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representative of a 'revived' Song dynasty and the 'Luminous King' described in White Lotus teachings. A few things set Zhu apart from his rebel counterparts. He did not challenge the past legitimacy of the Mongol Yuan dynasty and only noted that by his time, the
Mongols no longer possessed it. When enemy military leaders and civilians succumbed to Zhu's forces, he gave them honorable burials and established shrines in their memory. Zhu insisted that he was not a rebel, and he attempted to justify his conquest of the other rebel warlords by claiming that he was a Yuan subject divinely-appointed to restore order by crushing rebels. Most Chinese elites did not view the Yuan's Mongol ethnicity as grounds to resist or reject it. Zhu emphasised that he was not conquering territory from the Yuan dynasty but rather from the rebel warlords. He used this line of argument to attempt to persuade Yuan loyalists to join his cause.
828:
1361:). He was the youngest surviving child among four sons and two daughters. His parents were tax defaulters who fled from place to place working as tenant farmers. At the age of 16, in 1344, Zhu's father, mother, and oldest brother died in an epidemic accompanied by summer locusts and drought. The surviving family was too poor to care for Zhu and offered him to a local Buddhist monastery as menial labour. Zhu was sent out by the monastery to beg for food. For the next three years Zhu wandered around as a mendicant monk, during which time he came to understand the circumstances of the rebellion. At the age of 24, Zhu returned to the monastery where he learned to read and studied Buddhist texts.
1836:
and Lake Taihu to settle in his hometown of
Fengyang, around 500,000 people in 1367. Guizhou and Yunnan were colonized by soldiers from Anhui, Suzhou and Shanghai from Nanjing numbering 100,000. Sichuan was resettled by people from Hubei and Hunan, Hubei and Hunan were resettled by people from Jiangxi and Henan, Shandong, Beijing, Hezhou and Chuzhou were resettled by people from Shanxi and western Zhejiang while northern Henan and Hebei was resettled by people from Shanxi. The migration has been remembered in legends and novels. Fengyang was resettled by people from southern China and Jiangnan.
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1369:. In 1353, two other rebels on the run from Yuan forces took refuge with Guo, but asserted seniority over him and caused factional conflict within the rebel movement. Guo was captured by one of the rebel leaders and was saved by Zhu upon his return from an expedition. A Yuan siege on Haozhou was also ended when their general, Jia Lu, died. Afterwards, Zhu returned to his village and recruited over 700 men led by 24 of his friends, which included figures such as
1659:. The Mongol forces were more numerous than anticipated so the Ming troops took up a defensive position behind a stream. Köke Temür attacked and outflanked the southwestern wing of the Ming army, very nearly routing them. However the Ming army managed to rally and counterattacked successfully the next day, destroying the Mongols. Despite his losses, Köke Temür escaped total destruction and remained active in the desert. Meanwhile, Toghon Temür died at
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official who had surrendered, to the
Superintendency of the Office for Hydraulic Works to repair dikes and embankments. In 1360, he established bureaus to tax wine, vinegar, and salt, even though he did not control the primary salt-producing regions to the east. In 1361, he began minting copper coins, and by 1363, 38 million coins were being produced in one year. In 1362, custom offices were set up to collect taxes on traditional and commercial goods.
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1221:. He engaged in transportation of illegal salt trade. In 1353, at the age of 32, Zhang killed one of the rich merchants who had cheated him and set fire to the local community. Then with his brothers and a group of 18 followers, Zhang fled and turned to banditry. Within a few weeks Zhang had recruited more than ten thousand followers, whom he led to plunder
1237:, and tried to use him to bargain for Zhang's surrender. Shide secretly sent a letter to his brother telling him to surrender to the Yuan instead, then starved himself to death in prison. Zhang accepted titles from the Yuan court later that year but was de facto still independent. Under the conditions laid out, Zhang was supposed to send a million
1273:. He was illiterate and his family were shipowners who dealt in coastal trade. In 1348, Fang was accused of dealing with pirates, so he killed his accuser and fled to offshore islands with three brothers and local cohorts. He gained a large following with over a thousand vessels under his command. He controlled the prefectures of Jingyuan,
1744:. Orphaned at an early age, he joined the military in the 1350s and was given charge of a police detachment. However his military capabilities far outstripped his station and he became chief of the provincial government within 10 years. He ruled with an iron hand which drove many of his subordinates to defect. When captured by
1683:. The Mongols turned to face them and counterattacked with unexpected force, causing the Ming army to take the defensive position. The Ming soldiers slaughtered their livestock and used their corpses as a line of defense. The Mongols withdrew and Li was able to retreat. Feng Sheng successfully cleared the path westward to
1646:, but Köke Temür ignored his orders. In February 1368, Köke Temür was dismissed from office, and the other warlords ordered to crush him. Köke Temür won the subsequent battles and remained the strongest warlord in the north. Köke Temür came into conflict with the Ming anyways and was defeated in battle on 26 April.
867:, were brought in to handle the situation that the bandits were defeated. From that time on the people of the realm regarded the government forces as useless and depended on local leadership for defense, contributing to the process of decentralization. At the same time the Yuan also had to contend with rebellious
1540:
Toqto'a tried once again to tame the Yellow River and Grand Canal through the mass mobilization of rural farmers, leading to the Red Turban
Rebellion. After initial rebel victories, the Yuan armies were able to rally and suppress most of the Red Turbans by 1353. In October 1353, Toqto'a personally recovered
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was an orphan who nonetheless received an education in both brush and sword. He held office in government briefly before leading a local defense corps. He succeeded in recapturing a local prefectural city from bandits and was rewarded with office in the prefecture. In 1363 he led provincial armies to
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At the end of the Yuan, bandits arose in all places. Among the common people volunteer forces were formed to protect village and locality. Those who called themselves commanders of such forces were too numerous to count. The Yuan government granted them official ranks and titles at the drop of a hat.
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On 16 February 1352, Haozhou was captured by the Red
Turbans. The Yuan army retaliated by sending raiders to sack Buddhist monasteries, turning Zhu's home into a battlefield. His temple was burned down in the same month. On 15 April, Zhu joined the Red Turban rebellion under Guo Zixing's command. Zhu
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had proven inferior to the soldiers of
Chaghan Temur, who had defeated them in battle, and possibly saw Goryeo as an easier target unprotected by Mongol forces. The Red Turbans were also facing starvation and needed grain and supplies. There may have also been ethnic and political reasons. The Korean
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prior to its conquest by the
Mongols. These soldiers, sometimes under Mongol or Inner Asian command, were garrisoned across the empire and served as the primary body of the Yuan army. Some special Mongol units were dispatched to strategic locations as needed, but not to police the empire and not on a
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valley. Toqto'a's successor, Berke Bukha, had no answer to the crisis, which was exacerbated by the coastal rebellion of Fang
Guozhen, whose fleet interdicted most of the grain shipments headed for the capital. In August 1349, Toqto'a returned to power with the support of the emperor. In April 1351,
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and Fang
Guozhen. He spent most of 1364 and 1365 consolidating the territory he absorbed from his victory over Zhang. Zhu continued to use the Song's reign period as his official calendar until Han Lin'er drowned while crossing the Changjiang in January 1367, possibly by design. Calling to overthrow
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His background was genuinely that of the poorest level of the "oppressed masses". His education was rudimentary, and he shared no common ground with the traditional governing stratum. But he was convinced by his early literati assistants that he too, on the model of the founder of the Han dynasty at
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Following the victory, Zhu
Yuanzhang ordered mass relocations across China. People from Shanxi were deported into other provinces in northern China including Hebei, Henan and Shandong which had been devastated by plague and famine. Zhu Yuanzhang moved people from Shandong, Guangdong, Hebei, Shanxi
1200:
reports, the army flayed an official alive and cut out his stomach. The Red Army was equally merciless toward captured Yuan soldiers: according to contemporary observer Liu Renben, Tianwan troops dealt with these demonized enemies by "placing them in shackles, poking them with knives, binding them
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flooded constantly and other natural disasters also occurred. At the same time the Yuan dynasty required considerable military expenditure to maintain its vast empire. Groups or religious sects made an effort to undermine the power of the last Yuan rulers; these religious movements often warned of
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and defeated it, causing Köke Temür to avoid combat for the next month. After marching fruitlessly in search of the Mongols, the Ming army was defeated in an engagement on 7 June. Xu Da took the remaining survivors and retreated from Mongolia. In early July, Li Wenzhong encountered another Mongol
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from the rebels. He besieged the rebel base at Yidu and after several months, brought it down by tunneling under the walls. He captured the assassins of Chaghan Temur, Tian Feng and Wang Shicheng, and sacrificed them to his father's spirit. Meanwhile, due to Bolad Temur's machinations at court to
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The rebellions themselves were the final stage of a long history of Chinese resentment against Mongol rule, expressed at the elite level by reluctance to serve in the government and at the popular level by clandestine sectarian activity. The occasion for the rebellions was the failure of the Yuan
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Zhu progressively developed his following into a working state. Zhu personally traveled to regions that had been conquered to survey problems and actively recruited scholars and officials, whom he invited to dine with him in his headquarters. In March 1358, he assigned Kang Maocai, a former Yuan
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in the 1330s. From there they spread throughout half of China within a dozen years, moving clandestinely into provinces affected by natural disasters. Their religious teachings created sects with broad local followings that practiced night gatherings of men and women to burn incense and worship
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On 10 April 1356, Zhu took Nanjing, made it his new capital, and renamed it Yingtian (Response to Heaven). The court of Han Lin'er of the new Song dynasty awarded Zhu with titles and named him the head of Jiangxi. Zhu accepted the titles and Han Line'er as emperor, legitimizing himself as a
1631:, which turned in Köke Temür's favor in 1363. Bolad Temur fled to the capital and seized control of it himself in 1364. Bolad Temur was assassinated in August 1365, after which Köke Temür escorted Ayushiridara back to the capital, where he remained for some time before returning to
1175:. He seemed to have governed competently, having recruited scholars and heeding the advice of a Confucian official named Liu Zhen, but failed in an attempt to take Yunnan from the Mongols. Ming reigned until he died of illness at the age of 35 in 1366. He was succeeded by his son,
1413:. The siege in mid-August was a failure but Zhu's forces remained stable and took the surrounding countryside. In October, the Red Turbans tried to take Nanjing again, and in the process both of Guo's successors were killed, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in sole command of his forces.
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fell to the Ming on 20 September. The Yuan emperor fled to Köke Temür, who took his remaining forces and retreated into Mongolia. The other warlords in the northwest refused to cooperate with Köke Temür even as they fell one by one to the Ming. On 3 May, Ming forces led by
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paralyzed the court until his death in 1365. As a result, Chaghan Temur ignored orders from the court and moved troops of his own will. Chaghan Temur was assassinated in 1362 by Tian Feng and Wang Shicheng, two former Yuan generals who then fled to join the rebels.
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attacked the Song court in Anfeng. Zhu personally led his army to defend them against Zhang and while Liu Futong was killed, Zhu managed to save Han Lin'er, whom he moved to Chuzhou where the Song court continued to exist in safety. In the same year, Zhu won the
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and sometimes used the surname Li. In the late 1340s, Chaghan Temur built a military force to protect his locality from the rebels. Starting in 1352, he won a string of victories against the Red Turbans and for a time in 1358 and 1359, based his operations in
1396:
In the fall of 1353, Guo gave Zhu an independent commission under the title of guard commander. He expanded south, gaining large numbers of followers and defected soldiers along the way. By the end of the year, Zhu had gained Chuzhou (near the
1249:
and declared himself Prince of Wu. Zhang attacked Zhu Yuanzhang but failed to defeat him and in 1364, Zhu also declared himself Prince of Wu. By late autumn of 1365, Zhu had taken the offensive position against Zhang. Zhang was besieged at
1754:
Thereafter some would go off to become bandits; others served the Yuan cause but without resolve. Chen Youding and his son, however, died for righteousness. People of the time praised them for that consummation of their principles.
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impending doom. Decline of agriculture, epidemics and cold weather hit China, spurring the armed rebellion. The earliest record of an unusual epidemic during the 14th century says that in the year 1331, an epidemic occurred in
3564:
1698:. He suffered a disastrous defeat against Xu Da, who force marched his army through a snowstorm to attack the Mongol forces on 29 November. Köke Temür died in September 1375 at Khara Nokhai, northwest of
1748:
in 1368, Chen continued to show belligerence, bellowing at the Ming emperor, "The state is demolished and my family is gone. I shall die; what more is there to talk about?" He and his son were executed.
1571:
in the 13th century. Although originally Turkic, by the time of the Red Turban Rebellions, Chaghan Temur's lineage more closely aligned with both Mongol and Chinese culture. Chaghan Temur once sat the
1084:
contributed troops to Yuan efforts to suppress the Red Turbans. The invasions caught the unprepared Goryeo forces off guard, causing much destruction, sacking several cities, and briefly occupying
913:
regime to cope with widespread famine in the 1340s. By the time those occurred, paradoxically the Yuan ruling elite had largely come to an accommodation with the native Chinese political tradition.
855:. Yuan garrisons had already entered a steep decline by the end of the 13th century and by 1340, repeatedly failed to put down local rebellions. In the 1340s a bandit gang of merely 36 persons in
1519:. As chancellor, he supported Confucian forms of government and sought to stabilize the realm through vigorous government action. One of his efforts in this endeavor was to repair and extend the
964:) in 1338. A rebel leader, Zhou Ziwang, was proclaimed emperor, but he was quickly apprehended by regional authorities and executed. Peng fled northward spread the teaching of the coming of the
799:
and made efforts to write Chinese poetry and to produce Chinese calligraphy. He patronized Chinese learning and art with a new academy and office in the inner court. Others at court such as the
1124:
as military leader. Ni took Hanyang again in 1356 and moved the dynasty's capital there. The next year, Ni attempted to murder Xu and replace him but failed. He was executed and replaced by
908:
in 1351–52. Additional epidemics were recorded in various provinces from 1356 to 1360 and "great pestilences" every year from 1356 to 1362. In Shanxi and Hebei, 200,000 people died in 1358.
807:, also led the way in cultivating Chinese learning by establishing contacts with ethnic Han scholars and hiring them as tutors. Kusala was assassinated by supporters of his half-brother,
1164:
lasting over the summer before Chen was defeated and killed after suffering an arrow wound to the head. Zhu then took Han Lin'er, who had been Chen's ward since the death of Liu Futong.
875:. Efforts to suppress the Jurchen rebellion failed and by 1348, at least two Jurchen groups no longer obeyed Yuan authority. Their leaders claimed to be descendants of the Jin dynasty.
1531:
delta. The project's failure in addition to a slew of natural disasters drew harsh criticism from his detractors, leading to his resignation in June 1344. In the summer of 1344, the
1781:
from pirates. He became head of the provincial government in 1366. When the Ming armies approached in 1368, he readily gave up his position and surrendered. After an interview with
660:
1615:
in 1361 when he delivered a shipment of grain to the capital. He succeeded his adoptive father when he died in 1362. Upon his father's death, Köke Temür was tasked with retaking
1186:
Historical records commonly portray the Red Turban Army as dealing with captive Yuan officials and soldiers with considerable violence. In his work on violence in rural China,
863:. For more than three months, government forces from three provinces failed to defeat them. It was only when salt-field workers, noted for their fierceness and independence in
1544:, forcing the rebels Peng Da and Zhao Junyong to flee to Haozhou. Toqto'a was dismissed in January 1355 due to court intrigue while he was successfully campaigning against
1293:. He made a living as a pirate until 1356, when he surrendered to the Yuan court and was awarded titles. He helped transport grain for Zhang Shicheng to the Yuan capital,
1642:, Zhang Liangbi, Törebeg, and Kong Xing. The latter three being former associates of Bolad. The emperor ordered Köke Temür to ignore them and defend the north from the
1487:. Khanbaliq fell to the Ming on 14 September, ending the rule of the Yuan dynasty. The city was renamed Beiping (Pacified North). Shangdu was taken by the Ming general
3571:
4020:
1827:. He remained a constant source of trouble until he was defeated in 1387. Naghachu was granted a marquisate and died on 31 August 1388, probably from alcohol abuse.
1405:
border) and remained there until 1355, when he had amassed an army of 30,000. After successfully repelling a Yuan army in the first months of 1355, at which point
1037:, successfully recruited from the disgruntled workers, resulting in explosive rebellious activity. Han Shantong was captured and executed, but his wife and son,
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1075:
in 1359 and 1360. It's uncertain what exactly caused the Red Turbans to attack Goryeo but it was most likely due to material considerations. The Red Turbans in
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968:, the Buddha of wealth and radiance, who would bring an end to suffering. Red Turban influence appeared in many places along the Huai River from 1340 onward.
1056:
Han Lin'er was proclaimed emperor of a restored Song dynasty in Bozhou (in western Anhui) on 16 March 1355. On 11 June 1358, Liu Futong set out to capture
653:
1717:
who participated in the early military campaigns of the latter against the Red Turbans. By the end of the 1350s Li had become the dominant local power in
4040:
1548:. After his removal, the offensive against Zhang fell apart, and the Yuan court lost the last vestige of control it held over its own military forces.
1108:
and enthroned Xu Shouhui as emperor over the Red Turban dynasty of "Tianwan" (Heaven Consummated). The new dynasty expanded southward and briefly held
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1880:
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in 1355. He was released in the hope of creating good will with the Mongols, but he left to create an independent Mongol military establishment in
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between 1351 and 1368, eventually leading to its collapse. Remnants of the Yuan imperial court retreated northwards and is thereafter known as the
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1789:, he was awarded with honors and posts in the provincial government. He Zhen retired at the age of 65 in 1387 and was made hereditary earl.
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border and proclaimed the establishment of a Red Turban government. Han Lin'er was proclaimed the "Young Prince of Radiance" hailing from
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the end of the third century B.C. (whose origins, although not as humble as Chu's, made him a close model), could become a sage emperor.
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1060:, which had been the capital of the Song dynasty. The city was only held briefly by the new Song dynasty before a counteroffensive by
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was split between two factions on how best to govern the empire. One faction favored a Mongol-centric policy that favored Mongol and
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In 1351, a mass mobilization of workers from the farming population, numbering 150,000 in total, for a project to rechannel the
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Geo-Architecture and Landscape in China's Geographic and Historic Context: Volume 1 Geo-Architecture Wandering in the Landscape
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In 1372, an anti-Mongol army 150,000 strong was assembled under Xu Da, Li Wenzhong, and Feng Sheng. Xu Da marched across the
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was the primary decision maker behind the Yuan throne starting in 1340 after taking power in a coup supported by the emperor
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every year by sea, but the Yuan capital never received more than 15% of the agreed amount. In 1363, Zhang took control of
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Li, Nan (March 2018). "The Long-Term Consequences of Cultural Distance on Migration: Historical Evidence from China".
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with cloth, putting sacks over their heads, and parading them around accompanied by drum-beating and derisive chants".
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1104:, a cloth peddler, the makings of a Red Turban figurehead. In September, Zou captured the city of Qishui in southern
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1667:, fled further into Mongolia. Ayushiridara's son, Maidarbal, and 5,000 Mongol warriors were captured by the Ming.
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1456:, beginning on 20 January 1368, was promulgated. On 12 January 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang proclaimed himself emperor (
1171:, refused to acknowledge Chen Youliang when he usurped Xu Shouhui. Ming declared his own Red Turban kingdom of
1012:
941:. Eventually these sects coalesced into two broad movements: the southern (or western) Red Turbans in southern
737:
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was established, remnants of Yuan court retreated to northern China and Mongolian Plateau (known thereafter as
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2702:(1). Economic History Society of Australia and New Zealand and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd: 2–35.
2347:"The 'Song' Dynasty Legacy: Symbolism and Legitimation from Han Liner to Zhu Yuanzhang of the Ming Dynasty"
1580:. By the end of the 1350s, Chaghan Temur was the most powerful regional leader under the Mongols' service.
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forced them to retreat on 10 September 1359. Han Lin'er's court fled to Anfeng where they remained until
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1092:(1360). Although ultimately repelled, the havoc caused by the Red Turbans on Goryeo was substantial.
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but failed to take it and was forced to return to Wuchang, which he made his capital. Chen attacked
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from 27 December 1366 until 1 October 1367, when its defenses fell. Zhang was captured and sent to
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1627:, Köke Temür remained estranged from court. Bolad Temur and Köke Temür engaged in open warfare in
846:, the Yuan army was composed mostly of professional Han soldiers who had once been subject to the
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The Red Army brutally killed every Yuan official it could lay its hands on: in one instance, the
819:(Emperor Huizong), became emperor at the age of 13. He was the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty.
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This article is about the rebellion of 1351–1368. For the Red Turban Rebellion of 1854–1856, see
37:"White Lotus Revolution" redirects here. For the Chinese uprising against the Qing dynasty, see
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1128:. Under Chen, the dynasty's territories rapidly expanded and in less than two years, had taken
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in search of Köke Temür. On 23 April, a Ming division caught a part of the Mongol army by the
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In the summer of 1351, Peng Yingyu and his principal military follower, Zou Pusheng, found in
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1452:" and restore the "Chinese", Zhu gained popular support. A calendar called that of the Great
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in 1361. Chen made a final attempt at defeating Zhu in 1363, sending a large armada down the
811:(Emperor Wenzong). Tugh Temür died in 1332 and was succeeded by Kusala’s six-year-old child,
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regular basis. Most of the Mongol garrisons were located to the north around the capital of
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Governance, Social Organisation and Reform in Rural China: Case Studies from Anhui Province
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as hostage. In 1367, Fang surrendered to Zhu Yuanzhang on favorable terms. Fang stayed in
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communities in Liaodong had refused to join the Red Turbans against the Yuan and in 1354,
791:-based "Confucian" governing style. The latter group conducted a coup in 1328 to enthrone
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and then spread elsewhere, killing 13 million people by 1333. Another epidemic ravaged
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1475:. A defending army was defeated and Tongzhou, an intermediate city on the way to
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2657:(illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 269.
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2930:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
2894:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
2847:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
2362:
1977:(illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 18.
1820:
1782:
1745:
1725:
as Chaghan Temur's successor and went to war with him. Li surrendered to the
1714:
1688:
1608:
1556:
1440:
1346:
1298:
1230:
1145:
1125:
1061:
1038:
1029:
saw ripe conditions for recruitment by the Red Turbans. A Red Turban leader,
957:
860:
759:
638:
523:
446:
334:
266:
242:
109:
1041:, escaped with Liu. Liu established a capital at Yingzhou in modern western
4008:
3658:
3413:
3045:
2023:
1808:
in 1382. Yunnan played no major role in the events of the 1350s and 1360s.
1805:
1737:
1726:
1680:
1643:
1621:
1532:
1488:
1453:
1390:
1374:
1266:
1180:
1136:. In 1360, Chen murdered Xu and seized the throne, renaming the dynasty to
1050:
1030:
1018:
992:
981:
884:
780:
755:
542:
376:
321:
292:
261:
163:
127:
105:
101:
90:
4067:
2015:
4263:
3798:
3379:
1797:
1671:
1496:
1234:
1225:
and other nearby cities. By the end of 1353, Zhang had taken the city of
1168:
1157:
839:
788:
533:
499:
307:
2680:
Chinese Geography and Environment, Volume 1, Issue 2 – Volume 3, Issue 2
2370:
2346:
4242:
4098:
3602:
3579:
2707:
1675:
1536:
1528:
1406:
1176:
1153:
1101:
1034:
946:
504:
415:
360:
339:
3627:
3014:
1679:
force under Manzi Kharajang by the Tuul River and pursued them to the
4283:
3528:
3314:
3269:
1778:
1699:
1660:
1647:
1524:
1492:
1476:
1328:
1294:
1242:
1129:
1121:
1085:
872:
852:
843:
428:
386:
1353:, was born on 21 October 1328 at Zhongli village in Haozhou (modern
3597:
3592:
3511:
3303:
2808:(illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. pp. 57–59.
1824:
1816:
1684:
1616:
1290:
1270:
1246:
1172:
1137:
1076:
1026:
965:
938:
897:
864:
391:
381:
250:
186:
178:
2883:
Langlois, Jr., John D. (1988). "The Hung-wu reign, 1368–1398". In
1611:
through his sister. Wang Baobao received the name Köke Temür from
1607:, originally named Wang Baobao, was the adopted son and nephew of
815:(Emperor Ningzong), who died six months later. His older brother,
3533:
3501:
1786:
1718:
1577:
1560:
1484:
1472:
1461:
1410:
1402:
1386:
1378:
1302:
1278:
1255:
1218:
1149:
1141:
1133:
1117:
1089:
1057:
961:
929:
905:
856:
776:
3003:
2619:
1801:
1741:
1695:
1628:
1588:
1541:
1491:
on 20 July 1369, forcing Toghon Temür to flee further north to
1319:
1286:
1282:
1251:
1226:
1120:
before being driven off in 1352. In 1355, Zou was succeeded by
1113:
1072:
901:
893:
800:
745:
141:
2654:
The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China
2132:
Crimson Rain: Seven Centuries of Violence in a Chinese County.
1974:
The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China
1213:
was a boatman from the market settlement of Bojuchang (modern
4148:
3617:
1656:
1652:
1632:
1564:
1468:
1398:
1370:
1358:
1340:
1327:
stele portraying the legend of a lowly kitchen worker-turned-
1238:
1105:
1046:
1042:
956:
The Red Turban movement traces its origins to Peng Yingyu, a
950:
942:
933:
889:
371:
60:
883:
Since the 1340s, the Yuan dynasty experienced problems. The
4062:
3475:
3440:
2100:
787:
interests while the opposing faction leaned towards a more
2406:
2404:
2298:
In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia
2239:(3rd, illustrated ed.). Springer. 2016. p. 175.
1563:
clan that had settled in Shenqiu on the eastern border of
1365:
married an adopted daughter of Guo who would later become
2532:
1804:, committed suicide when the region was conquered by the
1721:. After Chaghan Temur's death, Li refused to acknowledge
1335:
2078:
2076:
2600:
2544:
2416:
2401:
2389:
945:
and the northern (or eastern) Red Turbans based in the
2919:(1988). "The rise of the Ming dynasty, 1330–1367". In
1941:
2634:"Chinese Mass Migrations: Past, Present & Future"
2590:
2588:
2586:
2561:
2559:
2520:
2498:
2496:
2481:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2377:
2277:
2253:
2161:
2149:
2137:
2112:
2073:
2049:
1527:, could be securely supplied with grain grown in the
2805:
Street Criers: A Cultural History of Chinese Beggars
2508:
2440:
2428:
2326:
1917:
65:
Distribution of major rebel forces and Yuan warlords
27:
Revolt against the Yuan dynasty in China (1351–1368)
2971:
Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols
2186:. University of Washington Press. pp. 22, 64.
2037:
1269:was from Huangyan district on the coast of central
2583:
2571:
2556:
2493:
2469:
2452:
2314:
2265:
2088:
2061:
2295:
2010:(3), CUNY La Guardia Community College: 319–355,
1929:
1905:
1893:
1800:, the Prince of Liang, and head of government in
1567:. Chaghan Temur's great-grandfather assisted the
1479:, was captured on 10 September. The Yuan emperor
1281:, and practically the entire Zhejiang coast from
4389:
2300:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 144–146.
1289:. He also held de facto control over Ningbo and
2977:monograph series. Vol. 68. Cambridge, MA:
2727:(illustrated ed.). Springer. p. 275.
2213:(illustrated ed.). Springer. p. 175.
1960:Yuan dynasty: Ancient China Dynasties, para. 3.
1308:
795:(Emperor Mingzong). Kusala was literate in the
775:In the early 1300s, the imperial court of the
668:
4248:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
3643:
3565:
3030:
2836:(1988). "Military origins of Ming China". In
1740:was born to an illiterate farmer's family in
1409:had died, Zhu started preparations to attack
960:, who led an uprising in Yuanzhou (in modern
654:
3245:Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty
2183:Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle
1535:shifted its course, causing droughts in the
1305:until 1374, when he died of natural causes.
900:from 1344 to 1346. The epidemic returned in
1694:In November 1373, Köke Temür tried to take
1460:) of the Ming dynasty (Radiant dynasty) in
1393:. They were known as the "Fengyang mafia".
3650:
3636:
3572:
3558:
3037:
3023:
2683:. M.E. Sharpe, Inc. 1988. pp. 11, 12.
1071:In the northeast, the Red Turbans invaded
661:
647:
59:
2000:"Was the Black Death in India and China?"
484:
473:
2965:
2882:
2622:. China Daily (Hong Kong ). 23 Jun 2012.
2606:
2550:
2410:
2395:
2106:
1947:
1559:was a fourth generation descendant of a
1334:
1318:
997:
986:
975:
826:
3657:
3044:
2206:
1997:
1258:, where he hanged himself in his cell.
1140:. He immediately launched an attack on
1095:
1006:
14:
4390:
4199:Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty
3240:Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs
2957:: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (
2874:: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (
2832:
2538:
2526:
2514:
2446:
2434:
2422:
2332:
2043:
1167:In Sichuan, the Red Turban commander,
3631:
3553:
3018:
2650:
1970:
1160:. Chen and Zhu's forces engaged in a
1148:and was defeated, being ejected from
642:
2915:
2720:
2594:
2577:
2565:
2502:
2487:
2475:
2463:
2383:
2344:
2320:
2283:
2271:
2259:
2179:
2167:
2155:
2143:
2118:
2094:
2082:
2067:
2055:
1953:
1935:
1923:
1911:
1899:
1495:. China proper was once again under
1467:On 15 August 1368, the Ming general
878:
2747:
2004:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
1881:Yongle Emperor's Northern campaigns
1861:Ming campaign against the Uriankhai
1830:
1233:captured Zhang Shicheng's brother,
1068:sent an army against them in 1363.
822:
770:
335:Han Lin'er (Longfeng Emperor)
24:
2801:
2781:(illustrated ed.). Springer.
2774:
2696:Australian Economic History Review
2693:
2351:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
928:The Red Turbans first appeared in
25:
4434:
2996:
1205:
3616:
3435:The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars
3298:Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns
3002:
1819:was a Mongol leader captured by
1551:
579:
546:
522:
508:
463:
276:
265:
254:
32:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
3834:Japanese missions to Ming China
3160:Second Mongol invasion of Burma
2826:
2795:
2768:
2741:
2714:
2687:
2671:
2644:
2626:
2612:
2338:
2289:
2227:
2200:
2173:
2124:
1732:
1297:. In 1359, Zhang sent a son to
1261:
3708:Campaign against the Uriankhai
3580:Short-lived states during the
3185:Red Turban invasions of Goryeo
2754:. Open Road + Grove/Atlantic.
2180:Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (2011).
1991:
1964:
1792:
1663:on 23 May 1370 while his son,
1502:
1331:routing the Red Turban rebels.
1013:Red Turban invasions of Goryeo
923:
842:(Emperor Shizu) conquered the
750:
741:
13:
1:
3768:Campaigns against the Mongols
3468:The Story of the Western Wing
3339:Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass
3063:Division of the Mongol Empire
1886:
1599:
1443:, and proceeded to eliminate
1349:, who would later become the
971:
765:
754:) were uprisings against the
4306:Covered jar with carp design
3922:Transition from Ming to Qing
3344:Gulou and Zhonglou (Beijing)
3095:conquest of the Song dynasty
1655:found Köke Temür in eastern
1638:Köke Temür went to war with
1309:Ming dynasty (Zhu Yuanzhang)
7:
4398:Battles of the Yuan dynasty
4301:Ming presentation porcelain
3900:Japanese invasions of Korea
3364:Jinan Great Southern Mosque
1998:Sussman, George D. (2011),
1839:
1811:
1002:Pottery horse, Yuan dynasty
565:Zhang Liangchen
170:Southern Red Turban rebels:
150:Northern Red Turban rebels:
10:
4439:
4423:1360s in the Mongol Empire
4418:1350s in the Mongol Empire
4163:Compilations and Documents
3794:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns
3250:Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia
3129:Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)
2975:Harvard-Yenching Institute
2935:Cambridge University Press
2899:Cambridge University Press
2852:Cambridge University Press
2296:David M. Robinson (2019).
2207:Adshead, S. A. M. (2016).
1768:
1705:
1507:
1312:
1010:
43:
36:
29:
4367:
4334:
4296:Chinese lacquerware table
4256:
4215:
4162:
4119:
4076:
4058:Embroidered Uniform Guard
3986:
3872:
3819:Prince of Anhua rebellion
3781:
3675:
3666:
3614:
3588:
3494:
3372:
3331:
3287:
3205:
3165:Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war
3053:
1665:Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara
1229:. In the summer of 1357,
1179:, who surrendered to the
679:
615:
593:
222:
120:
69:
58:
53:
4359:Great Ming Treasure Note
4238:Ming Ancestors Mausoleum
4021:Administrative divisions
3824:Prince of Ning rebellion
3279:Goryeo under Mongol rule
3085:Mongol conquest of China
2979:Harvard University Press
1569:Mongol conquest of China
293:Ayushiridara
206:Other southern warlords
44:Not to be confused with
4413:14th-century rebellions
4178:The Hundred-word Eulogy
3844:Great Rites Controversy
3698:Ming conquest of Yunnan
3354:Pagoda of Bailin Temple
3175:1344 Yellow River flood
3170:War of the Two Capitals
3080:Kublai Khan's campaigns
2751:Lenin's Kisses: A Novel
2651:Brook, Timothy (1999).
1971:Brook, Timothy (1999).
1583:Chaghan Temur's rival,
1471:led an army north from
1329:mountain-striding deity
46:Yellow Turban Rebellion
4216:Palaces and Mausoleums
4206:Ming Veritable Records
3854:Luso-Chinese agreement
3454:The Injustice to Dou E
3359:Temple of Azure Clouds
3289:Science and technology
3146:Battle of Ngasaunggyan
3090:anti-Mongol fortresses
2345:Chan, Hok-Lam (2008).
2236:China in World History
2210:China In World History
1766:
1420:
1343:
1332:
1203:
1003:
995:
984:
921:
835:
803:Majarday and his son,
223:Commanders and leaders
172:Tianwan dynasty (1351–
4408:14th century in China
4403:Red Turban Rebellions
4311:Yongning Temple Stele
4048:Imperial Commissioner
3773:Reign of Ren and Xuan
3733:Ming treasure voyages
3723:Dao Ganmeng rebellion
3582:Red Turban Rebellions
3190:Battle of Lake Poyang
3180:Red Turban Rebellions
2620:"Land of fairy tales"
2016:10.1353/bhm.2011.0054
1851:Battle of Lake Poyang
1751:
1573:imperial examinations
1523:so that the capital,
1437:Battle of Lake Poyang
1415:
1338:
1322:
1192:
1001:
990:
979:
910:
830:
734:Red Turban Rebellions
721:Dao Ganmeng rebellion
684:Red Turban Rebellions
616:Casualties and losses
471:Zhang Dingbian (
134:Principality of Liang
39:White Lotus Rebellion
3910:Sino-Dutch conflicts
3809:Rebellion of Cao Qin
3738:Ming–Turpan conflict
3688:Red Turban Rebellion
3011:at Wikimedia Commons
3009:Red Turban Rebellion
2901:. pp. 107–181.
2802:Lu, Hanchao (2005).
2748:Yan, Lianke (2012).
1096:Southern Red Turbans
1007:Northern Red Turbans
251:Naghachu
211:Fujian Muslim rebels
87:Yangtze River valley
54:Late Yuan rebellions
18:Red Turban Rebellion
4257:Society and Culture
4192:Yongle Encyclopedia
4031:Imperial Clan Court
3974:Kingdom of Tungning
3927:Jurchen unification
3859:Jiajing wokou raids
3748:Battle of Palembang
3713:Battle of Buir Lake
3373:Society and culture
3100:Battle of Xiangyang
2721:Wang, Fang (2016).
2640:. January 22, 2016.
2541:, pp. 102–103.
2109:, pp. 147–159.
1866:Battle of Buir Lake
1587:, the commander of
1162:long running battle
1033:, and his advisor,
762:in historiography.
366:Zhu Yuanzhang
152:Song dynasty (1351–
4106:Military conquests
3952:Peasant rebellions
3829:Capture of Malacca
3804:Defense of Beijing
3718:Lin Kuan rebellion
3461:The Orphan of Zhao
3230:Imperial Preceptor
2967:Robinson, David M.
2937:. pp. 11–57.
2921:Mote, Frederick W.
2917:Mote, Frederick W.
2885:Mote, Frederick W.
2854:. p. 58–108.
2838:Mote, Frederick W.
2708:10.1111/aehr.12134
1439:against his rival
1344:
1333:
1004:
996:
985:
836:
262:Chen Youding
4385:
4384:
4094:Gunpowder weapons
4053:Grand coordinator
4016:Grand Secretariat
3982:
3981:
3876:(1572–1683)
3785:(1435–1572)
3753:Battle of Kherlen
3703:Ming–Mong Mao War
3693:Wu Mian rebellion
3679:(1368–1435)
3625:
3624:
3547:
3546:
3007:Media related to
2988:978-0-674-03608-6
2944:978-0-521-24332-2
2908:978-0-521-24332-2
2861:978-0-521-24332-2
2834:Dreyer, Edward L.
2490:, pp. 21–23.
2425:, pp. 59–60.
2386:, pp. 51–57.
2286:, pp. 47–51.
2262:, pp. 46–47.
2170:, pp. 44–45.
2158:, pp. 34–35.
2146:, pp. 30–35.
2121:, pp. 41–42.
2085:, pp. 39–40.
2058:, pp. 37–38.
1926:, pp. 13–14.
1876:Battle of Kherlen
1856:Ming–Mong Mao War
1082:Gongmin of Goryeo
918:Frederick W. Mote
879:Natural disasters
729:
728:
637:
636:
405:Peng Yingyu
218:Northern warlords
158:Western Wu (1361–
116:
115:
16:(Redirected from
4430:
4185:Huang-Ming Zuxun
3957:Jiashen Incident
3947:She-An Rebellion
3932:Seven Grievances
3905:Donglin movement
3890:Bozhou rebellion
3877:
3786:
3763:Lam Sơn uprising
3743:Ming–Đại Ngu War
3728:Jingnan campaign
3680:
3673:
3672:
3652:
3645:
3638:
3629:
3628:
3620:
3574:
3567:
3560:
3551:
3550:
3517:ʼPhags-pa script
3447:The Chalk Circle
3428:Zhongyuan Yinyun
3315:Shiyi Dexiaofang
3073:Kaidu–Kublai war
3068:Toluid Civil War
3039:
3032:
3025:
3016:
3015:
3006:
2992:
2962:
2956:
2948:
2925:Twitchett, Denis
2912:
2889:Twitchett, Denis
2879:
2873:
2865:
2842:Twitchett, Denis
2820:
2819:
2799:
2793:
2792:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2638:China Simplified
2630:
2624:
2623:
2616:
2610:
2604:
2598:
2592:
2581:
2575:
2569:
2563:
2554:
2548:
2542:
2536:
2530:
2524:
2518:
2512:
2506:
2500:
2491:
2485:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2450:
2444:
2438:
2432:
2426:
2420:
2414:
2408:
2399:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2342:
2336:
2330:
2324:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2293:
2287:
2281:
2275:
2269:
2263:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2231:
2225:
2224:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2177:
2171:
2165:
2159:
2153:
2147:
2141:
2135:
2128:
2122:
2116:
2110:
2104:
2098:
2092:
2086:
2080:
2071:
2065:
2059:
2053:
2047:
2041:
2035:
2034:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1968:
1962:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1927:
1921:
1915:
1909:
1903:
1897:
1871:Jingnan campaign
1831:Mass relocations
1764:
1729:on 21 May 1369.
1713:was a friend of
1132:and held all of
1021:and to open the
919:
823:Military decline
797:Chinese language
771:Factional strife
752:
743:
706:1st Mong Mao War
674:
663:
656:
649:
640:
639:
583:
571:
550:
526:
512:
486:
481:
475:
467:
455:
437:
424:
411:
348:
330:
280:
269:
258:
246:
239:
214:
201:
196:
190:
182:
173:
159:
153:
145:
137:
71:
70:
63:
51:
50:
21:
4438:
4437:
4433:
4432:
4431:
4429:
4428:
4427:
4388:
4387:
4386:
4381:
4376:History of Ming
4363:
4330:
4252:
4228:Chaotian Palace
4211:
4171:History of Yuan
4158:
4115:
4072:
3978:
3878:
3875:
3868:
3864:Single whip law
3839:Ningbo incident
3814:Miao rebellions
3787:
3784:
3777:
3681:
3678:
3662:
3656:
3626:
3621:
3612:
3584:
3578:
3548:
3543:
3523:History of Yuan
3490:
3421:Wenxian Tongkao
3386:History of Liao
3368:
3349:Miaoying Temple
3327:
3283:
3201:
3197:Ispah rebellion
3049:
3043:
2999:
2989:
2950:
2949:
2945:
2909:
2867:
2866:
2862:
2829:
2824:
2823:
2816:
2800:
2796:
2789:
2775:He, H. (2016).
2773:
2769:
2762:
2746:
2742:
2735:
2719:
2715:
2692:
2688:
2677:
2676:
2672:
2665:
2649:
2645:
2632:
2631:
2627:
2618:
2617:
2613:
2605:
2601:
2593:
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2154:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2130:Rowe, William.
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2105:
2101:
2093:
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2062:
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1996:
1992:
1985:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1954:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1922:
1918:
1910:
1906:
1898:
1894:
1889:
1846:Ispah Rebellion
1842:
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1814:
1795:
1771:
1765:
1761:History of Ming
1758:
1735:
1708:
1687:and retook the
1602:
1554:
1510:
1505:
1355:Fengyang County
1317:
1311:
1264:
1215:Dafeng District
1208:
1197:History of Yuan
1188:William T. Rowe
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302:
283:
244:
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199:
185:
176:
171:
162:
156:
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136:(Yunnan) (1372–
131:
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49:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
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4364:
4362:
4361:
4356:
4355:
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4352:Yongle Tongbao
4349:
4347:Hongwu Tongbao
4338:
4336:
4332:
4331:
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4223:Forbidden City
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4111:Nine Garrisons
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3895:Ordos campaign
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3758:Ming–Kotte War
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3235:Zhongshu Sheng
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2997:External links
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2664:978-0520221543
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2609:, p. 158.
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2519:
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1984:978-0520221543
1983:
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1950:, p. 134.
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1691:for the Ming.
1601:
1598:
1553:
1550:
1546:Zhang Shicheng
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1458:Hongwu Emperor
1445:Zhang Shicheng
1432:Zhang Shicheng
1351:Hongwu Emperor
1315:Hongwu Emperor
1313:Main article:
1310:
1307:
1263:
1260:
1217:) in northern
1211:Zhang Shicheng
1207:
1206:Zhang Shicheng
1204:
1097:
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1066:Zhang Shicheng
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181:dynasty (1360–
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4041:Vassal prince
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4027:
4026:Eastern Depot
4024:
4022:
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4002:
4000:
3997:
3996:
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3969:Southern Ming
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3507:Mongol Empire
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3136:Java invasion
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2933:. Cambridge:
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2897:. Cambridge:
2896:
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2850:. Cambridge:
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2655:
2647:
2639:
2635:
2629:
2621:
2615:
2608:
2607:Langlois 1988
2603:
2597:, p. 25.
2596:
2591:
2589:
2587:
2580:, p. 29.
2579:
2574:
2568:, p. 24.
2567:
2562:
2560:
2552:
2551:Langlois 1988
2547:
2540:
2535:
2528:
2523:
2517:, p. 96.
2516:
2511:
2505:, p. 23.
2504:
2499:
2497:
2489:
2484:
2478:, p. 21.
2477:
2472:
2466:, p. 20.
2465:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2449:, p. 63.
2448:
2443:
2437:, p. 62.
2436:
2431:
2424:
2419:
2412:
2411:Langlois 1988
2407:
2405:
2397:
2396:Langlois 1988
2392:
2385:
2380:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2357:(1): 91–133.
2356:
2352:
2348:
2341:
2335:, p. 89.
2334:
2329:
2323:, p. 54.
2322:
2317:
2309:
2303:
2299:
2292:
2285:
2280:
2274:, p. 49.
2273:
2268:
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2222:
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2169:
2164:
2157:
2152:
2145:
2140:
2133:
2127:
2120:
2115:
2108:
2107:Robinson 2009
2103:
2097:, p. 43.
2096:
2091:
2084:
2079:
2077:
2070:, p. 39.
2069:
2064:
2057:
2052:
2046:, p. 58.
2045:
2040:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1986:
1980:
1976:
1975:
1967:
1961:
1956:
1949:
1948:Robinson 2009
1944:
1938:, p. 26.
1937:
1932:
1925:
1920:
1914:, p. 12.
1913:
1908:
1902:, p. 16.
1901:
1896:
1892:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1837:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1821:Zhu Yuanzhang
1818:
1809:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1783:Zhu Yuanzhang
1780:
1775:
1763:
1762:
1755:
1750:
1747:
1746:Zhu Yuanzhang
1743:
1739:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1715:Chaghan Temur
1712:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1690:
1689:Hexi Corridor
1686:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1623:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1609:Chaghan Temur
1606:
1597:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1581:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1557:Chaghan Temur
1552:Chaghan Temur
1549:
1547:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1441:Chen Youliang
1438:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1362:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1347:Zhu Yuanzhang
1342:
1337:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1306:
1304:
1300:
1299:Zhu Yuanzhang
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1259:
1257:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1231:Zhu Yuanzhang
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1191:
1189:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1146:Zhu Yuanzhang
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1126:Chen Youliang
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1062:Chaghan Temur
1059:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1014:
1000:
994:
991:Iron helmet,
989:
983:
980:Iron helmet,
978:
969:
967:
963:
959:
958:Buddhist monk
954:
952:
948:
944:
940:
935:
931:
914:
909:
907:
904:, Hebei, and
903:
899:
895:
891:
886:
876:
874:
870:
866:
862:
861:Daoist temple
858:
854:
849:
845:
844:Central Plain
841:
833:
829:
820:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
763:
761:
760:Northern Yuan
757:
753:
747:
739:
735:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
697:
696:Sichuan (Xia)
694:
690:
687:
686:
685:
682:
681:
678:
673:
664:
659:
657:
652:
650:
645:
644:
641:
632:
629:
626:
623:
620:
619:
614:
610:
607:
604:
601:
598:
597:
592:
585:
582:
577:
574:
572:
570:
564:
562:Zhang Liangbi
561:
560:
557:
556:
551:
549:
544:
540:
535:
532:
529:
528:
525:
520:
517:
511:
506:
503:
501:
498:
497:
487:
479:
476:
470:
469:
466:
461:
458:
456:
454:
448:
447:Chen Youliang
445:
444:
438:
436:
430:
427:
425:
423:
417:
414:
412:
410:
404:
403:
401:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
358:
351:
349:
347:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
329:
323:
320:
319:
317:
311:
309:
306:
305:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
285:
279:
274:
271:
268:
263:
260:
257:
252:
249:
247:
241:
238:
234:
233:
232:
231:
227:
226:
221:
216:
215:1366)
212:
207:
204:
198:
197:1357)
193:
188:
184:
183:1363)
180:
175:
174:1360)
168:
165:
161:
160:1367)
155:
154:1366)
148:
143:
139:
138:1382)
135:
130:
129:
125:
124:
119:
111:
110:Northern Yuan
107:
103:
100:
97:
96:
92:
88:
84:
81:
80:
76:
73:
72:
68:
62:
57:
52:
47:
40:
33:
19:
4374:
4368:Other topics
4279:Four Masters
4204:
4197:
4190:
4183:
4176:
4169:
4009:House of Zhu
3962:Shanhai Pass
3942:Great Plague
3885:Jianzhou war
3659:Ming dynasty
3581:
3521:
3495:Other topics
3466:
3459:
3452:
3445:
3433:
3426:
3419:
3414:Menggu Ziyun
3412:
3405:
3398:
3391:
3384:
3332:Architecture
3320:
3313:
3296:
3179:
3046:Yuan dynasty
2970:
2929:
2893:
2846:
2827:Bibliography
2804:
2797:
2777:
2770:
2750:
2743:
2723:
2716:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2679:
2673:
2653:
2646:
2637:
2628:
2614:
2602:
2573:
2546:
2534:
2522:
2510:
2483:
2471:
2442:
2430:
2418:
2391:
2379:
2354:
2350:
2340:
2328:
2316:
2297:
2291:
2279:
2267:
2255:
2235:
2229:
2209:
2202:
2182:
2175:
2163:
2151:
2139:
2131:
2126:
2114:
2102:
2090:
2063:
2051:
2039:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1973:
1966:
1955:
1943:
1931:
1919:
1907:
1895:
1834:
1815:
1806:Ming dynasty
1796:
1772:
1759:
1752:
1738:Chen Youding
1736:
1733:Chen Youding
1727:Ming dynasty
1709:
1693:
1681:Orkhon River
1669:
1644:Ming dynasty
1637:
1625:Ayushiridara
1622:crown prince
1613:Toghon Temür
1603:
1582:
1555:
1533:Yellow River
1517:Toghon Temür
1511:
1489:Chang Yuchun
1481:Toghon Temür
1466:
1454:Ming dynasty
1429:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1395:
1391:Geng Bingwen
1375:Chang Yuchun
1363:
1345:
1339:The tomb of
1285:to northern
1267:Fang Guozhen
1265:
1262:Fang Guozhen
1209:
1195:
1193:
1185:
1181:Ming dynasty
1166:
1099:
1070:
1055:
1051:Song dynasty
1031:Han Shantong
1019:Yellow River
1016:
993:Ming dynasty
982:Yuan dynasty
955:
927:
911:
885:Yellow River
882:
859:took over a
838:By the time
837:
817:Toghon Temür
781:Yuan dynasty
774:
756:Yuan dynasty
751:Hóngjīn Qǐyì
749:
733:
731:
683:
670:Wars of the
568:
553:
543:Fang Guozhen
541:
480:Zhang Bixian
452:
434:
421:
408:
377:Chang Yuchun
345:
327:
322:Han Shantong
230:Toghon Temür
228:
209:
205:
202:1367)
194:
191:1366)
177:
169:
164:Ming dynasty
157:
149:
146:1356)
132:
128:Yuan dynasty
126:
121:Belligerents
106:Ming dynasty
104:overthrown,
102:Yuan dynasty
91:Yuan dynasty
4321:Tai history
4004:Family tree
3915:Liaoluo Bay
3849:Renyin plot
3799:Tumu Crisis
3380:Yuan poetry
3218:family tree
2539:Dreyer 1988
2527:Dreyer 1988
2515:Dreyer 1988
2447:Dreyer 1988
2435:Dreyer 1988
2423:Dreyer 1988
2333:Dreyer 1988
2134:2006. p. 53
2044:Dreyer 1988
1798:Basalawarmi
1793:Basalawarmi
1672:Gobi Desert
1585:Bolad Temür
1521:Grand Canal
1503:Yuan forces
1241:of rice to
1169:Ming Yuzhen
1158:Lake Poyang
1088:(1359) and
1025:in western
1023:Grand Canal
924:Red Turbans
848:Jin dynasty
785:Inner Asian
555:Bolad Temür
534:Zhang Shide
500:Ming Yuzhen
308:Basalawarmi
298:Tögüs Temür
195:Zhou (1354–
166:(from 1368)
4392:Categories
4289:Zhe School
4243:Ming tombs
4127:Inner Asia
4099:Shenjiying
4089:Great Wall
3987:Government
3206:Government
1887:References
1777:recapture
1723:Köke Temür
1676:Tuul River
1605:Köke Temür
1600:Köke Temür
1593:Köke Temür
1537:Huai River
1529:Changjiang
1497:ethnic Han
1450:barbarians
1407:Guo Zixing
1177:Ming Sheng
1154:Changjiang
1102:Xu Shouhui
1039:Han Lin'er
1035:Liu Futong
1011:See also:
972:Rebellions
949:region in
947:Huai River
873:gyrfalcons
813:Rinchinbal
809:Tugh Temür
766:Background
505:Ming Sheng
416:Xu Shouhui
361:Guo Zixing
340:Liu Futong
288:Köke Temür
4284:Wu School
4269:Musicians
4132:Manchuria
4120:Frontiers
3529:Khanbaliq
3270:Dpon-chen
3260:Manchuria
3225:Empresses
2953:cite book
2870:cite book
2595:Mote 1988
2578:Mote 1988
2566:Mote 1988
2503:Mote 1988
2488:Mote 1988
2476:Mote 1988
2464:Mote 1988
2384:Mote 1988
2363:0073-0548
2321:Mote 1988
2284:Mote 1988
2272:Mote 1988
2260:Mote 1988
2168:Mote 1988
2156:Mote 1988
2144:Mote 1988
2119:Mote 1988
2095:Mote 1988
2083:Mote 1988
2068:Mote 1988
2056:Mote 1988
1936:Mote 1988
1924:Mote 1988
1912:Mote 1988
1900:Mote 1988
1779:Guangzhou
1700:Karakorum
1661:Yingchang
1648:Khanbaliq
1525:Khanbaliq
1493:Karakorum
1477:Khanbaliq
1430:In 1363,
1295:Khanbaliq
1243:Khanbaliq
1183:in 1371.
1130:Chongqing
1122:Ni Wenjun
1086:Pyongyang
1053:royalty.
939:Mile Pusa
853:Khanbaliq
716:Buir Lake
711:Uriankhai
429:Ni Wenjun
387:Liu Bowen
312:Duan Ming
200:Wu (1363–
77:1351–1368
4335:Currency
4274:Painting
4084:Military
4077:Military
3598:Ming Xia
3593:Chen Han
3512:Borjigin
3322:Nong Shu
3304:Jiaochao
3255:Mongolia
3213:Emperors
3114:Sakhalin
2969:(2009).
2927:(eds.).
2891:(eds.).
2844:(eds.).
2371:40213653
2032:41772477
2024:22080795
1840:See also
1825:Liaodong
1817:Naghachu
1812:Naghachu
1757:—
1685:Dunhuang
1617:Shandong
1483:fled to
1462:Yingtian
1291:Shaoxing
1271:Zhejiang
1247:Hangzhou
1190:writes:
1173:Ming Xia
1077:Liaodong
1027:Shandong
966:Maitreya
916:—
898:Shandong
869:Jurchens
865:Hangzhou
594:Strength
392:Hu Dahai
382:Fu Youde
273:Zhang Yu
187:Ming Xia
179:Chen Han
82:Location
4342:Coinage
4316:Economy
4144:Vietnam
4036:Princes
3994:Emperor
3782:Middle
3668:History
3603:Tianwan
3534:Shangdu
3502:Mongols
3486:Fashion
3309:Coinage
3124:Vietnam
3055:History
1787:Nanjing
1774:He Zhen
1769:He Zhen
1719:Shaanxi
1711:Li Siqi
1706:Li Siqi
1640:Li Siqi
1620:remove
1578:Kaifeng
1513:Toqto'a
1508:Toqto'a
1485:Shangdu
1473:Kaifeng
1411:Nanjing
1403:Jiangxi
1387:Mu Ying
1379:Tang He
1367:empress
1325:Shaolin
1303:Nanjing
1279:Wenzhou
1275:Taizhou
1256:Nanjing
1223:Taizhou
1219:Jiangsu
1150:Jiangxi
1142:Nanjing
1134:Sichuan
1118:Wuchang
1110:Hanyang
1090:Kaesong
1058:Kaifeng
1045:at the
962:Jiangxi
930:Jiangxi
906:Jiangsu
857:Huashan
832:Jurchen
805:Toqto'a
738:Chinese
633:Unknown
630:Unknown
627:Unknown
624:Unknown
621:Unknown
611:Unknown
608:Unknown
605:Unknown
602:Unknown
599:Unknown
586:Törebeg
576:Li Siqi
569:†
530:Lü Zhen
460:Chen Li
453:†
435:†
422:†
409:†
352:Mao Gui
346:†
328:†
237:Toqto'a
4264:Poetry
4154:Yunnan
3676:Early
3661:topics
3048:topics
2985:
2941:
2905:
2858:
2812:
2785:
2758:
2731:
2661:
2369:
2361:
2304:
2243:
2217:
2190:
2030:
2022:
1981:
1802:Yunnan
1742:Fuzhou
1696:Datong
1629:Shanxi
1589:Shanxi
1561:Naiman
1542:Xuzhou
1499:rule.
1383:Lan Yu
1287:Fujian
1283:Ningbo
1277:, and
1252:Suzhou
1239:piculs
1227:Gaoyou
1116:, and
1114:Hankou
1073:Goryeo
902:Shanxi
894:Fujian
840:Kublai
834:helmet
801:Merkit
793:Kusala
777:Mongol
748::
746:pinyin
740::
701:Yunnan
689:Poyang
578:
545:
521:
507:
462:
449:
431:
418:
342:
324:
275:
264:
253:
213:(1357–
144:(1270–
142:Goryeo
98:Result
4326:Islam
4149:Wokou
4137:Tibet
4068:Fotou
3937:Sarhū
3873:Late
3481:Islam
3265:Tibet
3151:Pagan
3141:Burma
3119:Japan
3105:Yamen
2367:JSTOR
2028:S2CID
1657:Gansu
1653:Xu Da
1633:Henan
1565:Henan
1469:Xu Da
1448:the "
1399:Anhui
1371:Xu Da
1359:Anhui
1341:Xu Da
1235:Shide
1156:into
1106:Hubei
1047:Hunan
1043:Anhui
951:Anhui
943:Hubei
934:Hunan
890:Hebei
779:-led
372:Xu Da
245:Temur
4063:Tusi
3999:List
3608:Zhou
3476:Semu
3441:Zaju
3400:Song
2983:ISBN
2959:link
2939:ISBN
2903:ISBN
2876:link
2856:ISBN
2810:ISBN
2783:ISBN
2756:ISBN
2729:ISBN
2659:ISBN
2359:ISSN
2302:ISBN
2241:ISBN
2215:ISBN
2188:ISBN
2020:PMID
1979:ISBN
1389:and
932:and
896:and
742:紅巾起義
732:The
74:Date
3393:Jin
2704:doi
2012:doi
1785:in
1138:Han
789:Han
485:WIA
474:WIA
4394::
2981:.
2973:.
2955:}}
2951:{{
2923:;
2887:;
2872:}}
2868:{{
2840:;
2700:58
2698:.
2636:.
2585:^
2558:^
2495:^
2454:^
2403:^
2365:.
2355:68
2353:.
2349:.
2075:^
2026:,
2018:,
2008:85
2006:,
2002:,
1702:.
1635:.
1464:.
1385:,
1381:,
1377:,
1373:,
1357:,
1323:A
1112:,
953:.
744:;
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3651:e
3644:t
3637:v
3573:e
3566:t
3559:v
3038:e
3031:t
3024:v
2991:.
2961:)
2947:.
2911:.
2878:)
2864:.
2818:.
2791:.
2764:.
2737:.
2710:.
2706::
2667:.
2373:.
2310:.
2249:.
2223:.
2196:.
2014::
1987:.
1401:–
736:(
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20:)
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