Brodic, Bojan; Place, Joachim; Svensson, Mats; Möller, Henrik (1 November 2015).

1238:. If the seismic wave velocity in the rock is known, then the travel time may be used to estimate the depth to the reflector. For a simple vertically traveling wave, the travel time 1449:

Cultural noise includes noise from weather effects, planes, helicopters, electrical pylons, and ships (in the case of marine surveys), all of which can be detected by the receivers.

1505:– used by the hydrocarbon industry to provide a high resolution map of acoustic impedance contrasts at depths of up to 10 km within the subsurface. This can be combined with 2840:"Planning of urban underground infrastructure using a broadband seismic landstreamer — Tomography results and uncertainty quantifications from a case study in southwestern Sweden" 2217:, for transporting equipment and personnel, and vegetation may need to be cleared for the deployment of equipment. If the survey is in a relatively undeveloped area, significant 5101: 2329:

Protective measures are employed to address site-specific environmental conditions of each operation to ensure that sound exposure and vessel traffic do not harm marine mammals.

2246:

The main environmental concern for marine seismic surveys is the potential for noise associated with the high-energy seismic source to disturb or injure animal life, especially

1780:(or NAZ or NATS). By the early 2000s, it was accepted that this type of acquisition was useful for initial exploration but inadequate for development and production, in which 1295: 3203: 2054:, but will need further correcting later in the processing sequence because the velocity of the near-surface is not accurately known. This further correction is known as a 4122:

The following books cover important topics in reflection seismology. Most require some knowledge of mathematics, geology, and/or physics at the university level or above.

3309:

Howe, Dave; Foster, Mark; Allen, Tony; Taylor, Brian; Jack, Ian (2008). "Independent simultaneous sweeping -a method to increase the productivity of land seismic crews".

1368:

In addition to reflections off interfaces within the subsurface, there are a number of other seismic responses detected by receivers and are either unwanted or unneeded:

1475:

Reflection seismology is used extensively in a number of fields and its applications can be categorised into three groups, each defined by their depth of investigation:

322: 3765: 1877:

Nodes are usable in areas where streamer vessels may not be able to safely enter and so for the safe navigation of node vessels and prior to the deployment of nodes, a

1224: 1198: 1841:

In 2005, ocean bottom nodes (OBN) – an extension of the OBC method that uses battery-powered cableless receivers placed in deep water – was first trialled over the

629: 602: 3517: 1608:

Seismic data acquisition is the first of the three distinct stages of seismic exploration, the other two being seismic data processing and seismic interpretation.

1152: 1902:

number of sources simultaneously across a 24-hour time frame, for accurate data processing it is vital that all of the nodes are working to the same clock time.

1853:. The placement of these nodes can be more flexible than the cables in OBC and they are easier to store and deploy due to their smaller size and lower weight. 1339: 1319: 1256: 1172: 657: 480: 356:

When a seismic wave travelling through the Earth encounters an interface between two materials with different acoustic impedances, some of the wave energy will

4997: 979:{\displaystyle {\frac {R^{2}}{Z_{1}}}+{\frac {T^{2}}{Z_{2}}}={\frac {Z_{2}(Z_{2}-Z_{1})^{2}+4Z_{1}Z_{2}^{2}}{Z_{1}Z_{2}(Z_{1}+Z_{2})^{2}}}={\frac {1}{Z_{1}}}} 428:

are used, which convert pressure changes into electrical signals. Each receiver's response to a single shot is known as a “trace” and is recorded onto a

5842: 4306: 2790: 2178: 3484: 2364:

are dominant in a country and where the regulator is also a state-owned and operated entity and therefore it is not considered to be truly independent.

2007: 5222: 4520: 4270: 4093: 4080:"JNCC guidelines for minimising the risk of injury to marine mammals from geophysical surveys (Seismic survey guidelines) | JNCC Resource Hub" 1920: 1377: 226:(GSI). GSI was one of the most successful seismic contracting companies for over 50 years and was the parent of an even more successful company, 2727: 1773:

Marine seismic surveys generate a significant quantity of data due to the size of modern towed streamer vessels and their towing capabilities.

3923: 432:, then the shot location is moved along and the process is repeated. Typically, the recorded signals are subjected to significant amounts of 751:

As the sum of the energies of the reflected and transmitted wave has to be equal to the energy of the incident wave, it is easy to show that

246:

studies, and other applications have been formed since the method was first invented. Major service companies in recent years have included

4510: 4384: 4345: 1479:

Near-surface applications – an application that aims to understand geology at depths of up to approximately 1 km, typically used for

4992: 4987: 4972: 4967: 4515: 659:

to predict the amplitude of the wave transmitted through the boundary. The formula for the normal-incidence transmission coefficient is

4937: 4040: 3671: 3067: 3036: 2144:

interpretation of the data. Examples of attributes that can be analysed include mean amplitude, which can lead to the delineation of

1434:. Multiples can be either short-path (peg-leg) or long-path, depending upon whether they interfere with primary reflections or not. 2185:

which were being explored. The effort produced some significant results and showed that it is possible to profile features such as

4561: 4530: 4525: 3211: 2351:

As second factor is the regulatory environment where the seismic survey is taking place. In highly regulated locations such as the

1997: 4067: 1437:

Multiples from the bottom of a body of water and the air-water interface are common in marine seismic data, and are suppressed by

1364:

Sources of noise on a seismic record. Top-left: air wave; top-right: head wave; bottom-left: surface wave; bottom-right: multiple.

5304: 4318: 3376:

Barley, Brian; Summers, Tim (2007). "Multi-azimuth and wide-azimuth seismic: Shallow to deep water, exploration to production".

5178: 5002: 2109:

In hydrocarbon exploration, the features that the interpreter is particularly trying to delineate are the parts that make up a

209:

Early reflection seismology was viewed with skepticism by many in the oil industry. An early advocate of the method commented:

4586: 4287: 4254: 3849: 3775: 3713: 3243: 3186: 2584: 1963:

for supporting operations far from shore can also be problematic for regular resupply, bunkering and crew change activities.

3412: 5309: 4977: 4551: 4298: 3728: 1952: 1815: 665: 2295:

avoidance and panic might be responsible for increased whale beachings although research is ongoing into these questions.

499: 4556: 4323: 2306: 3528: 5690: 5369: 5085: 2760:

Zheng, Yingcai; Fang, Xinding; Liu, Jing; Fehler, Michael C. (2013). "Scholte waves generated by seafloor topography".

1059: 5837: 5141: 4894: 4231: 4197: 4178: 4157: 4136: 3749: 3655: 3630: 3355: 3293: 3268: 3128: 2956: 72: 5726: 5379: 4874: 4571: 4566: 4377: 2025:

operations can be cascaded, with each individual deconvolution designed to remove a particular type of distortion.

223: 5902: 5384: 4942: 4827: 4753: 2227: 2202: 1726: 4339: 4208: 4108:

Recommended monitoring and mitigation measures for cetaceans during marine seismic survey geophysical operations

4008: 1822:

is valued (see 4D, below). Conventional OBC surveys use dual-component receivers, combining a pressure sensor (

1019:

The situation becomes much more complicated in the case of non-normal incidence, due to mode conversion between

5852: 5623: 5289: 4842: 4760: 4687: 2549: 1015:

Diagram showing the mode conversions that occur when a P-wave reflects off an interface at non-normal incidence

159: 4353: 2801: 5060: 4957: 4947: 4869: 3495: 2298:

Even so, airguns are shut down only when cetaceans are seen at very close range, usually under 1 km

2205:

and both the hydrocarbon industry and environmental groups partake in research to investigate these effects.

2153: 263: 5832: 5827: 5364: 5349: 4798: 4147: 2161: 3152: 2347:

to allow time for any animal that may be close to the sound source to move away as the sound grows louder.

5879: 5847: 4370: 4131:(sixth ed.). Society of Exploration Geophysicists and American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 3332: 1616: 4168: 2630:

Sheriff, R. E., Geldart, L. P., (1995), 2nd Edition. Exploration Seismology. Cambridge University Press.

1874:

counteract buoyancy issues and to lessen the chance of movement on the seabed due to currents or tides.

1258:

from the surface to the reflector and back is called the Two-Way Time (TWT) and is given by the formula

5907: 5434: 5035: 5020: 4982: 4743: 4620: 4302: 1264: 54: 4079: 2738: 1234:

The time it takes for a reflection from a particular boundary to arrive at the geophone is called the

5806: 5339: 5080: 4884: 2271: 1850: 3956: 2332:

Surveys planned to avoid known sensitive areas and time periods, such as breeding and feeding areas.

1881:

seabed survey is normally conducted of the survey area using side-scan technology to map the seabed

457:

of the reflected wave is predicted by multiplying the amplitude of the incident wave by the seismic

2565:

Rosaire, E. E.; Adler, Joseph H. (January 1934). "Applications and limitations of the dip method".

1603: 1545: 1541: 636: 50: 20: 1865:

Large node surveys can create a significant requirement for secure and well serviced storage areas

194:, those involved in the development of commercial applications of seismic waves included Mintrop, 5857: 5731: 4788: 4780: 4731: 4682: 4602: 4487: 4482: 4297:

Further research in reflection seismology may be found particularly in books and journals of the

3413:"Marine seismic surveys with enhanced azimuth coverage: Lessons in survey design and acquisition" 2157: 1811: 1810:

necessity in order to enable seismic surveys to be conducted in areas with obstructions, such as

1565: 1502: 1348:. By correlating reflection events, a seismologist can create an estimated cross-section of the 1045: 203: 295: 5334: 5075: 4765: 4615: 4452: 4427: 2384: 2339: 1797: 1673:

inefficient because each source point needs to be drilled and the dynamite placed in the hole.

1624: 1612: 1510: 1203: 1177: 459: 255: 101: 1400:

of air are very low compared to those of rocks so the surface of the Earth is approximately a

5711: 5153: 5136: 5070: 4832: 4699: 4625: 4467: 4419: 3008: 1484: 3819: 3682: 1344:

A series of apparently related reflections on several seismograms is often referred to as a

5608: 5278: 5040: 4922: 4748: 4721: 4704: 4630: 4462: 3881: 3427: 3385: 3108: 2981: 2913: 2851: 2688: 2466: 2431: 1886:

other locations where nodes may not be stable or not make a good connection to the seabed.

1032: 607: 580: 357: 113: 3078: 3044: 2717:(2005). Quantitative seismic interpretation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 183 1128: 384:

and the physical laws that apply to the experiment, the experimenter wishes to develop an

8: 5756: 5701: 5628: 5517: 5329: 5247: 4927: 4793: 4329: 2110: 2095: 1915: 1894: 1558: 1480: 1049: 1028: 429: 376:

In common with other geophysical methods, reflection seismology may be seen as a type of

235: 199: 42: 3983:"Sonic Impact: a Precautionary Assessment of Noise Pollution From Ocean Seismic Surveys" 3885: 3797: 3431: 3389: 3112: 2985: 2972:

Gochioco, Lawrence M. (1990). "Seismic surveys for coal exploration and mine planning".

2917: 2855: 2692: 2470: 2003: 5603: 5025: 4635: 4535: 4393: 4264: 4006:

Scientific Surveys and Marine Mammals – Joint OGP/IAGC Position Paper, December 2008 –

3134: 2929: 2823:

Pendrel, J. (2006). "Seismic Inversion—A Critical Tool in Reservoir Characterization".

2761: 2410: 2073: 1842: 1533: 1438: 1419: 1324: 1304: 1241: 1157: 642: 483: 465: 282: 195: 176: 168: 132: 5050: 4243: 3179:

Seismic data analysis : processing, inversion, and interpretation of seismic data

2021:

further information is available such as well logs, or further assumptions are made.

1499:

surveys, although the depth of investigation can be up to 2 km deep in this case.

1430:

An event on the seismic record that has incurred more than one reflection is called a

5751: 4879: 4854: 4657: 4642: 4283: 4250: 4227: 4193: 4174: 4153: 4132: 4034: 3845: 3745: 3709: 3651: 3626: 3351: 3289: 3264: 3239: 3182: 3138: 3124: 2952: 2933: 2925: 2867: 2839: 2661: 2545: 2405: 2218: 2182: 2130: 2011: 1993: 1697: 1506: 1496: 1360: 1000: 433: 227: 140: 2904:

Cartwright, J.; Huuse, M. (2005). "3D seismic technology: the geological 'Hubble'".

1396:

typically propagates along a free surface of a solid, but the elastic constants and

1048:) has been facilitated by theoretical work to derive workable approximations to the 444: 5578: 5299: 4902: 4820: 4738: 4576: 4457: 3946: 3938: 3889: 3603: 3579: 3556: 3466: 3435: 3393: 3314: 3116: 2989: 2921: 2859: 2696: 2653: 2474: 2378: 2270:

airgun as they were believed to have confused the low-frequency sound with that of

2087: 1924: 1669: 1529: 1518: 385: 219: 1495:

exploration. A more recently developed application for seismic reflection is for

1376:

The airwave travels directly from the source to the receiver and is an example of

285:

of the medium in which they are travelling. The acoustic (or seismic) impedance,

5811: 5801: 5543: 5294: 5183: 5109: 4912: 4907: 4837: 4805: 4716: 4432: 4357: 2394: 2266: 2118: 1939:

on the shore to provide a consistent seismic line transition from water to land.

377: 281:

are mechanical perturbations that travel in the Earth at a speed governed by the

251: 231: 2780:

Dobrin, M. B., 1951, Dispersion in seismic surface waves, Geophysics, 16, 63–80.

1834:, which do not travel through water but can still contain valuable information. 1380:. It is easily recognizable because it travels at a speed of 330 m/s, the 1031:. In 1919, Karl Zoeppritz derived 4 equations that determine the amplitudes of 5648: 5568: 5558: 5548: 5489: 5464: 5173: 5114: 5045: 4932: 4917: 4726: 4664: 4409: 2451: 2356: 2078: 2042: 1730: 1641: 1381: 996: 490: 341: 333: 238:. Many other companies using reflection seismology in hydrocarbon exploration, 146: 120: 4351:

Information about using Seismic Survey in oil and gas exploration in Australia

3951: 1544:

instead of elastic waves, and has a smaller depth of penetration, is known as

5896: 5716: 5673: 5638: 5267: 5148: 5121: 5055: 4447: 4054: 3120: 2871: 2714: 2665: 2641: 2373: 2103: 1989: 1819: 1762: 1620: 1393: 1011: 493:

incidence (head-on), the expression for the reflection coefficient is simply

421: 417: 398: 247: 3371: 3369: 3367: 2612: 1387: 1200:= angle of incidence. This equation reduces to that of normal incidence at 1174:= AVO gradient, describing reflection behaviour at intermediate offsets and 5776: 5706: 5598: 5588: 5583: 5573: 5563: 5449: 5429: 5374: 5158: 5126: 5065: 4962: 4864: 4770: 4647: 4581: 3770: 3676: 3574:

Beaudoin, Gerard (2010). "Imaging the invisible — BP's path to OBS nodes".

3522: 3489: 2863: 2795: 2732: 2426: 2421: 2415: 2190: 2186: 1831: 1776:

A seismic vessel with 2 sources and towing a single streamer is known as a

1405: 1401: 345: 278: 116: 3007:

Milkereit, B.; Eaton, D.; Salisbury, M.; Adam, E.; Bohlen, Thomas (2003).

2478: 19:

This article is about surface seismic surveys. For a related process, see

5746: 5668: 5618: 5439: 5409: 5354: 5344: 5030: 4709: 4692: 4610: 4472: 4442: 4437: 3364: 2275: 2145: 2114: 2106:, with most seismic interpreters having an understanding of both fields. 1804: 1628: 267: 243: 184: 4240: 1914:

by a specialist node vessel using an node handling system, usually with

1752: 5796: 5663: 5653: 5419: 5257: 5163: 4055:"Who we are | JNCC - Adviser to Government on Nature Conservation" 2885:

Galbraith, M. (2001). "3D Seismic Surveys – Past, Present and Future".

2542:

Exploration seismology, Volume 1, History, theory, and data acquisition

2325:

In 2017, IOGP recommended that, to avoid disturbance whilst surveying:

2291: 2141: 2099: 2091: 1882: 1878: 1856: 1823: 1781: 1514: 1036: 425: 381: 370: 361: 105: 3893: 3607: 3583: 3560: 3470: 3439: 3397: 3318: 2993: 2700: 2381:, the conversion of acoustic waves two-way travel time to actual depth 1721: 1006: 5791: 5522: 5469: 5414: 5404: 5314: 5262: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5168: 4849: 4477: 4404: 4362: 4214: 4015: 2352: 2314: 2173: 1960: 1784:

had to be accurately positioned. This led to the development of the

1664: 1528:

Crustal studies – investigation into the structure and origin of the

454: 409: 405: 239: 234:

left that company in 1933 to found another major seismic contractor,

180: 4094:"ADNOC Awards $ 519m Contract for World's Largest 3D Seismic Survey" 3942: 2679:

Shuey, R. T. (1985). "A simplification of the Zoeppritz equations".

2657: 2160:. Attributes that can show the presence of hydrocarbons are called 1861: 1736: 1689: 1646: 1525:

has become a valid method for exploration in hard-rock environments.

5786: 5766: 5761: 5741: 5736: 5512: 5502: 5424: 5359: 5131: 4859: 4815: 4810: 4674: 4350: 4335:

Website of the International Association of Geophysical Contractors

3459: 2255: 2247: 2201:

As with all human activities, seismic reflection surveys have some

2149: 1936: 1827: 634:

Similarly, the amplitude of the incident wave is multiplied by the

413: 402: 366: 259: 124: 3982: 2766: 1744: 1583: 439: 5454: 5444: 5324: 5319: 5234: 2837: 2259: 2213:

On land, conducting a seismic survey may require the building of

2137: 1838:

and the ability for large-scale OBC surveys is severely limited.

1492: 1397: 1349: 1024: 1020: 992: 350: 4330:

Reflection Seismology Literature at Stanford Exploration Project

3016:

Commission on Controlled-Source Seismology: Deep Seismic Methods

2418:, open source software for processing of seismic reflection data 2343:

on the biodiversity of the survey area to the local governments.

1927:

or Differential Global Positioning System navigation equipment.

1654: 631:

are the impedance of the first and second medium, respectively.

85: 5771: 5658: 5643: 5633: 5593: 5507: 3924:"Marine seismic surveys: A study of environmental implications" 179:

exploration method, which was used to find oil associated with

4340:

IAGC/IOGP position paper on seismic surveys and marine mammals

3263:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 209–210. 2642:"The One-Dimensional Inverse Problem of Reflection Seismology" 5553: 5527: 5497: 5459: 5399: 5394: 5389: 2399: 2360: 2318: 2283: 2251: 1684: 136: 128: 109: 4187: 3602:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. pp. 4155–4159. 3578:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. pp. 3734–3739. 2567:

Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists

1154:= reflection coefficient at zero-offset (normal incidence); 5781: 5721: 5474: 4952: 3817: 3596: 3006: 2897: 2452:"Early Observations of Rotor Clouds by Andrija Mohorovičić" 2389: 2279: 2214: 2002:

There are three main processes in seismic data processing:

1705: 1488: 135:

or a seismic vibrator. Reflection seismology is similar to

5613: 5479: 5252: 3744:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 349. 3650:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 292. 3350:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 260. 3288:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 200. 3204:"Land 3-D Seismic Survey Designed To Meet New Objectives" 2514:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–6. 2490: 2488: 1388:

Ground roll / Rayleigh wave / Scholte wave / Surface wave

191: 167:

Reflections and refractions of seismic waves at geologic

2585:"Polarcus: Appointment of Joint Provisional Liquidators" 1412: 5242: 4324:

Proving That The Seismic Reflection Method Really Works

1846: 1713: 1658:

Receiver line on a desert land crew with recorder truck

397:

The general principle of seismic reflection is to send

4334: 3549: 3181:(2nd ed.). Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 3065: 2598: 2485: 1805:

Marine survey acquisition (Ocean Bottom Seismic (OBS))

4149:

3d Seismic Imaging: Three Dimensional Seismic Imaging

4068:

Cetacean observations during seismic surveys in 1996.

3308: 3103:

Dentith, Michael; Mudge, Stephen T. (24 April 2014).

3068:"Advanced seismic imaging for geothermal development" 2640:

Bube, Kenneth P.; Burridge, Robert (1 October 1983).

2544:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 67. 1540:

A method similar to reflection seismology which uses

1327: 1307: 1267: 1244: 1206: 1180: 1160: 1131: 1062: 760: 740:{\displaystyle T=1+R={\frac {2Z_{2}}{(Z_{2}+Z_{1})}}} 668: 645: 610: 583: 502: 468: 298: 5843:

International Association of Oil & Gas Producers

1857:

Marine survey acquisition (Ocean Bottom Nodes (OBN))

1826:) and a vertical particle velocity sensor (vertical 1587:

Diagram of equipment used for marine seismic surveys

566:{\displaystyle R={\frac {Z_{2}-Z_{1}}{Z_{2}+Z_{1}}}} 448:

P-wave reflects off an interface at normal incidence

4307:

European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers

3625:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. p. 4. 3105:

Geophysics for the Mineral Exploration Geoscientist

2951:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. p. 1. 2893:(6). Canadian Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 2402:, a popular file format for seismic reflection data 2179:

British Institutions Reflection Profiling Syndicate

1007:

Reflection and transmission at non-normal incidence

4242: 4213:. Golden, Colorado: Samizdat Press. Archived from 3037:"The Role of Geophysics In Geothermal Exploration" 2759: 1893:Nodes are powered by either rechargeable internal 1333: 1313: 1289: 1250: 1218: 1192: 1166: 1146: 1114: 978: 739: 651: 623: 596: 565: 474: 316: 4241:Milsom, J., University College of London (2005). 3798:"Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling" 3739: 3645: 3345: 3283: 3258: 3066:Louie, John N.; Pullammanappallil, S. K. (2011). 1921:Ultra-short baseline acoustic positioning systems 1115:{\displaystyle R(\theta )=R(0)+G\sin ^{2}\theta } 222:. In 1930, Karcher left GRC and helped to found 5894: 4129:Interpretation of three-dimensional seismic data 3075:New Zealand Geothermal Workshop 2011 Proceedings 2626: 2624: 2622: 1229: 187:domes, and the refraction seismic method faded. 3703: 3233: 2903: 2459:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 2172:The use of reflection seismology in studies of 440:Reflection and transmission at normal incidence 175:Seismic reflection exploration grew out of the 4346:Tutorial on seismic reflection data processing 4277: 3921: 2539: 2509: 1966: 4378: 3600:SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts 2010 3576:SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts 2010 3553:SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts 2004 3463:SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts 2006 3375: 3311:SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts 2008 2619: 2449: 2124: 1796:(or WAZ or WATS) and was first tested on the 380:. That is, given a set of data collected by 16:Explore subsurface properties with seismology 4269:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4188:Ikelle, Luc T. & Lasse Amundsen (2005). 3102: 3009:"3D Seismic Imaging for Mineral Exploration" 2639: 2564: 1701:Marine seismic survey using a towed streamer 392: 53:. There might be a discussion about this on 4170:Fundamentals of geophysical data processing 3740:E. Sheriff, Robert; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 3646:E. Sheriff, Robert; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 3346:E. Sheriff, Robert; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 3284:E. Sheriff, Robert; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 3259:E. Sheriff, Robert; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 1597: 1536:and beyond, at depths of up to 100 km. 4385: 4371: 4221: 3867:"Impact of seismic surveys on marine life" 3839: 3620: 3201: 2946: 2499:. Cambridge University Press. p. 220. 1983: 1685:Marine survey acquisition (Towed Streamer) 1635: 1611:Seismic surveys are typically designed by 1568:are land, the transition zone and marine: 1551: 1352:structure that generated the reflections. 4166: 3950: 3840:Richardson, W. John; et al. (1995). 2884: 2878: 2765: 2203:impact on the Earth's natural environment 2067: 73:Learn how and when to remove this message 4280:Fundamentals of Seismic Wave Propagation 4226:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 4192:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 4152:. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 3980: 3864: 3573: 2971: 2189:that penetrate through the crust to the 2077: 1998:Multidimensional seismic data processing 1860: 1751: 1743: 1735: 1720: 1712: 1704: 1696: 1693:R/V Western Legend seismic survey vessel 1688: 1653: 1645: 1582: 1452: 1359: 1010: 443: 273: 158: 145: 84: 5305:China National Offshore Oil Corporation 2822: 2599:"CGG: Delivering Geoscience Leadership" 2540:Sheriff, R. E.; Geldart, L. P. (1982). 2510:Sheriff, R. E.; Geldart, L. P. (1995). 2494: 2196: 1923:which are interfaced with vessel based 5895: 5179:Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir 4938:2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war 4392: 4206: 4145: 4039:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3410: 3176: 3170: 2707: 2450:Grubišić, Vanda; Orlić, Mirko (2007). 1425: 4366: 4126: 2678: 1816:remotely operated underwater vehicles 1756:Litton LP gun strings (energy source) 1564:The primary environments for seismic 1413:Refraction / Head wave / Conical wave 5310:China National Petroleum Corporation 4299:Society of Exploration Geophysicists 4190:Introduction to Petroleum Seismology 3922:McCauley, R.D.; et al. (2000). 3708:. Blackwell Publishing. p. 24. 3238:. Blackwell Publishing. p. 22. 2535: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2495:Telford, W. M.; et al. (1976). 2305:The UK government organisation, the 1953:remotely operated underwater vehicle 486:contrast between the two materials. 25: 3766:"Petrel Seismic Attribute Analysis" 2307:Joint Nature Conservation Committee 2117:, the reservoir rock, the seal and 1619:who hire service companies such as 1355: 489:For a wave that hits a boundary at 119:. The method requires a controlled 13: 5370:National Iranian South Oil Company 5086:Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin 4117: 3333:"PGS fleet | Seismic vessels" 2167: 1341:is the wave velocity in the rock. 1321:is the depth of the reflector and 108:to estimate the properties of the 14: 5919: 5838:Intercontinental Exchange Futures 5727:Chicago Bridge & Iron Company 5380:Oil & Gas Development Company 4312: 3818:Crustal Architecture and Images. 2518: 2265:A study has shown that migrating 1709:Plan view of NATS and MAZ surveys 1444: 1290:{\displaystyle t=2{\frac {d}{V}}} 5875: 5874: 3729:Basics of Seismic Interpretation 3704:Gluyas, J; Swarbrick, R (2004). 3234:Gluyas, J; Swarbrick, R (2004). 2926:10.1111/j.1365-2117.2005.00252.x 1663:particularly common choices are 401:(using an energy source such as 360:off the interface and some will 224:Geophysical Service Incorporated 30: 5385:Oil and Natural Gas Corporation 4100: 4086: 4072: 4061: 4047: 4000: 3974: 3915: 3858: 3833: 3811: 3790: 3758: 3733: 3722: 3697: 3664: 3639: 3614: 3590: 3567: 3543: 3510: 3477: 3453: 3404: 3339: 3325: 3302: 3277: 3252: 3227: 3195: 3145: 3096: 3059: 3029: 3000: 2965: 2940: 2831: 2816: 2783: 2774: 2753: 2720: 2672: 2633: 2228:Environmental Impact Assessment 1470: 1461: 5853:Society of Petroleum Engineers 5624:Port Harcourt Refining Company 5290:Abu Dhabi National Oil Company 4326:– Geophysical Society of Tulsa 4282:. Cambridge University Press. 3981:Cummings, Jim (January 2004). 3107:. Cambridge University Press. 2605: 2591: 2577: 2558: 2503: 2443: 1725:Seismic data collected by the 1717:Plan view of a WATS/WAZ survey 1213: 1207: 1187: 1181: 1141: 1135: 1087: 1081: 1072: 1066: 944: 917: 855: 828: 731: 705: 289:, is defined by the equation: 1: 4799:Production sharing agreements 3844:. Academic Press. p. 1. 3518:"Four-Component Seismic Data" 3210:. Hart Energy. Archived from 2825:Scandinavian Oil-Gas Magazine 2437: 2193:with marine seismic surveys. 2162:direct hydrocarbon indicators 1778:Narrow-Azimuth Towed Streamer 1230:Interpretation of reflections 424:electrical signal. In water, 5833:Canadian petroleum companies 5828:American Petroleum Institute 5365:National Iranian Oil Company 5350:Kuwait Petroleum Corporation 4319:Biography of Henry Salvatori 2056:residual statics correction. 1786:Multi-Azimuth Towed Streamer 104:that uses the principles of 7: 5848:International Energy Agency 4833:Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 4127:Brown, Alistair R. (2004). 3865:Gausland, Ingebret (2000). 2367: 1980:previously placed in 2005. 1967:Time lapse acquisition (4D) 1794:wide-azimuth towed streamer 1748:Litton 3 km marine streamer 1617:International oil companies 1371: 150:Seismic Reflection Outlines 10: 5924: 5435:PTT Public Company Limited 5036:East Midlands Oil Province 5021:List of natural gas fields 4621:Integrated asset modelling 4303:American Geophysical Union 4167:Claerbout, Jon F. (1976). 2274:. In addition to whales, 2128: 2125:Seismic attribute analysis 2071: 1987: 1951:This method utilises ROV ( 1818:(ROVs) in deep water when 1639: 1601: 1027:, and is described by the 317:{\displaystyle Z=v\rho \ } 154: 18: 5870: 5820: 5807:Weatherford International 5686: 5536: 5488: 5340:Iraq National Oil Company 5276: 5233: 5218: 5209: 5094: 5011: 4893: 4779: 4673: 4601: 4544: 4503: 4496: 4418: 4400: 4210:Theory of seismic imaging 2713:Avseth, P, T Mukerji and 2272:whale breaching behaviour 2241: 2043:Normal moveout correction 1976:that repeatability goal. 1851:Fairfield Geotechnologies 1845:in a partnership between 1763:Ramform series of vessels 1219:{\displaystyle (\theta )} 1193:{\displaystyle (\theta )} 393:The reflection experiment 3842:Marine Mammals and Noise 3121:10.1017/cbo9781139024358 1650:Desert land seismic camp 1604:Seismic data acquisition 1598:Seismic data acquisition 1546:Ground-penetrating radar 1521:of the area of interest. 637:transmission coefficient 21:Vertical seismic profile 5858:World Petroleum Council 5732:China Oilfield Services 4789:Petroleum fiscal regime 4488:Western Canadian Select 4483:West Texas Intermediate 4278:Chapman, C.H.. (2004). 2208: 2158:amplitude versus offset 1984:Seismic data processing 1636:Land survey acquisition 1566:hydrocarbon exploration 1552:Hydrocarbon exploration 1513:tools and used to help 1503:Hydrocarbon exploration 1046:amplitude versus offset 204:Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 163:Seismic testing in 1940 89:Seismic reflection data 5903:Seismology measurement 5335:Indian Oil Corporation 4821:Submersible pump (ESP) 4766:Underbalanced drilling 4587:of gasoline and diesel 4249:. Wiley Publications. 3742:Exploration Seismology 3648:Exploration Seismology 3465:. pp. 2901–2904. 3348:Exploration Seismology 3313:. pp. 2826–2830. 3286:Exploration Seismology 3261:Exploration Seismology 2864:10.1190/geo2015-0052.1 2791:"Multiples Reflection" 2512:Exploration Seismology 2385:Exploration geophysics 2082: 2068:Seismic interpretation 2034:Common Midpoint Gather 1866: 1757: 1749: 1741: 1740:Seismic support vessel 1733: 1718: 1710: 1702: 1694: 1659: 1651: 1625:Petroleum Geo-Services 1613:National oil companies 1588: 1511:exploration geophysics 1365: 1335: 1315: 1291: 1252: 1220: 1194: 1168: 1148: 1116: 1016: 980: 741: 653: 625: 598: 567: 476: 460:reflection coefficient 449: 318: 256:Petroleum Geo-Services 230:. Early GSI employee 164: 151: 102:exploration geophysics 90: 5712:Cameron International 5154:Petrodollar recycling 5137:fossil fuel phase-out 4700:Differential sticking 4653:Reflection seismology 4626:Petroleum engineering 4468:OPEC Reference Basket 4224:Seismic data analysis 4207:Scales, John (1997). 3623:Seismic data analysis 3411:Howard, Mike (2007). 2949:Seismic data analysis 2479:10.1175/BAMS-88-5-693 2317:national oil company 2081: 1864: 1755: 1747: 1739: 1724: 1716: 1708: 1700: 1692: 1657: 1649: 1586: 1453:Electromagnetic noise 1363: 1336: 1316: 1292: 1253: 1221: 1195: 1169: 1149: 1117: 1014: 981: 742: 654: 626: 624:{\displaystyle Z_{2}} 599: 597:{\displaystyle Z_{1}} 568: 477: 447: 319: 274:Summary of the method 200:John Clarence Karcher 162: 149: 131:blast, a specialized 94:Reflection seismology 88: 5609:Occidental Petroleum 4923:1990 oil price shock 4749:Shale oil extraction 4722:Drilling engineering 4705:Directional drilling 4631:Reservoir simulation 4356:13 June 2013 at the 3706:Petroleum Geoscience 3555:. pp. 841–844. 3485:"Ocean Bottom Cable" 3236:Petroleum Geoscience 2432:Synthetic seismogram 2197:Environmental impact 2096:magnetic survey data 1812:production platforms 1578:Transition Zone (TZ) 1559:petroleum reservoirs 1487:surveys, as well as 1325: 1305: 1265: 1242: 1204: 1178: 1158: 1147:{\displaystyle R(0)} 1129: 1060: 758: 666: 643: 608: 581: 500: 482:, determined by the 466: 296: 43:confusing or unclear 5757:Naftiran Intertrade 5702:Amec Foster Wheeler 5629:Reliance Industries 5518:Naftiran Intertrade 5330:Hindustan Petroleum 4928:2000s energy crisis 4222:Yilmaz, Öz (2001). 4146:Biondi, B. (2006). 4096:. 26 November 2020. 3886:2000LeaEd..19..903G 3621:Yilmaz, Öz (2001). 3432:2007LeaEd..26..480H 3390:2007LeaEd..26..450B 3335:. 19 November 2015. 3214:on 19 February 2013 3202:Jon Cocker (2011). 3177:Yilmaz, Öz (2001). 3113:2014gmeg.book.....D 2986:1990LeaEd...9...25G 2947:Yilmaz, Öz (2001). 2918:2005BasR...17....1C 2856:2015Geop...80B.177M 2693:1985Geop...50..609S 2471:2007BAMS...88..693G 2111:petroleum reservoir 2010:(CMP) stacking and 1916:dynamic positioning 1895:Lithium-ion battery 1509:analysis and other 1426:Multiple reflection 1050:Zoeppritz equations 1029:Zoeppritz equations 894: 430:data storage device 236:Western Geophysical 123:of energy, such as 112:'s subsurface from 51:clarify the article 5604:Marathon Petroleum 5026:List of oil fields 4636:Reservoir modeling 4394:Petroleum industry 4217:on 18 August 2015. 3952:20.500.11937/80308 3047:on 5 February 2013 3041:Quantec Geoscience 2497:Applied Geophysics 2411:Seismic refraction 2183:sedimentary basins 2083: 2074:Geologic modelling 2052:statics correction 2048:statics correction 1867: 1843:Atlantis Oil Field 1758: 1750: 1742: 1734: 1719: 1711: 1703: 1695: 1660: 1652: 1589: 1534:Moho discontinuity 1439:seismic processing 1420:seismic refraction 1366: 1331: 1311: 1287: 1248: 1216: 1190: 1164: 1144: 1112: 1017: 976: 880: 737: 649: 621: 594: 563: 472: 450: 314: 283:acoustic impedance 196:Reginald Fessenden 177:seismic refraction 165: 152: 98:seismic reflection 91: 5908:Petroleum geology 5888: 5887: 5866: 5865: 5752:Nabors Industries 5682: 5681: 4880:Well intervention 4855:Petroleum product 4754:Ljungström method 4658:Seismic inversion 4643:Petroleum geology 4597: 4596: 4289:978-0-521-81538-3 4256:978-0-470-84347-5 3987:Greenpeace. 45 Pp 3931:The APPEA Journal 3894:10.1190/1.1438746 3851:978-0-12-588441-9 3715:978-0-632-03767-4 3672:"Common-midpoint" 3608:10.1190/1.3513730 3584:10.1190/1.3513626 3561:10.1190/1.1845303 3525:Oilfield Glossary 3471:10.1190/1.2370129 3440:10.1190/1.2723212 3398:10.1190/1.2723209 3319:10.1190/1.3063932 3245:978-0-632-03767-4 3188:978-1-56080-094-1 3153:"Transition Zone" 2994:10.1190/1.1439738 2735:Oilfield Glossary 2701:10.1190/1.1441936 2406:Seismic migration 2340:Trained observers 2131:Seismic attribute 2061:Seismic migration 1994:Seismic migration 1532:, through to the 1507:seismic attribute 1497:geothermal energy 1334:{\displaystyle V} 1314:{\displaystyle d} 1285: 1251:{\displaystyle t} 1167:{\displaystyle G} 1001:seismic inversion 974: 954: 810: 783: 735: 652:{\displaystyle T} 561: 475:{\displaystyle R} 434:signal processing 416:, which converts 313: 228:Texas Instruments 100:) is a method of 83: 82: 75: 5915: 5878: 5877: 5579:Hess Corporation 5300:Bharat Petroleum 5231: 5230: 5216: 5215: 4903:1967 Oil Embargo 4739:Lost circulation 4577:Posted oil price 4501: 4500: 4458:Isthmus-34 Light 4387: 4380: 4373: 4364: 4363: 4293: 4274: 4268: 4260: 4248: 4245:Field Geophysics 4237: 4218: 4203: 4184: 4163: 4142: 4112: 4111: 4104: 4098: 4097: 4090: 4084: 4083: 4076: 4070: 4065: 4059: 4058: 4051: 4045: 4044: 4038: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4020: 4014:. Archived from 4013: 4004: 3998: 3997: 3995: 3993: 3978: 3972: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3961: 3955:. Archived from 3954: 3928: 3919: 3913: 3912: 3910: 3908: 3902: 3896:. Archived from 3874:The Leading Edge 3871: 3862: 3856: 3855: 3837: 3831: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3815: 3809: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3794: 3788: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3774:. Archived from 3762: 3756: 3755: 3737: 3731: 3726: 3720: 3719: 3701: 3695: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3681:. Archived from 3679:Oifield Glossary 3668: 3662: 3661: 3643: 3637: 3636: 3618: 3612: 3611: 3594: 3588: 3587: 3571: 3565: 3564: 3547: 3541: 3540: 3538: 3536: 3527:. Archived from 3514: 3508: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3494:. Archived from 3492:Oifield Glossary 3481: 3475: 3474: 3457: 3451: 3450: 3448: 3446: 3420:The Leading Edge 3417: 3408: 3402: 3401: 3378:The Leading Edge 3373: 3362: 3361: 3343: 3337: 3336: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3281: 3275: 3274: 3256: 3250: 3249: 3231: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3174: 3168: 3167: 3165: 3163: 3149: 3143: 3142: 3100: 3094: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3083: 3077:. Archived from 3072: 3063: 3057: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3043:. Archived from 3033: 3027: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3013: 3004: 2998: 2997: 2974:The Leading Edge 2969: 2963: 2962: 2944: 2938: 2937: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2882: 2876: 2875: 2850:(6): B177–B192. 2835: 2829: 2828: 2820: 2814: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2800:. Archived from 2798:Oifield Glossary 2787: 2781: 2778: 2772: 2771: 2769: 2757: 2751: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2737:. Archived from 2724: 2718: 2711: 2705: 2704: 2676: 2670: 2669: 2637: 2631: 2628: 2617: 2616: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2581: 2575: 2574: 2562: 2556: 2555: 2537: 2516: 2515: 2507: 2501: 2500: 2492: 2483: 2482: 2456: 2447: 2379:Depth conversion 2238:prevent damage. 2088:borehole logging 1925:differential GPS 1670:impulse function 1519:geological model 1356:Sources of noise 1346:reflection event 1340: 1338: 1337: 1332: 1320: 1318: 1317: 1312: 1296: 1294: 1293: 1288: 1286: 1278: 1257: 1255: 1254: 1249: 1225: 1223: 1222: 1217: 1199: 1197: 1196: 1191: 1173: 1171: 1170: 1165: 1153: 1151: 1150: 1145: 1121: 1119: 1118: 1113: 1105: 1104: 985: 983: 982: 977: 975: 973: 972: 960: 955: 953: 952: 951: 942: 941: 929: 928: 916: 915: 906: 905: 895: 893: 888: 879: 878: 863: 862: 853: 852: 840: 839: 827: 826: 816: 811: 809: 808: 799: 798: 789: 784: 782: 781: 772: 771: 762: 746: 744: 743: 738: 736: 734: 730: 729: 717: 716: 703: 702: 701: 688: 658: 656: 655: 650: 630: 628: 627: 622: 620: 619: 603: 601: 600: 595: 593: 592: 572: 570: 569: 564: 562: 560: 559: 558: 546: 545: 535: 534: 533: 521: 520: 510: 481: 479: 478: 473: 323: 321: 320: 315: 311: 78: 71: 67: 64: 58: 34: 33: 26: 5923: 5922: 5918: 5917: 5916: 5914: 5913: 5912: 5893: 5892: 5889: 5884: 5862: 5816: 5812:John Wood Group 5802:Valaris Limited 5695: 5692: 5689: 5678: 5544:APA Corporation 5532: 5484: 5283: 5280: 5272: 5227: 5224: 5221: 5211: 5205: 5106:Classification 5090: 5013: 5007: 4943:Nationalization 4913:1979 oil crisis 4908:1973 oil crisis 4889: 4875:Water injection 4843:Steam injection 4838:Gas reinjection 4806:Artificial lift 4775: 4717:Drill stem test 4669: 4593: 4540: 4492: 4414: 4396: 4391: 4358:Wayback Machine 4315: 4290: 4262: 4261: 4257: 4234: 4200: 4181: 4173:. McGraw-Hill. 4160: 4139: 4120: 4118:Further reading 4115: 4106: 4105: 4101: 4092: 4091: 4087: 4078: 4077: 4073: 4066: 4062: 4053: 4052: 4048: 4032: 4031: 4024: 4022: 4021:on 16 July 2011 4018: 4011: 4009:"Archived copy" 4007: 4005: 4001: 3991: 3989: 3979: 3975: 3965: 3963: 3959: 3943:10.1071/AJ99048 3926: 3920: 3916: 3906: 3904: 3900: 3869: 3863: 3859: 3852: 3838: 3834: 3824: 3822: 3816: 3812: 3802: 3800: 3796: 3795: 3791: 3781: 3779: 3778:on 29 July 2013 3764: 3763: 3759: 3752: 3738: 3734: 3727: 3723: 3716: 3702: 3698: 3688: 3686: 3670: 3669: 3665: 3658: 3644: 3640: 3633: 3619: 3615: 3595: 3591: 3572: 3568: 3548: 3544: 3534: 3532: 3531:on 16 July 2012 3516: 3515: 3511: 3501: 3499: 3498:on 28 July 2012 3483: 3482: 3478: 3458: 3454: 3444: 3442: 3415: 3409: 3405: 3374: 3365: 3358: 3344: 3340: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3307: 3303: 3296: 3282: 3278: 3271: 3257: 3253: 3246: 3232: 3228: 3217: 3215: 3200: 3196: 3189: 3175: 3171: 3161: 3159: 3151: 3150: 3146: 3131: 3101: 3097: 3087: 3085: 3084:on 12 July 2012 3081: 3070: 3064: 3060: 3050: 3048: 3035: 3034: 3030: 3020: 3018: 3011: 3005: 3001: 2970: 2966: 2959: 2945: 2941: 2902: 2898: 2883: 2879: 2836: 2832: 2821: 2817: 2807: 2805: 2789: 2788: 2784: 2779: 2775: 2758: 2754: 2744: 2742: 2726: 2725: 2721: 2712: 2708: 2677: 2673: 2658:10.1137/1025122 2638: 2634: 2629: 2620: 2611: 2610: 2606: 2597: 2596: 2592: 2583: 2582: 2578: 2563: 2559: 2552: 2538: 2519: 2508: 2504: 2493: 2486: 2454: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2395:Passive seismic 2370: 2267:humpback whales 2244: 2211: 2199: 2170: 2168:Crustal studies 2133: 2127: 2076: 2070: 2008:common-midpoint 2000: 1986: 1969: 1859: 1807: 1687: 1644: 1638: 1606: 1600: 1554: 1542:electromagnetic 1473: 1464: 1455: 1447: 1428: 1415: 1390: 1374: 1358: 1326: 1323: 1322: 1306: 1303: 1302: 1277: 1266: 1263: 1262: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1232: 1205: 1202: 1201: 1179: 1176: 1175: 1159: 1156: 1155: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1100: 1096: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1009: 968: 964: 959: 947: 943: 937: 933: 924: 920: 911: 907: 901: 897: 896: 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5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5569:Eneos Holdings 5566: 5561: 5559:ConocoPhillips 5556: 5551: 5549:Cenovus Energy 5546: 5540: 5538: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5494: 5492: 5490:Energy trading 5486: 5485: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5286: 5284: 5277: 5274: 5273: 5271: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5239: 5237: 5228: 5219: 5213: 5207: 5206: 5204: 5203: 5202: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5176: 5174:Swing producer 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5145: 5144: 5139: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5118: 5117: 5112: 5104: 5098: 5096: 5092: 5091: 5089: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5046:Gulf of Mexico 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5017: 5015: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4933:2010s oil glut 4930: 4925: 4920: 4918:1980s oil glut 4915: 4910: 4905: 4899: 4897: 4891: 4890: 4888: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4846: 4845: 4840: 4830: 4825: 4824: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4803: 4802: 4801: 4796: 4785: 4783: 4777: 4776: 4774: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4757: 4756: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4735: 4734: 4727:Drilling fluid 4724: 4719: 4714: 4713: 4712: 4702: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4685: 4679: 4677: 4671: 4670: 4668: 4667: 4665:Seismic source 4662: 4661: 4660: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4639: 4638: 4633: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4607: 4605: 4599: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4591: 4590: 4589: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4548: 4546: 4542: 4541: 4539: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4507: 4505: 4498: 4494: 4493: 4491: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4463:Japan Cocktail 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4424: 4422: 4416: 4415: 4413: 4412: 4410:Primary energy 4407: 4401: 4398: 4397: 4390: 4389: 4382: 4375: 4367: 4361: 4360: 4348: 4343: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4321: 4314: 4313:External links 4311: 4295: 4294: 4288: 4275: 4255: 4238: 4232: 4219: 4204: 4198: 4185: 4179: 4164: 4158: 4143: 4137: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4113: 4099: 4085: 4071: 4060: 4046: 3999: 3973: 3962:on 28 May 2013 3914: 3903:on 28 May 2013 3880:(8): 903–905. 3857: 3850: 3832: 3810: 3789: 3757: 3750: 3732: 3721: 3714: 3696: 3685:on 31 May 2012 3663: 3656: 3638: 3631: 3613: 3589: 3566: 3542: 3509: 3476: 3452: 3426:(4): 480–493. 3403: 3384:(4): 450–458. 3363: 3356: 3338: 3324: 3301: 3294: 3276: 3269: 3251: 3244: 3226: 3194: 3187: 3169: 3144: 3129: 3095: 3058: 3028: 2999: 2964: 2957: 2939: 2906:Basin Research 2896: 2877: 2830: 2815: 2804:on 2 June 2012 2782: 2773: 2752: 2741:on 31 May 2012 2719: 2706: 2687:(4): 609–614. 2671: 2652:(4): 497–559. 2632: 2618: 2604: 2590: 2576: 2557: 2550: 2517: 2502: 2484: 2465:(5): 693–700. 2441: 2439: 2436: 2435: 2434: 2429: 2424: 2419: 2413: 2408: 2403: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2376: 2369: 2366: 2357:Gulf of Mexico 2349: 2348: 2344: 2337: 2333: 2330: 2243: 2240: 2210: 2207: 2198: 2195: 2169: 2166: 2126: 2123: 2069: 2066: 1985: 1982: 1968: 1965: 1947:ROV deployment 1909:Node on a rope 1858: 1855: 1806: 1803: 1731:Gulf of Mexico 1686: 1683: 1642:Seismic source 1637: 1634: 1602:Main article: 1599: 1596: 1553: 1550: 1538: 1537: 1526: 1522: 1500: 1472: 1469: 1463: 1460: 1454: 1451: 1446: 1445:Cultural noise 1443: 1427: 1424: 1414: 1411: 1389: 1386: 1382:speed of sound 1378:coherent noise 1373: 1370: 1357: 1354: 1330: 1310: 1299: 1298: 1284: 1281: 1276: 1273: 1270: 1247: 1231: 1228: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1189: 1186: 1183: 1163: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1123: 1122: 1111: 1108: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1080: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1008: 1005: 999:, by means of 988: 987: 971: 967: 963: 958: 950: 946: 940: 936: 932: 927: 923: 919: 914: 910: 904: 900: 892: 887: 883: 877: 873: 869: 866: 861: 857: 851: 847: 843: 838: 834: 830: 825: 821: 814: 807: 803: 797: 793: 787: 780: 776: 770: 766: 749: 748: 733: 728: 724: 720: 715: 711: 707: 700: 696: 692: 686: 683: 680: 677: 674: 671: 648: 618: 614: 591: 587: 575: 574: 557: 553: 549: 544: 540: 532: 528: 524: 519: 515: 508: 505: 471: 441: 438: 394: 391: 386:abstract model 326: 325: 310: 307: 304: 301: 275: 272: 215: 214: 156: 153: 121:seismic source 81: 80: 38: 36: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5920: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5900: 5898: 5891: 5881: 5873: 5872: 5869: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5825: 5823: 5819: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5685: 5675: 5674:Valero Energy 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5639:Suncor Energy 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5541: 5539: 5535: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5493: 5491: 5487: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5275: 5269: 5268:TotalEnergies 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5238: 5236: 5232: 5229: 5226: 5217: 5214: 5212:organisations 5210:Companies and 5208: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5181: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5149:Petrocurrency 5147: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5122:Oil shale gas 5120: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5103: 5102:Abbreviations 5100: 5099: 5097: 5093: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5061:Permian Basin 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5010: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4998:United States 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4958:Seven Sisters 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4900: 4898: 4896: 4892: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4835: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4808: 4807: 4804: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4791: 4790: 4787: 4786: 4784: 4782: 4778: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4755: 4752: 4751: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4733: 4730: 4729: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4711: 4708: 4707: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4694: 4691: 4690: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4680: 4678: 4676: 4672: 4666: 4663: 4659: 4656: 4655: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4628: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4611:Core sampling 4609: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4600: 4588: 4585: 4584: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4549: 4547: 4543: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4508: 4506: 4502: 4499: 4495: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4448:Indian Basket 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4421: 4417: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4402: 4399: 4395: 4388: 4383: 4381: 4376: 4374: 4369: 4368: 4365: 4359: 4355: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4316: 4310: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4291: 4285: 4281: 4276: 4272: 4266: 4258: 4252: 4247: 4246: 4239: 4235: 4233:1-56080-094-1 4229: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4211: 4205: 4201: 4199:1-56080-129-8 4195: 4191: 4186: 4182: 4180:1-56080-137-9 4176: 4172: 4171: 4165: 4161: 4159:0-07-011117-0 4155: 4151: 4150: 4144: 4140: 4138:0-89181-364-0 4134: 4130: 4125: 4124: 4123: 4110:. IOGP. 2017. 4109: 4103: 4095: 4089: 4081: 4075: 4069: 4064: 4056: 4050: 4042: 4036: 4017: 4010: 4003: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3925: 3918: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3868: 3861: 3853: 3847: 3843: 3836: 3821: 3814: 3799: 3793: 3777: 3773: 3772: 3767: 3761: 3753: 3751:0-521-46826-4 3747: 3743: 3736: 3730: 3725: 3717: 3711: 3707: 3700: 3684: 3680: 3678: 3673: 3667: 3659: 3657:0-521-46826-4 3653: 3649: 3642: 3634: 3632:1-56080-094-1 3628: 3624: 3617: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3593: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3570: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3546: 3530: 3526: 3524: 3519: 3513: 3497: 3493: 3491: 3486: 3480: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3456: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3414: 3407: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3359: 3357:0-521-46826-4 3353: 3349: 3342: 3334: 3328: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3305: 3297: 3295:0-521-46826-4 3291: 3287: 3280: 3272: 3270:0-521-46826-4 3266: 3262: 3255: 3247: 3241: 3237: 3230: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3198: 3190: 3184: 3180: 3173: 3158: 3154: 3148: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3130:9780521809511 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3099: 3080: 3076: 3069: 3062: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3032: 3017: 3010: 3003: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2968: 2960: 2958:1-56080-094-1 2954: 2950: 2943: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2892: 2888: 2887:CSEG Recorder 2881: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2834: 2827:(5/6): 19–22. 2826: 2819: 2803: 2799: 2797: 2792: 2786: 2777: 2768: 2763: 2756: 2740: 2736: 2734: 2729: 2728:"Ground Roll" 2723: 2716: 2710: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2675: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2636: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2614: 2613:"WesternGeco" 2608: 2600: 2594: 2586: 2580: 2572: 2568: 2561: 2553: 2547: 2543: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2513: 2506: 2498: 2491: 2489: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2453: 2446: 2442: 2433: 2430: 2428: 2425: 2423: 2420: 2417: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2377: 2375: 2374:Deconvolution 2372: 2371: 2365: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2345: 2341: 2338: 2334: 2331: 2328: 2327: 2326: 2323: 2320: 2316: 2310: 2308: 2303: 2299: 2296: 2293: 2288: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2263: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2229: 2223: 2220: 2216: 2206: 2204: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2187:thrust faults 2184: 2180: 2175: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2132: 2122: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2107: 2105: 2104:geophysicists 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2080: 2075: 2065: 2062: 2058: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2044: 2039: 2035: 2030: 2026: 2024: 2023:Deconvolution 2019: 2018:Deconvolution 2015: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2004:deconvolution 1999: 1995: 1991: 1990:Deconvolution 1981: 1977: 1973: 1964: 1962: 1956: 1954: 1949: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1938: 1932: 1928: 1926: 1922: 1917: 1911: 1910: 1906: 1903: 1899: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1884: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1863: 1854: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1839: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1820:repeatability 1817: 1813: 1802: 1799: 1798:Mad Dog field 1795: 1789: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1774: 1771: 1767: 1764: 1754: 1746: 1738: 1732: 1728: 1723: 1715: 1707: 1699: 1691: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1671: 1666: 1656: 1648: 1643: 1633: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1595: 1593: 1585: 1581: 1579: 1575: 1573: 1569: 1567: 1562: 1560: 1549: 1547: 1543: 1535: 1531: 1530:Earth's crust 1527: 1523: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1501: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1485:environmental 1482: 1478: 1477: 1476: 1468: 1459: 1450: 1442: 1440: 1435: 1433: 1423: 1421: 1410: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1394:Rayleigh wave 1385: 1383: 1379: 1369: 1362: 1353: 1351: 1347: 1342: 1328: 1308: 1282: 1279: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1261: 1260: 1259: 1245: 1237: 1227: 1210: 1184: 1161: 1138: 1132: 1109: 1106: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1090: 1084: 1078: 1075: 1069: 1063: 1056: 1055: 1054: 1051: 1047: 1041: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1013: 1004: 1002: 998: 997:wave velocity 994: 969: 965: 961: 956: 948: 938: 934: 930: 925: 921: 912: 908: 902: 898: 890: 885: 881: 875: 871: 867: 864: 859: 849: 845: 841: 836: 832: 823: 819: 812: 805: 801: 795: 791: 785: 778: 774: 768: 764: 754: 753: 752: 726: 722: 718: 713: 709: 698: 694: 690: 684: 681: 678: 675: 672: 669: 662: 661: 660: 646: 639: 638: 632: 616: 612: 589: 585: 555: 551: 547: 542: 538: 530: 526: 522: 517: 513: 506: 503: 496: 495: 494: 492: 487: 485: 469: 462: 461: 456: 446: 437: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 418:ground motion 415: 411: 407: 404: 400: 399:elastic waves 390: 387: 383: 379: 374: 372: 368: 363: 359: 354: 353:of the rock. 352: 348: 347: 343: 339: 335: 334:wave velocity 331: 308: 305: 302: 299: 292: 291: 290: 288: 284: 280: 279:Seismic waves 271: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 212: 211: 210: 207: 205: 201: 197: 193: 188: 186: 182: 178: 173: 170: 161: 148: 144: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 117:seismic waves 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 87: 77: 74: 66: 56: 55:the talk page 52: 46: 44: 39:This article 37: 28: 27: 22: 5890: 5777:Schlumberger 5707:Baker Hughes 5599:Marathon Oil 5589:Imperial Oil 5584:Husky Energy 5574:Galp Energia 5564:Devon Energy 5450:Saudi Aramco 5430:Petrovietnam 5375:NNPC Limited 5279:National oil 5159:Petrofiction 5127:Orphan wells 5095:Other topics 5066:Persian Gulf 4993:Saudi Arabia 4963:Standard Oil 4771:Well logging 4652: 4648:Petrophysics 4296: 4279: 4244: 4223: 4215:the original 4209: 4189: 4169: 4148: 4128: 4121: 4107: 4102: 4088: 4074: 4063: 4049: 4025:12 September 4023:. Retrieved 4016:the original 4002: 3990:. Retrieved 3986: 3976: 3964:. Retrieved 3957:the original 3934: 3930: 3917: 3905:. Retrieved 3898:the original 3877: 3873: 3860: 3841: 3835: 3823:. Retrieved 3813: 3801:. Retrieved 3792: 3780:. Retrieved 3776:the original 3771:Schlumberger 3769: 3760: 3741: 3735: 3724: 3705: 3699: 3687:. Retrieved 3683:the original 3677:Schlumberger 3675: 3666: 3647: 3641: 3622: 3616: 3599: 3592: 3575: 3569: 3552: 3545: 3533:. Retrieved 3529:the original 3523:Schlumberger 3521: 3512: 3500:. Retrieved 3496:the original 3490:Schlumberger 3488: 3479: 3462: 3455: 3443:. Retrieved 3423: 3419: 3406: 3381: 3377: 3347: 3341: 3327: 3310: 3304: 3285: 3279: 3260: 3254: 3235: 3229: 3216:. Retrieved 3212:the original 3207: 3197: 3178: 3172: 3160:. Retrieved 3156: 3147: 3104: 3098: 3086:. Retrieved 3079:the original 3074: 3061: 3049:. Retrieved 3045:the original 3040: 3031: 3019:. Retrieved 3015: 3002: 2980:(4): 25–28. 2977: 2973: 2967: 2948: 2942: 2909: 2905: 2899: 2890: 2886: 2880: 2847: 2843: 2833: 2824: 2818: 2806:. Retrieved 2802:the original 2796:Schlumberger 2794: 2785: 2776: 2755: 2743:. Retrieved 2739:the original 2733:Schlumberger 2731: 2722: 2709: 2684: 2680: 2674: 2649: 2645: 2635: 2607: 2593: 2579: 2570: 2566: 2560: 2541: 2511: 2505: 2496: 2462: 2458: 2445: 2427:Swell filter 2422:Seismic wave 2416:Seismic Unix 2350: 2324: 2311: 2304: 2300: 2297: 2289: 2264: 2245: 2236: 2232: 2224: 2212: 2200: 2191:upper mantle 2171: 2146:bright spots 2134: 2108: 2084: 2060: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029:CMP stacking 2028: 2027: 2022: 2017: 2016: 2001: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1957: 1950: 1946: 1945: 1941: 1933: 1929: 1912: 1908: 1907: 1904: 1900: 1892: 1888: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1840: 1836: 1808: 1793: 1790: 1785: 1777: 1775: 1772: 1768: 1759: 1679: 1675: 1661: 1610: 1607: 1591: 1590: 1577: 1576: 1571: 1570: 1563: 1555: 1539: 1474: 1471:Applications 1465: 1462:2D versus 3D 1456: 1448: 1436: 1431: 1429: 1416: 1406:Scholte wave 1402:free surface 1391: 1375: 1367: 1345: 1343: 1300: 1235: 1233: 1124: 1042: 1018: 989: 750: 635: 633: 576: 488: 458: 451: 396: 375: 355: 344: 337: 329: 327: 286: 277: 216: 208: 189: 174: 166: 141:echolocation 97: 93: 92: 69: 63:October 2017 60: 49:Please help 40: 5747:Halliburton 5619:Phillips 66 5440:QatarEnergy 5410:Petrobangla 5345:KazMunayGas 5235:Supermajors 5184:heavy crude 5071:Prudhoe Bay 5051:Niger Delta 5031:Caspian Sea 4794:Concessions 4744:Measurement 4710:Geosteering 4693:Squeeze job 4603:Exploration 4552:Consumption 4511:Consumption 4504:Natural gas 4433:Bonny Light 3992:16 November 3937:: 692–708. 3782:8 September 3689:8 September 3535:8 September 3502:8 September 3445:8 September 3162:8 September 3157:Geokinetics 3088:8 September 3051:8 September 3021:8 September 2912:(1): 1–20. 2808:8 September 2745:8 September 2646:SIAM Review 2276:sea turtles 2142:geophysical 2115:source rock 1832:shear waves 1629:WesternGeco 1481:engineering 1236:travel time 426:hydrophones 371:hydrophones 268:WesternGeco 244:engineering 185:Louann Salt 5897:Categories 5797:Transocean 5664:Tullow Oil 5654:TechnipFMC 5420:PetroChina 5258:ExxonMobil 5164:Shale band 5041:East Texas 5014:and fields 4828:Downstream 4781:Production 4688:Completion 4616:Geophysics 4557:Production 4516:Production 4453:Indonesian 4428:Argus Sour 4420:Benchmarks 4305:, and the 2844:Geophysics 2681:Geophysics 2551:0521243734 2438:References 2292:gray whale 2138:geological 2129:See also: 2100:geologists 2072:See also: 1988:See also: 1883:topography 1879:bathymetry 1824:hydrophone 1640:See also: 1515:geologists 1040:involved. 181:salt domes 169:interfaces 106:seismology 45:to readers 5792:TC Energy 5693:companies 5523:Trafigura 5470:Sonatrach 5415:Petrobras 5405:Pertamina 5315:Ecopetrol 5281:companies 5225:companies 5223:petroleum 5199:tight oil 5194:oil shale 5189:oil sands 5169:Shale gas 5110:sweet oil 5081:Venezuela 5056:North Sea 5012:Provinces 5003:Venezuela 4850:Midstream 4545:Petroleum 4405:Petroleum 4265:cite book 3208:E & P 3139:127775731 2934:129218651 2872:0016-8033 2767:1306.4383 2666:0036-1445 2573:(1): 121. 2353:North Sea 2315:Abu Dhabi 2256:porpoises 2248:cetaceans 2174:tectonics 2154:coherency 2150:dim spots 2038:CMP stack 2012:migration 1961:logistics 1937:geophones 1665:Vibroseis 1211:θ 1185:θ 1110:θ 1107:⁡ 1070:θ 1037:refracted 1033:reflected 842:− 523:− 484:impedance 455:amplitude 410:Vibroseis 406:explosion 367:geophones 349:) is the 309:ρ 240:hydrology 114:reflected 5880:Category 5787:Subsea 7 5767:Petrofac 5762:NOV Inc. 5742:GE Power 5737:Enbridge 5691:services 5513:Mercuria 5503:Glencore 5465:Sonangol 5425:Petronas 5360:Naftogaz 5132:Peak oil 5115:sour oil 4870:Upstream 4865:Refining 4860:Pipeline 4816:Pumpjack 4811:Gas lift 4732:invasion 4675:Drilling 4562:Reserves 4521:Reserves 4354:Archived 4035:cite web 3218:12 March 2368:See also 2260:dolphins 2250:such as 1828:geophone 1548:or GPR. 1517:build a 1432:multiple 1384:in air. 1372:Air wave 1350:geologic 422:analogue 420:into an 414:geophone 403:dynamite 260:Polarcus 125:dynamite 5455:Sinopec 5445:Rosneft 5325:Gazprom 5320:Equinor 5248:Chevron 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