Reclaimed water - Knowledge

223: 4804: 1351: 1005: 238: 4768: 1326:(in antibacterial soap and toothpaste) was found in all water types, but detected in higher levels (parts-per-trillion) in reclaimed water than in surface or groundwater. Very few hormones/steroids were detected in samples, and when detected were at very low levels. Haloacetic acids (a disinfection by-product) were found in all types of samples, even groundwater. The largest difference between reclaimed water and the other waters appears to be that reclaimed water has been disinfected and thus has disinfection byproducts (due to chlorine use). 4828: 7059: 6070: 5490: 20: 5480: 765:

communities reuse water to replenish groundwater basins. Others put it into surface water reservoirs. In these instances the reclaimed water is blended with other water supplies and/or sits in storage for a certain amount of time before it is drawn out and gets treated again at a water treatment or distribution system. In some communities, the reused water is put directly into pipelines that go to a water treatment plant or distribution system.

1948:(UF), chlorination) to reduce associated risks and improve the water quality. Since the year 1968 the capital of Namibia, Windhoek, has used reclaimed wastewater as one of their drinking water sources, which nowadays represent about 14% of the city's drinking water production. In 2001, the New Goreangab Reclamation Plant (NGWRP) was built by the City of Windhoek and it started to deliver drinking water in 2002 (about 21,000 m of water per day). 4966: 1261: 7071: 4816: 4792: 5527: 1589:, reuse of water is mentioned as one of the possible measures to achieve the Directive's quality goals. However, this remains a relatively vague recommendation rather than a requirement: Part B of Annex VI refers to reuse as one of the "supplementary measures which Member States within each river basin district may choose to adopt as part of the programme of measures required under Article 11(4)". 1928:. In most localities, water is reused for irrigation. In Windhoek, reclaimed water is also used for potable uses. Windhoek has been using recovered water for fifty years. Approximately 30% of the city's 400 000 residents' present drinking water supply is made up of reclaimed water. A representative example of direct potable reuse is the case of 2034:

supply by 10,000 m per day, approximately one third of the drinking water demand. The process configuration includes the following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, and chlorine disinfection. Provision has been made for powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if required as an additional operational barrier.

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potentially create trade barriers for agricultural goods irrigated with reclaimed water. Once on the common market, the level of safety in the producing member states may be not considered sufficient by the importing countries. The most representative standards on wastewater reuse from European member states are the following:

1978:, which is called "used water" in Singapore, is treated in conventional advanced wastewater treatment plants that are called reclamation plants in Singapore. The effluent from the reclamation plants is either discharged into the sea or undergoes further microfiltration, reverse osmosis and ultraviolet treatment. 1712:

fire protection; commercial uses such as vehicle washing; industrial reuse such as cooling water, boiler water and process water; environmental and recreational uses such as the creation or restoration of wetlands; as well as agricultural irrigation. In some cases, such as in Irvine Ranch Water District in

1691:(EPA), but the EPA has developed water reuse guidelines that were most recently updated in 2012. The EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse represents the international standard for best practices in water reuse. The document was developed under a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement between the EPA, the 1684:

assessment of the chemical and microbiological water quality. The $ 30 million study found that the water produced met all health standards and compared favorably with Denver's high quality drinking water. Further, the projected cost was lower than estimates for obtaining distant new water supplies.

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strategy (2009/2010), where final effluents from its Outeniqua WWTP are treated to a very high quality through UF and disinfection prior to being returned to the main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. This initiative augments the existing

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concerning the reuse of treated wastewater states that "treated wastewater shall be reused whenever appropriate", which some consider not specific enough to promote water reuse as it may leave too much room for interpretation as to what can be considered as an "appropriate" situation to reuse treated

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Reclaimed water can offer a viable and effective alternative to freshwater where freshwater supplies are scarce. Reclaimed water is utilized to maintain or increase lake levels, restore wetlands, and restore river flows during hot weather and droughts, protecting biodiversity. Additionally, reclaimed

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Reuse of reclaimed water is an increasingly common response to water scarcity in many parts of the United States. Reclaimed water is being reused directly for various non-potable uses in the United States, including urban landscape irrigation of parks, school yards, highway medians and golf courses;

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is a trade association in the United States which promotes reuse of water. According to their website, "The WateReuse Association is the nation's only trade association solely dedicated to advancing laws, policy, funding, and public acceptance of recycled water. WateReuse represents a coalition of

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It was estimated that in 2002 a total of 1.7 billion US gallons (6,400,000 m) per day, or almost 3% of public water supply, were being directly reused. California reused 0.6 and Florida 0.5 billion US gallons (1,900,000 m) per day respectively. Twenty-five states had regulations

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Denver's Direct Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project examined the technical, scientific, and public acceptance aspects of DPR from 1979 to 1993. A chronic lifetime whole-animal health effects study on the 1 MGD advanced treatment plant product was conducted in conjunction with a comprehensive

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Planned potable reuse is publicly acknowledged as an intentional project to recycle water for drinking water. There are two ways in which potable water can be delivered for reuse – "Indirect Potable Reuse" (IPR) and "Direct Potable Reuse". Both these forms of reuse are described below, and commonly

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developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater in 2006, advocating a ‘multiple-barrier' approach wastewater use, for example by encouraging farmers to adopt various risk-reducing behaviors. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight;

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plants if it contains nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. There are benefits of using recycled water for irrigation, including the lower cost compared to some other sources and consistency of supply regardless of season, climatic conditions and associated water restrictions. When

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and landscape irrigation, industrial processes, toilet flushing, and groundwater replenishing (EPA, 2004)." A similar description is: "Water Reuse, the use of reclaimed water from treated wastewater, has been a long-established reality in many (semi)arid countries and regions. It helps to alleviate

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A study published in 2009 compared the differences in water quality between reclaimed/recycled water, surface water, and groundwater. Results indicated that reclaimed water, surface water, and groundwater are more similar than dissimilar with regard to constituents. The researchers tested for 244

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IPR occurs through the augmentation of drinking water supplies with municipal wastewater treated to a level suitable for IPR followed by an environmental buffer (e.g. rivers, dams, aquifers, etc.) that precedes drinking water treatment. In this case, municipal wastewater passes through a series of

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Indirect potable reuse (IPR) means the water is delivered to the consumer indirectly. After it is purified, the reused water blends with other supplies and/or sits a while in some sort of storage, man-made or natural, before it gets delivered to a pipeline that leads to a water treatment plant or

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Australia: National level Guidelines: Government of Australia (the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, the Environment Protection and Heritage Council, and the Australian Health Ministers Conference (NRMMC-EPHC-AHMC)): Guidelines for water recycling: managing health and environmental

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Some municipalities are using and others are investigating IPR of reclaimed water. For example, reclaimed water may be pumped into (subsurface recharge) or percolated down to (surface recharge) groundwater aquifers, pumped out, treated again, and finally used as drinking water. This technique may

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of 1972 mandated elimination of the discharge of untreated waste from municipal and industrial sources to make water safe for fishing and recreation. The US federal government provided billions of dollars in grants for building sewage treatment plants around the country. Modern treatment plants,

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Warsinger, David M.; Chakraborty, Sudip; Tow, Emily W.; Plumlee, Megan H.; Bellona, Christopher; Loutatidou, Savvina; Karimi, Leila; Mikelonis, Anne M.; Achilli, Andrea; Ghassemi, Abbas; Padhye, Lokesh P.; Snyder, Shane A.; Curcio, Stefano; Vecitis, Chad D.; Arafat, Hassan A.; Lienhard, John H.

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from the Tel Aviv metropolitan area is treated and reused as irrigation water for agriculture and public works. In 2012 the Dan Region Wastewater Treatment Plant was cited as a global model by the United Nations. The plant, known locally as Shafdan, was lauded for its unique method of using the

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in the United States found that the risk of exposure to certain microbial and chemical contaminants from drinking reclaimed water does not appear to be higher than the risk experienced in some current drinking water treatment systems, and may be orders of magnitude lower. This report recommends

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on the water reuse standards of several member states concluded that they differed in their approach. There are important differences among the standards regarding permitted uses, parameters to be monitored, and limit values allowed. This lack of harmonization among water reuse standards could

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Fresh water makes up less than 3% of the world's water resources, and just 1% of that is readily available. Even though fresh water is scarce, just 3% of it is extracted for human consumption. The remaining water is mostly used for agriculture, which uses roughly two-thirds of all fresh water.

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Direct potable reuse (DPR) means the reused water is put directly into pipelines that go to a water treatment plant or distribution system. Direct potable reuse may occur with or without "engineered storage" such as underground or above ground tanks. In other words, DPR is the introduction of

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The water needs of a community, water sources, public health regulations, costs, and the types of water infrastructure in place— such as distribution systems, man-made reservoirs, or natural groundwater basins— determine if and how reclaimed water can be part of the drinking water supply. Some

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Some water agencies reuse highly treated effluent from municipal wastewater or resource recovery plants as a reliable, drought-proof source of drinking water. By using advanced purification processes, they produce water that meets all applicable drinking water standards. System reliability and

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Reclaimed water is considered safe when appropriately used. Reclaimed water planned for use in recharging aquifers or augmenting surface water receives adequate and reliable treatment before mixing with naturally occurring water and undergoing natural restoration processes. Some of this water

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Since 26 June 2023 there is an EU regulation on minimum requirements for water reuse for irrigation purposes. The water quality requirements are divided into four categories depending on what is irrigated and how the irrigation is performed. The water quality parameters included are

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France: Jorf num.0153, 4 July 2014. Order of 2014, related to the use of water from treated urban wastewater for irrigation of crops and green areas (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Ministry of Ecology, Energy and

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Bischel, H.N.; J.E. Lawrence; B.J. Halaburka; M.H. Plumlee; A.S. Bawazir; J.P. King; J.E. McCray; V.H. Resh; R.G. Luthy (1 August 2013). "Renewing Urban Streams with Recycled Water for Streamflow Augmentation: Hydrologic, Water Quality, and Ecosystem Services Management".

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system. The system costs $ 250 million and has been working since May 2009. The system recycles wastewater and urine back into potable water used for drinking, food preparation, and oxygen generation. This cuts back on the need to frequently resupply the space station.

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and is bottled directly from an advanced water purification facility for educational and celebratory purposes. Though most of the reused water is used for high-tech industry in Singapore, a small amount is returned to reservoirs for drinking water. NEWater is the

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standards. Injecting reclaimed water into the water supply distribution system is known as direct potable reuse. Drinking reclaimed water is not typical. Reusing treated municipal wastewater for irrigation is a long-established practice. This is especially so in

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The term "water reuse" is generally used interchangeably with terms such as wastewater reuse, water reclamation, and water recycling. A definition by the USEPA states: "Water reuse is the method of recycling treated wastewater for beneficial purposes, such as

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There can be significant health hazards related to using untreated wastewater in agriculture. Municipal wastewater can contain a mixture of chemical and biological pollutants. In low-income countries, there are often high levels of pathogens from excreta. In

62:. There are many types of reuse. It is possible to reuse water in this way in cities or for irrigation in agriculture. Other types of reuse are environmental reuse, industrial reuse, and reuse for drinking water, whether planned or not. Reuse may include 683:

is increasingly using untreated municipal wastewater for irrigation – often in an unsafe manner. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so they are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce

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Despite the lack of common water reuse criteria at the EU level, several member states have issued their own legislative frameworks, regulations, or guidelines for different water reuse applications (e.g. Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, and Spain).

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Lopes, Ana Rita; Becerra-Castro, Cristina; Vaz-Moreira, Ivone; Silva, M. Elisabete F.; Nunes, Olga C.; Manaia, Célia M. (2015). "Irrigation with Treated Wastewater: Potential Impacts on Microbial Function and Diversity in Agricultural Soils".

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A 2005 study found that there had been no instances of illness or disease from either microbial pathogens or chemicals, and the risks of using reclaimed water for irrigation are not measurably different from irrigation using potable water.

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water is utilized for street cleaning, irrigation of urban green spaces, and industrial processes. Reclaimed water has the advantage of being a consistent source of water supply that is unaffected by seasonal droughts and weather changes.

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Psychological barriers, sometimes referred to as the "yuck factor", can also be an impediment to implementation, particularly for direct potable reuse plans. These psychological factors are closely associated with disgust, specifically

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with reclaimed water and 13% of a survey group said they would not even sip it. Nonetheless, the main health risk for potable use of reclaimed water is the potential for pharmaceutical and other household chemicals or their derivatives

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and promote socioeconomic benefits. It may also lead to reduced application of fertilizers (i.e. conservation of nutrients and reducing the need for artificial fertilizer through soil nutrition by the nutrients existing in the treated

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Restricted: The use of reclaimed water for non-potable applications in municipal settings, where public access is controlled or restricted by physical or institutional barriers, such as fencing, advisory signage, or temporal access

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natural filtration qualities of sand to improve the quality of sewage. In 2010, about 400 million cubic metres/year of treated wastewater was reused, primarily in agriculture. This constitutes about 40% of water use in agriculture.

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Low economic viability of water reuse schemes. This may partly be due to costs of water quality monitoring and identification of contaminants. Difficulties in contaminant identification may include the separation of inorganic and

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supplies. Most of the uses of water reclamation are non-potable uses such as washing cars, flushing toilets, cooling water for power plants, concrete mixing, artificial lakes, irrigation for golf courses and public parks, and for

1932:(Namibia, New Goreangab Water Reclamation Plant (NGWRP)), where treated wastewater has been blended with drinking water for more than 45 years. It is based on the multiple treatment barriers concept (i.e. pre-ozonation, enhanced 1742:

utilities that recycle water, businesses that support the development of recycled water projects, and consumers of recycled water." The WateReuse Research Foundation was merged into the WateReuse Association on July 11, 2016.

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Global treated wastewater reuse is estimated at 40.7 billion m per year, representing approximately 11% of the total domestic and manufacturing wastewater produced. Municipal wastewater reuse is particularly high in the

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There are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from

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Water/wastewater reuse, as an alternative water source, can provide significant economic, social and environmental benefits, which are key motivators for implementing such reuse programs. These benefits include:

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Tow, Emily W.; Hartman, Anna Letcher; Jaworowski, Aleksander; Zucker, Ines; Kum, Soyoon; AzadiAghdam, Mojtaba; Blatchley, Ernest R.; Achilli, Andrea; Gu, Han; Urper, Gulsum Melike; Warsinger, David M. (2021).

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reclaimed water derived from domestic wastewater after extensive treatment and monitoring to assure that strict water quality requirements are met at all times, directly into a municipal water supply system.

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applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw; cleaning vegetables with disinfectant; or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure.

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to be eaten raw or for crops which are intended for human consumption to be eaten raw or unprocessed. For processed food crops: crops which are intended for human consumption not to be eaten raw but after

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is plentiful. However, reclaimed water is usually sold to citizens at a cheaper rate to encourage its use. As fresh water supplies become limited from distribution costs, increased population demands, or

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and ponds; reduced energy consumption associated with production, treatment, and distribution of water (1.2 to 2.1 kWh/m) compared to using deep groundwater resources, water importation or desalination

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Some water-demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment. One example of this scenario is in the domestic environment where

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and pesticides). Irrigation with wastewater can have both positive and negative effects on soil and plants, depending on the composition of the wastewater and on the soil or plant characteristics.

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Spain: RD 1620/2007. The legal framework for the reuse of treated wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Ministry of Health).

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In some areas, one driving force is also the implementation of advanced wastewater treatment for the removal of organic micropollutants, which leads to an overall improved water quality.

3801: 2862: 667:(i.e. cooked, industrially processed). It can also be used on crops which are not intended for human consumption (e.g. pastures, forage, fiber, ornamental, seed, forest and turf crops). 169:

Water recycling and reuse is of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments. Municipal wastewater reuse is particularly high in the

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Tunisia: Standard for the use of treated wastewater in agriculture (NT 106-109 of 1989) and list of crops that can be irrigated with treated wastewater (Ministry of Agriculture, 1994).

1195:, the cost ratios will evolve also. The evaluation of reclaimed water needs to consider the entire water supply system, as it may bring important flexibility into the overall system 709: 483:

Food crops not commercially processed; Food crops commercially processed; Pasture for milking animals; Fodder; Fibre; Seed crops; Ornamental flowers; Orchards; Hydroponic culture;

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regarding the use of reclaimed water in 2002. Planned direct reuse of reclaimed water was initiated in 1932 with the construction of a reclaimed water facility at San Francisco's

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control and associated regulations (KDP 772/2003, KDP 269/2005) (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Agriculture, Natural resources and Environment, Water Development Department).

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process steps before it can be used. Steps might include screening, primary settling, biological treatment, tertiary treatment (for example reverse osmosis), and disinfection.

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allow communities to reuse water for many different purposes. The water is treated differently depending upon the source and use of the water as well as how it gets delivered.

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in 1932. The Water Replenishment District of Southern California was the first groundwater agency to obtain permitted use of recycled water for groundwater recharge in 1962.

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in coastal aquifers. IPR has generally included some type of environmental buffer, but conditions in certain areas have created an urgent need for more direct alternatives.

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is plentiful. The costs of water reclamation options might be compared to the costs of alternative options which also achieve similar effects of freshwater savings, namely

2204:"Assessing the potential of a membrane bioreactor and granular activated carbon process for wastewater reuse – A full-scale WWTP operated over one year in Scania, Sweden" 3414:

Pintilie, Loredana; Torres, Carmen M.; Teodosiu, Carmen; Castells, Francesc (December 15, 2016). "Urban wastewater reclamation for industrial reuse: An LCA case study".

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De facto, unacknowledged or unplanned potable reuse refers to situations where reuse of treated wastewater is practiced but is not officially recognized. For example, a

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China: China National Reclaimed Water Quality Standard; China National Standard GB/T 18920-2002, GB/T 19923-2005, GB/T 18921-2002, GB 20922-2007 and GB/T 19772-2005.

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substitution – keep drinking water for drinking and reclaimed water for non-drinking use such as industry, cleaning, irrigation, domestic uses, and toilet flushing).

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Italy: DM 185/2003. Technical measures for reuse of wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Public Health).

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Japan: National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management: Report of the Microbial Water Quality Project on Treated Sewage and Reclaimed Wastewater (2008).

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Greece: CMD No 145116. Measures, limits and procedures for reuse of treated wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change).

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by the United Nations, Target 6.3 states "Halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally by 2030".

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Wastewater reuse (planned or unplanned) is a practice which has been applied throughout human history and is closely connected to the development of sanitation.

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South Africa: The latest revision of the Water Services Act of 1997 relating to grey-water and treated effluent (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 2001).

1668:'s sanitation districts started providing treated wastewater for landscape irrigation in parks and golf courses in 1929. The first reclaimed water facility in 1704: 643:

reclaimed water is used for irrigation in agriculture, the nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) content of the treated wastewater has the benefit of acting as a

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are being over-drafted. Reuse will continue to increase as the world's population becomes increasingly urbanized and concentrated near coastlines, where local

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Takman, Maria; Svahn, Ola; Paul, Catherine; Cimbritz, Michael; Blomqvist, Stefan; Struckmann Poulsen, Jan; Lund Nielsen, Jeppe; Davidsson, Åsa (2023-10-15).

1400:. It also helps to reduce the likelihood of drought as recycling of water reduces the use of fresh water supply from underground sources. For instance, the 825:. This includes slow processes of further multiple purification steps via the layers of earth/sand (absorption) and microflora in the soil (biodegradation). 4435: 1411:

The main potential risks that are associated with reclaimed wastewater reuse for irrigation purposes when the treatment is not adequate are the following:

7037: 3569: 2011:(production of 2,300 m per day). The process configuration based on multi-barrier concept and includes the following treatment processes: sand filtration, 2007:, South Africa's a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) for the production of drinking water was constructed in the end of 2010, as a result of acute 1568:

United Nations Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development (UNW-DPC): Proceedings on the UNWater project "Safe use of wastewater in agriculture" (2013).

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Drawbacks or risks often mentioned include the content of potentially harmful substances such as bacteria, heavy metals, or organic pollutants (including

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As of 2010, Israel leads the world in the proportion of water it recycles. Israel treats 80% of its sewage (400 billion liters a year), and 100% of the

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A pump station distributes reclaimed water to users around a city. These may include golf courses, agricultural uses, cooling towers, or landfills.

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representative constituents typically found in water. When detected, most constituents were in the parts-per-billion and parts-per-trillion range.

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IPR or even unplanned potable use of reclaimed wastewater is used in many countries, where the latter is discharged into groundwater to hold back

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supplies can be a water-saving measure. When used water is eventually discharged back into natural water sources, it can still have benefits to

6998: 2482: 222: 4604: 6297: 1868: 1688: 983:) discharge their treated sewage ("non-potable water") into the Thames, which supplies water to London downstream. In the United States, the 4334: 4290: 1849:

are already considering building a reclaimed effluent process. Indirect potable reuse (IPR) has been considered for regional communities in

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Water reclaimation was pursued primarily due to geopolitical tensions arising from Singapore’s dependency on water imported from Malaysia.

1890: 1699:. The Guidelines provide a framework for states to develop regulations that incorporate the best practices and address local requirements. 700:, where industrial development is outpacing environmental regulation, there are increasing risks from inorganic and organic chemicals. The 6910: 5593: 1362:

Using reclaimed water for non-potable uses saves potable water for drinking, since less potable water will be used for non-potable uses.

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Rodriguez, Clemencia; Van Buynder, Paul; Lugg, Richard; Blair, Palenque; Devine, Brian; Cook, Angus; Weinstein, Philip (17 March 2009).

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Rodriguez, Clemencia; Van Buynder, Paul; Lugg, Richard; Blair, Palenque; Devine, Brian; Cook, Angus; Weinstein, Philip (17 March 2009).

2998:"ISO 16075-1:2015 – Guidelines for treated wastewater use for irrigation projects – Part 1: The basis of a reuse project for irrigation" 6657: 139:. Some water-demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment. 3331:"A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty" 5959: 1334: 1218:

Full-scale implementation and operation of water reuse schemes still face regulatory, economic, social and institutional challenges.

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Moreira da Silva, Manuela; Resende, Flávia C.; Freitas, Bárbara; Aníbal, Jaime; Martins, António; Duarte, Amílcar (January 2022).

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Water recycling and reuse is of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments.

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Groundwater quality degradation by the various reclaimed water contaminants, migrating and accumulating in the soil and aquifers.

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where salt and other minerals are removed from seawater to produce potable water for drinking and irrigation, typically through

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Portugal: NP 4434 2005. Reuse of reclaimed urban water for irrigation (Issuing Institutions: Portuguese Institute for Quality).

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adjustments to the federal regulatory framework that could enhance public health protection for both planned and unplanned (or

4536:"Dissolved effluent organic matter: Characteristics and potential implications in wastewater treatment and reuse applications" 3186:"Dissolved effluent organic matter: Characteristics and potential implications in wastewater treatment and reuse applications" 7118: 7026: 5668: 4584: 4048: 3876:

Regulation (EU) 2020/741 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 May 2020 on minimum requirements for water reuse

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involve a more formal public process and public consultation program than is the case with de facto or unacknowledged reuse.

5565: 5166: 5136: 1562: 848:, ozone). In ‘indirect' potable reuse applications, the reclaimed wastewater is used directly or mixed with other sources. 2911: 2439:

WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater – Volume IV: Excreta and greywater use in agriculture

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Andersson, K., Rosemarin, A., Lamizana, B., Kvarnström, E., McConville, J., Seidu, R., Dickin, S. and Trimmer, C. (2016).

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Reclaimed water is water that is used more than one time before it passes back into the natural water cycle. Advances in

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impoundments with/without public access (e.g. fishing, boating, bathing); Aesthetic impoundments without public access;

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The water that is used as an input to the treatment and reuse processes can be from a variety of sources. Usually it is

7009: 6887: 6807: 6647: 6622: 5954: 4088: 3940: 2407: 1147: 1143: 446:), in artificial recharge of aquifers, in agriculture, and in the rehabilitation of natural ecosystems (for example in 2942:

Resource recovery from waste: business models for energy, nutrient and water reuse in low- and middle-income countries

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and wastewater management will require emphasis on actions linked to resource management, such as wastewater reuse or

7148: 6556: 5824: 3844: 2593: 1300: 379:); reduced over-abstraction of surface and groundwater; enhanced environmental protection by restoration of streams, 207: 7143: 6935: 6892: 6132: 5513: 5234: 4534:

Michael-Kordatou, I.; Michael, C.; Duan, X.; He, X.; Dionysiou, D.D.; Mills, M.A.; Fatta-Kassinos, D. (June 2015).

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Michael-Kordatou, I.; Michael, C.; Duan, X.; He, X.; Dionysiou, D.D.; Mills, M.A.; Fatta-Kassinos, D. (June 2015).

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By 2023, a new EU agriculture law may raise water reuse by six times, from 1.7 billion m to 6.6 billion m, and cut

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that will keep valuable resources available for productive uses. This in turn supports human wellbeing and broader

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and ultraviolet disinfection are commonly used when reclaimed water will be mixed with the drinking water supply.

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A lavender-colored pipeline carrying non-potable water in a dual piping system in Mountain View, California, U.S.

605:. Where applicable, systems run a dual piping system to keep the recycled water separate from the potable water. 203: 43: 5628: 2382: 840:

and separation processes (e.g. MF, UF and RO), followed by an advanced chemical oxidation process (e.g. UV, UV+H

7128: 6852: 6750: 6285: 5503: 5188: 1282: 431: 475:; Street cleaning; Fire protection systems; Vehicle washing; Toilet flushing; Air conditioners; Dust control. 7096: 7075: 7043: 6920: 6847: 5904: 5728: 5688: 5508: 5498: 5400: 5181: 4712:"Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa" 4688:"Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production" 2734:"Urban Wastewater Reuse for Citrus Irrigation in Algarve, Portugal—Environmental Benefits and Carbon Fluxes" 1392:

The usage of water reclamation decreases the pollution sent to sensitive environments. It can also enhance

6832: 6100: 5209: 5161: 3693: 3128: 2044: 1234:, and others. Full cost recovery from water reuse schemes is difficult. There is a lack of financial water 1223: 1139: 1113:

Rather than treating municipal wastewater for reuse purposes, other options can achieve similar effects of

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In agriculture: Irrigation with treated wastewater may contribute to improve production yields, reduce the

3717: 3016: 7153: 6940: 6872: 6248: 5829: 5520: 5095: 2496: 881: 1752:

Canada: "Canadian guidelines for domestic reclaimed water for use in toilet and urinal flushing" (2010).

6642: 6263: 6142: 5969: 5736: 5531: 5116: 5019: 4782: 3875: 2468: 1842: 1582:, BOD5, total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, legionella, and intestinal nematodes (helminth eggs). 1066: 375:

For the environment: Reduced nutrient loads to receiving waters (i.e. rivers, canals and other surface

132: 3316: 6842: 6637: 6475: 6127: 5741: 5080: 4774: 4767: 2358: 1791: 1713: 1586: 1556: 1449:

and accumulation of various unknown constituents that might adversely affect agricultural production;

701: 262: 4436:"Recycling sewage into drinking water is no big deal. They've been doing it in Namibia for 50 years" 3598:

Water Reuse: Potential for Expanding the Nation's Water Supply through Reuse of Municipal Wastewater

324:. Large quantities of freshwater can be saved by municipal wastewater reuse and recycling, reducing 7163: 6775: 6652: 6617: 6366: 6356: 6330: 5658: 5558: 4987: 2115:. Nairobi and Stockholm: United Nations Environment Programme and Stockholm Environment Institute. 1158: 1050: 116: 4687: 4621: 3893: 3826: 3744:"Water reuse from a circular economy perspective and potential risks from an unregulated approach" 2575: 7063: 6837: 6680: 6490: 6462: 6185: 6175: 6093: 5929: 5869: 5796: 5638: 5425: 4935: 4853: 4711: 3540:

A Reconnaissance-Level Quantitative Comparison of Reclaimed Water, Surface Water, and Groundwater

1271: 325: 4362: 1004: 7089: 7082: 6902: 6857: 6812: 6627: 6591: 6581: 6376: 6351: 6335: 6320: 6302: 5786: 5781: 5746: 5465: 5309: 5264: 5121: 5029: 3312: 3267: 2310:"Country-level and gridded estimates of wastewater production, collection, treatment and reuse" 2059: 1516: 1322:(an insect repellant) and caffeine were found in all water types and in virtually all samples. 340: 2113:

Sanitation, Wastewater Management and Sustainability: from Waste Disposal to Resource Recovery

585:

use; Augmentation of surface drinking water supplies; Treatment until drinking water quality.

237: 7158: 6980: 6925: 6882: 6765: 6740: 6705: 6381: 5254: 5249: 5156: 5151: 4890: 4877: 4808: 4459: 3658: 1453: 1439: 1138:– Urban design systems which incorporate rainwater harvesting and reduce runoff are known as 1135: 159: 2958:"Enhancement of a Spent Irrigation Water Recycling Process: A Case Study in a Food Business" 6945: 6915: 6867: 6862: 6785: 6690: 6586: 6409: 6268: 6253: 6228: 6213: 6170: 5995: 5806: 5460: 5450: 5002: 4974: 3755: 3501: 3423: 3197: 3028: 2669: 2321: 2215: 2054: 2026: 1825:, interest in reclaimed effluent options increases. Two major capital cities in Australia, 1131: 1088: 729: 602: 390: 155: 75: 2438: 2308:

Jones, Edward R.; van Vliet, Michelle T. H.; Qadir, Manzoor; Bierkens, Marc F. P. (2021).

2112: 1527:

and their transformation products), etc.) in it and subsequent uptake by plants and crops;

720:

The use of reclaimed water to create, enhance, sustain, or augment water bodies including

8: 7138: 7123: 6877: 6760: 6755: 6500: 6419: 6238: 6218: 6208: 5909: 5894: 5849: 5648: 5551: 5410: 5274: 5224: 5171: 5141: 5131: 5126: 5090: 4982: 4885: 4038: 4036: 2997: 2454:

The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource

1846: 1764:

Jordan: Jordanian technical base n. 893/2006 Jordan water reuse management Plan (policy).

1662:

in addition to primary and secondary treatment, were required to meet certain standards.

1605: 1520: 1162: 1099: 1054: 837: 725: 321: 230: 120: 95:

allows water to remain an alternative water source for human activities. This can reduce

3759: 3505: 3427: 3242: 3201: 3032: 2673: 2325: 2219: 1350: 688:

with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use

6822: 6817: 6452: 6414: 6371: 6290: 6035: 6000: 5944: 5864: 5839: 5608: 5588: 5493: 5483: 5354: 5333: 5299: 5244: 5146: 5009: 4895: 4846: 4832: 4511: 4484: 4238: 4211: 4045:"Overview of Water Reuse Technology: Pricing Considerations Related To Reclaimed Water" 3060: 2711: 2698: 2657: 2476: 2174: 2157: 2141: 2049: 1917: 1665: 1659: 1565:(UNEP): "Guidelines for municipal wastewater reuse in the Mediterranean region" (2005). 1243: 1170: 1016:

network that keeps reclaimed water pipes completely separate from potable water pipes.

972: 797: 697: 676: 265:

has recognized the following principal driving forces for municipal wastewater reuse:

4411:"Namibia: Windhoek has been producing drinking water from its wastewater for 50 years" 4385:"Arid Israel recycles waste water on grand scale - Agricultural Commodities - Reuters" 4033: 2450: 1727:

network that keeps reclaimed water pipes completely separate from potable water pipes.

7031: 7014: 6985: 6780: 6664: 6470: 6223: 6160: 6074: 5859: 5756: 5603: 5479: 5294: 5284: 5229: 5054: 5044: 4992: 4930: 4669: 4643: 4641: 4622:"Microbiological Risk Assessment of the Water Reclamation Plant in Windhoek, Namibia" 4580: 4555: 4516: 4282: 4243: 4067: 3840: 3783: 3610: 3575: 3548: 3519: 3490:"The psychology of recycled water: Factors predicting disgust and willingness to use" 3439: 3330: 3213: 3064: 3052: 3044: 2979: 2797: 2780:. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 44. Springer. pp. 105–128. 2715: 2703: 2685: 2589: 2458: 2339: 2285: 2241: 2233: 2179: 2161: 2116: 2020: 1767:

Mexico: Mexican Standard NOM-001-ECOL-1996 governing wastewater reuse in Agriculture.

1405: 1124:

reuse systems – at a household level, treated or untreated greywater may be used for

984: 874: 866: 4203: 4119: 3040: 2309: 2228: 2203: 761:

frequent monitoring and testing are imperative to their meeting stringent controls.

6955: 6827: 6802: 6695: 6521: 6495: 6447: 6442: 6424: 6361: 6312: 6233: 6203: 6198: 6155: 5990: 5949: 5934: 5834: 5814: 5455: 5445: 5329: 5304: 5204: 5024: 4997: 4945: 4920: 4910: 4905: 4661: 4547: 4506: 4496: 4274: 4233: 4223: 3979:

Denver's Direct Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project Final Report (25 volumes)

3894:"Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation" 3832: 3773: 3763: 3602: 3509: 3470: 3431: 3342: 3205: 3094: 3036: 2969: 2827: 2789: 2781: 2755: 2745: 2693: 2677: 2581: 2329: 2277: 2223: 2169: 2153: 1941: 1720: 1677: 1467:

properties of the soil and contribution to the accumulation of chemical/biological

1092: 1070: 1025: 988: 945: 829: 658:

The irrigation water can be used in different ways on different crops, such as for

648: 630: 566: 554: 329: 313: 250: 242: 136: 92: 28: 4638: 3915: 3435: 3389: 2912:"Water reuse in Europe. Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation" 6790: 6700: 6685: 6516: 6325: 5899: 5613: 5440: 5405: 5349: 5344: 5324: 5085: 5034: 4925: 4915: 4648:

Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (4 September 2015).

4551: 4261:

Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (4 September 2015).

3828:

Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation

3596: 3209: 2577:

Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation

2264:

Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (4 September 2015).

2016: 2012: 1945: 1650: 1559:(WHO): "Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater" (2006). 1508: 1464: 1460: 1166: 1062: 1058: 1046: 769: 724:, aquatic habitats, or stream flow is called "environmental reuse". For example, 689: 685: 664: 520: 472: 376: 365: 128: 124: 112: 4460:"Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions" 3992: 3768: 3743: 3659:"Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions" 2886: 1896:

Reuse of treated wastewater is practiced in Namibia in many urban areas such as

7133: 6715: 6632: 6566: 6561: 6280: 6258: 6193: 6116: 6050: 6030: 6020: 6015: 6005: 5985: 5924: 5819: 5751: 5693: 5678: 5623: 5385: 5279: 5259: 5049: 5014: 4820: 4254: 3633: 2845: 2681: 2008: 1638: 1614: 1535: 1235: 1192: 959:

Unplanned Indirect Potable Use has existed for a long time. Large towns on the

745: 597: 582: 508: 443: 369: 348: 270: 188: 96: 83: 4747:

When the Rivers Run Dry: Water-The Defining Crisis of the Twenty-First Century

4013: 3285: 2816: 2627: 2546: 7112: 7020: 6745: 6730: 6725: 6710: 6531: 6485: 6243: 5708: 5633: 5430: 5420: 5289: 5239: 5100: 5070: 5039: 4950: 4827: 4673: 4286: 3787: 3523: 3443: 3048: 2983: 2689: 2521: 2343: 2334: 2289: 2237: 2165: 2004: 1673: 1524: 1446: 1415: 1227: 1183: 785: 504: 344: 277: 143: 67: 4598: 4596: 4092: 6993: 6391: 6150: 6055: 5939: 5889: 5761: 5718: 5390: 5359: 5219: 4796: 4605:

Treatment of wastewater for re-use in the drinking water system of Windhoek

4559: 4520: 4247: 3778: 3347: 3217: 3056: 2707: 2245: 2183: 1472: 1468: 1154: 1125: 1077: 960: 570: 539: 524: 468: 333: 211: 163: 79: 4501: 4228: 3824: 3098: 2831: 2793: 2573: 616:

applications in municipal settings, where public access is not restricted.

6576: 6571: 6536: 6399: 6045: 6040: 5964: 5919: 5879: 5776: 5683: 5364: 5314: 5214: 4900: 4593: 4141: 3514: 3489: 3366:"Water Scarcity, a driver for water reclamation, reuse and collaboration" 3015:

Ofori, Solomon; Puškáčová, Adéla; Růžičková, Iveta; Wanner, Jiří (2021).

2974: 2957: 2785: 2760: 2000: 1933: 1909: 1724: 1512: 1203: 1199: 1187: 1114: 1013: 921: 814: 680: 613: 535: 492: 488: 484: 411: 399: 291: 283:

increasing environmental pollution from improper wastewater disposal, and

147: 99:. It also eases pressures on groundwater and other natural water bodies. 71: 2750: 2733: 82:, businesses, and industry. It is possible to treat wastewater to reach 6735: 6720: 6546: 6526: 6010: 5874: 5574: 5415: 5369: 5269: 4665: 4278: 3474: 2281: 2142:"A review of polymeric membranes and processes for potable water reuse" 1975: 1921: 1901: 1897: 1669: 1500: 1496: 1484: 1378: 1370: 1355: 1285: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 928: 917: 877: 793: 659: 644: 639: 635: 543: 450:). The main reclaimed water applications in the world are shown below: 317: 287: 226: 195: 183: 63: 19: 956:

which is used as a drinking water supply for another city downstream.

939: 931:

have been able to drink recycled urine due to the introduction of the

16:

Converting wastewater into water that can be reused for other purposes

7004: 6950: 6404: 5844: 5791: 5643: 5339: 4869: 3544: 3488:

Wester, Julia; Timpano, Kiara R.; Çek, Demet; Broad, Kenneth (2016).

3457:

Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (2015).

2064: 1913: 1854: 1822: 1696: 1655: 1435: 1419: 1397: 1323: 1121: 1081: 1042: 980: 949: 913: 801: 403: 295: 229:

water is pumped from this tank which stores effluent received from a

151: 108: 31:

effluent, and finally reclaimed water (after several treatment steps)

4535: 3571:

Irrigation of Parks, Playgrounds, and Schoolyards: Extent and Safety

3185: 2731: 2648: 1260: 912:) are output from the other end. The soil could be used for growing 6797: 5771: 5663: 5598: 5075: 4965: 4650:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse" 4649: 4263:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse" 4262: 4113: 3606: 3459:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse" 3458: 2774: 2266:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse" 2265: 1929: 1925: 1850: 1838: 1830: 1826: 1504: 1488: 1480: 1431: 1423: 1366: 1038: 909: 558: 516: 512: 380: 309: 104: 3836: 2585: 865:

Wastewater reclamation can be especially important in relation to

6770: 6085: 5698: 5395: 4791: 4489:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

4339: 4216:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

1974:

given to ultra-pure water that is produced from reclaimed water.

1966: 1818: 1427: 1393: 1231: 976: 905: 776: 733: 721: 562: 447: 407: 386:

Reduced manufacturing costs of using high quality reclaimed water

4772:

Knowledge's health care articles can be viewed offline with the

4647: 4485:"Indirect Potable Reuse: A Sustainable Water Supply Alternative" 4260: 4212:"Indirect Potable Reuse: A Sustainable Water Supply Alternative" 3456: 3078:

Gerrity, D.; Pecson, B.; Trussell, R.S.; Trussell, R.R. (2013).

2658:"Modeling the energy consumption of potable water reuse schemes" 2263: 6434: 5713: 5703: 3981:. Denver Water and US EPA Cooperative Agreement CS-806821-01-4. 2451:

WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme) (2017).

1936:/dissolved air flotation/rapid sand filtration, and subsequent 1905: 1875: 1492: 1374: 1238:

comparable to already subsidized conventional treatment plants.

968: 964: 897: 789: 784:) to persist in this water. This would be less of a concern if 652: 199: 39: 24: 3413: 2138: 1993:

Water supply and sanitation in South Africa § Wastewater reuse

1723:. Reclaimed water is typically distributed with a color-coded 1705:

Water supply and sanitation in the United States § Water reuse

78:. Reused water also serve various needs in residences such as 5618: 5543: 5435: 5319: 4940: 4740:

Planet Water: Investing in the World’s Most Valuable Resource

4533: 4482: 4335:"UN cites Israeli wastewater treatment plant as global model" 4209: 3574:. Alexandria, VA: The Water Research Foundation. p. 60. 3183: 3077: 3014: 1971: 1937: 1531: 1476: 953: 932: 901: 893: 889: 744:

Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in

442:

Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in

406:, improving streamflow, nourishing plant life and recharging 47: 4838: 4754:

Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization

2846:

Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals

2134: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2307: 1812:

Water supply and sanitation in Australia § Wastewater reuse

1319: 885: 870: 424: 170: 88: 4187:"Reuse of wastewater in agriculture: A guide for planners" 2956:

Garcia-Garcia, Guillermo; Jagtap, Sandeep (January 2021).

2654: 1960:

Water supply and sanitation in Singapore § Reclaimed water

427:, in countries such as the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait and Israel. 173:, in countries such as the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait and Israel. 4164:"State Corporation Commission—Clerk's Information System" 2125: 1381:

garden and agricultural plants when used for irrigation.

1365:

It sometimes contains higher levels of nutrients such as

398:

Reclaiming water for reuse applications instead of using

3634:"Water Recycling and Reuse: The Environmental Benefits/" 3017:"Treated wastewater reuse for irrigation: Pros and cons" 1012:

Non-potable reclaimed water is often distributed with a

6975:

UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)

5766: 4086: 3160:"Pharmaceuticals in the environment: a growing problem" 2887:"Water Recycling and Reuse: The Environmental Benefits" 2201: 1869:

Water supply and sanitation in Israel § Reclaimed water

596:

In rarer cases reclaimed water is also used to augment

4654:

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology

4267:

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology

3463:

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology

2441:. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland 2270:

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology

1342:

reuse) and increase public confidence in water reuse.

320:

supplies are limited or are available only with large

107:. The following are some of the typical technologies: 4780: 4184: 3892:

Alcalde Sanz, Laura; Gawlik, Bernd (1 January 2014).

3748:

Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health

3487: 3087:

Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua

3080:"Potable reuse treatment trains throughout the world" 638:

with recycled municipal wastewater can also serve to

91:

countries. Reusing wastewater as part of sustainable

4296:

from the original on Jul 8, 2024 – via Zenodo.

3636:. US Environment Protection Agency. 23 February 2016 1891:

Water supply and sanitation in Namibia § Water reuse

1404:

instituted a water recycling program to protect the

1314:

eventually becomes part of drinking water supplies.

1084:

from baths and showers with little or no treatment.

3825:European Commission. Joint Research Centre (2014). 2955: 2574:European Commission. Joint Research Centre (2014). 1534:and vegetation in canals carrying wastewater (i.e. 940:

De facto wastewater reuse (unplanned potable reuse)

66:of gardens and agricultural fields or replenishing 3891: 2383:"Water Reuse - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 1853:, NSW, the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and 1402:San Jose/Santa Clara Water Pollution Control Plant 782:environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants 4308:"Arid Israel recycles waste water on grand scale" 3916:"Water Reuse - Environment - European Commission" 3390:"Water Reuse - Environment - European Commission" 1507:), contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) (i.e. 7110: 3268:"Astronauts Drink Recycled Urine, and Celebrate" 1396:, which benefits the wildlife depending on that 692:with urban waste directly to water their crops. 286:increasing recognition of the resource value of 191:by supplementing limited freshwater resources." 4185:Khouri, N; Kalbermatten, J. M.; Bartone, C. R. 3941:"New EU guidelines for agriculture water reuse" 3686:"Competing for Clean Water Has Led to a Crisis" 3328: 2727: 2725: 896:are input into one end of the reactor and pure 6999:Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 4360: 2522:RIPPLE EFFECTS: POPULATION AND COASTAL REGIONS 1550: 670: 50:for a variety of purposes . It is also called 6101: 5559: 4854: 4142:"Increasing Safe and Reliable Water Supplies" 3306: 1758:Israel: Ministry of Health regulation (2005). 1687:Reclaimed water is not regulated by the U.S. 1545: 1209: 813:distribution system. That storage could be a 612:Unrestricted: The use of reclaimed water for 4072:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3802:"NATIONAL WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY" 3247:Scientific American Frontiers – PBS Programs 2938: 2863:"National Water Quality Management Strategy" 2722: 2029:faced water shortages and had decided on an 1965:In Singapore, reclaimed water is branded as 1182:The cost of reclaimed water exceeds that of 1091:, the wastewater must pass through numerous 142:The cost of reclaimed water exceeds that of 3896:. Publications Office of the European Union 2107: 2105: 1214:Barriers to water reclamation may include: 7070: 6108: 6094: 5566: 5552: 4861: 4847: 4116:"Rules and Regulations for Recycled Water" 3741: 2481:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2433: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2030: 1999:In South Africa, the main driver for waste 1604:However, an evaluation carried out by the 1418:of the food chain with microcontaminants, 1198:Reclaimed water systems usually require a 991:effluent and the source of potable water. 860: 608:Usage types are distinguished as follows: 7010:Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) 4510: 4500: 4237: 4227: 4114:The City of San Diego. Water Department. 3777: 3767: 3513: 3346: 2973: 2759: 2749: 2697: 2333: 2227: 2173: 1693:U.S. Agency for International Development 1301:Learn how and when to remove this message 1206:, which adds to the costs of the system. 807: 437: 251:municipal wastewater treatment technology 7038:UN Conference on Sustainable Development 4042: 3536: 2405: 2102: 1716:, it is also used for flushing toilets. 1349: 1345: 1098:Wastewater is generally treated to only 1003: 994: 927:Aboard the International Space Station, 751: 471:, sporting facilities, private gardens, 236: 221: 210:wastewater) but it could also come from 18: 2934: 2932: 2778:Wastewater Reuse and Current Challenges 2424: 2303: 2301: 2299: 2003:is drought conditions. For example, in 1940:, biological activated carbon/granular 1835:Western Corridor Recycled Water Project 851: 710:pharmaceuticals, personal care products 23:Sequence of reclamation from left: raw 7111: 6608:Corporate environmental responsibility 4572: 3712: 3710: 3680: 3678: 3653: 3651: 3628: 3626: 2844:Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina. " 2356: 1788:History of water supply and sanitation 1108: 1019: 796:or, alternatively, systems that treat 715: 6089: 5547: 4842: 4602: 4332: 3976: 3887: 3885: 3883: 3567: 3360: 3358: 3260: 3157: 3151: 2622: 2620: 2618: 2616: 2614: 2612: 2527:(Report). Population Reference Bureau 2519: 2359:"Basic Information about Water Reuse" 2083: 1731: 624: 364:For cities and households: Increased 354: 6981:Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983) 5526: 3126: 3120: 2939:Otoo, Miriam; Drechsel, Pay (2018). 2929: 2296: 2259: 2257: 2255: 2197: 2195: 2193: 1792:Ecological sanitation § History 1695:(USAID), and the global consultancy 1594:Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive 1563:United Nations Environment Programme 1452:Distribution of the indigenous soil 1283:adding citations to reliable sources 1254: 1186:in many regions of the world, where 817:basin or a surface water reservoir. 146:in many regions of the world, where 3965:Federal Water Pollution Control Act 3742:Voulvoulis, Nikolaos (2018-04-01). 3707: 3675: 3648: 3623: 3601:. National Research Council. 2012. 1799: 1613:Cyprus: Law 106 (I) 2002 Water and 1408:area's natural salt water marshes. 1041:. Some common technologies include 775:Many people associate a feeling of 739: 425:Middle East and North Africa region 276:increasing populations and related 171:Middle East and North Africa region 13: 6623:Environmental full-cost accounting 6115: 5955:Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation 4732: 3880: 3547:Research Foundation. p. 141. 3355: 2945:. Oxon, UK: Routledge - Earthscan. 2904: 2609: 2539: 2158:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2018.01.004 1746: 1148:sustainable urban drainage systems 987:serves as both the destination of 312:that are used by over half of the 14: 7175: 6557:Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity 5825:Agricultural wastewater treatment 4760: 3993:"Environmental Protection Agency" 3158:Owens, Brian (19 February 2015). 2820:Environmental Engineering Science 2252: 2190: 1572: 1250: 948:from one city may be discharging 836:treatment steps that encompasses 515:water; Washing aggregate; Making 256: 7069: 7058: 7057: 7027:UN Millennium Declaration (2000) 6069: 6068: 5525: 5489: 5488: 5478: 5235:Extended producer responsibility 4964: 4826: 4814: 4802: 4790: 4766: 4573:Grabow, W. O. K. (26 May 2009). 4361:Melanie lidman (6 August 2010). 3722:education.nationalgeographic.org 3329:Zhang, S.X.; V. Babovic (2012). 3021:Science of the Total Environment 2208:Science of the Total Environment 2084:Tuser, Cristina (May 24, 2022). 1991:This section is an excerpt from 1958:This section is an excerpt from 1889:This section is an excerpt from 1867:This section is an excerpt from 1810:This section is an excerpt from 1703:This section is an excerpt from 1644: 1592:Besides that, Article 12 of the 1259: 6613:Corporate social responsibility 6542:Ocean thermal energy conversion 6481:Community-supported agriculture 6166:Human impact on the environment 5885:Industrial wastewater treatment 5855:Decentralized wastewater system 4704: 4680: 4614: 4566: 4527: 4476: 4452: 4428: 4403: 4377: 4354: 4333:Rinat, Zafrir (June 25, 2012). 4326: 4300: 4178: 4156: 4134: 4107: 4080: 4015:2012 Guidelines for Water Reuse 4006: 3985: 3970: 3957: 3933: 3908: 3869: 3860: 3818: 3794: 3735: 3588: 3561: 3530: 3481: 3450: 3407: 3382: 3322: 3278: 3243:"Scientific American Frontiers" 3235: 3224: 3177: 3071: 3041:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144026 3008: 2990: 2949: 2879: 2855: 2838: 2810: 2768: 2567: 2513: 2489: 2444: 2229:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165185 1985: 1689:Environmental Protection Agency 1270:needs additional citations for 1202:network, often with additional 1146:(LID) in the United States and 999: 873:announced it had built a human 728:fed by wastewater provide both 74:. This latter is also known as 6853:Socially responsible marketing 5573: 2406:Schiller, Antje (2021-05-06). 2399: 2375: 2350: 2077: 2019:, and permeate disinfected by 1333:A 2012 study conducted by the 591: 432:Sustainable Development Goal 6 332:. Reuse can be an alternative 1: 7044:Sustainable Development Goals 6848:Socially responsible business 5905:Rotating biological contactor 5401:Container-deposit legislation 4868: 4749:. Boston: Beacon Press, 2007. 4087:Irvine Ranch Water District. 4043:LeChevallier, Mark W., Ph.D. 3724:. National Geographic Society 3436:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.209 3416:Journal of Cleaner Production 2520:Creel, Liz (September 2003). 2070: 1150:(SUDS) in the United Kingdom. 176: 38:is the process of converting 7119:Hydrology and urban planning 4576:Water and Health - Volume II 4552:10.1016/j.watres.2015.03.011 3692:. 2010-01-26. Archived from 3286:"Guidelines for water reuse" 3210:10.1016/j.watres.2015.03.011 2628:"Guidelines for water reuse" 2547:"Guidelines for water reuse" 2045:One Water (water management) 1952: 1804: 1140:water-sensitive urban design 768:Modern technologies such as 7: 6873:Sustainability organization 6658:Standards and certification 6249:Social return on investment 5096:Materials recovery facility 3769:10.1016/j.coesh.2018.01.005 3335:Journal of Hydroinformatics 2146:Progress in Polymer Science 2038: 1837:once completed. Goulbourn, 1551:International organizations 1503:), natural chemicals (i.e. 1032:Nutrient Recovery and Reuse 882:International Space Station 671:Risks in agricultural reuse 233:in Haran-Al-Awamied, Syria. 217: 10: 7180: 6298:Systemic change resistance 5970:Wastewater treatment plant 5737:Adsorbable organic halides 4603:Menge, J. (January 2010). 4166:. Commonwealth of Virginia 4144:. WateReuse. 27 March 2015 3164:The Pharmaceutical Journal 2682:10.1016/j.wroa.2021.100126 1990: 1957: 1888: 1883: 1866: 1809: 1785: 1781: 1702: 1546:Guidelines and regulations 1354:Uses of recycled water in 1210:Barriers to implementation 1102:when used for irrigation. 1029: 1023: 628: 7053: 6964: 6901: 6673: 6600: 6509: 6476:Climate-smart agriculture 6461: 6433: 6390: 6344: 6311: 6184: 6141: 6123: 6064: 5978: 5805: 5742:Biochemical oxygen demand 5727: 5581: 5474: 5378: 5197: 5109: 5063: 4973: 4962: 4876: 4756:. New York: Harper, 2010. 3977:Lauer, William C (1993). 3319:, accessed 24 April 2007. 3127:Kean, Sam (Winter 2015). 2357:US EPA, OW (2019-08-13). 2314:Earth System Science Data 1861: 1587:Water Framework Directive 1557:World Health Organization 1335:National Research Council 1100:secondary level treatment 702:World Health Organization 410:, as part of the natural 308:Already, the groundwater 263:World Health Organization 7149:Sustainable technologies 6618:Environmental accounting 6367:Sustainable architecture 6357:Environmental technology 4742:. New York: Wiley, 2009. 4464:European Investment Bank 3963:33 Usc 1251 seq., 1972, 3663:European Investment Bank 3494:Water Resources Research 2850:SDG-Tracker.org, website 2335:10.5194/essd-13-237-2021 2086:"What is potable reuse?" 1177: 1159:energy-intensive process 880:designed for use in the 417: 241:Reclaimed water sign in 7144:Sustainable agriculture 6491:Sustainable agriculture 5930:Sewage sludge treatment 5870:Fecal sludge management 5830:API oil–water separator 5797:Wastewater surveillance 5426:Reverse vending machine 3831:. Publications Office. 2668:. Elsevier BV: 100126. 2580:. Publications Office. 861:Reuse in space stations 821:also be referred to as 565:; Stream augmentation; 326:environmental pollution 46:into water that can be 7034:(Rio+10, Johannesburg) 6903:Sustainable management 6888:Urban drainage systems 6628:Environmental planning 6592:Water recycling shower 6582:Tidal stream generator 6377:Sustainable industries 6336:Sustainable population 6321:Demographic transition 6303:Tragedy of the commons 5787:Total suspended solids 5782:Total dissolved solids 5747:Chemical oxygen demand 5466:Water recycling shower 5310:Reuse of human excreta 5280:Recycling (ecological) 5265:Material flow analysis 4579:. EOLSS Publications. 3967:, Enacted by Congress. 3718:"Freshwater Resources" 3537:Helgeson, Tom (2009). 3348:10.2166/hydro.2011.078 3313:Public Utilities Board 3231:University of Colorado 2060:Water recycling shower 1517:personal care products 1359: 1144:low-impact development 1009: 989:sewage treatment plant 946:sewage treatment plant 823:groundwater recharging 808:Indirect potable reuse 438:Types and applications 341:sustainable sanitation 246: 234: 32: 29:sewage treatment plant 7129:Recycling by material 6926:Humanistic capitalism 6741:Environmental finance 6382:Sustainable packaging 5654:Industrial wastewater 5255:Interchangeable parts 5250:Industrial metabolism 4775:Medical Knowledge app 4502:10.3390/ijerph6031174 4229:10.3390/ijerph6031174 3945:www.aquatechtrade.com 3568:Crook, James (2005). 3129:"Waste Not, Want Not" 3099:10.2166/aqua.2013.041 2832:10.1089/ees.2012.0201 2387:www.sciencedirect.com 1786:Further information: 1777:risks" Phase 1, 2006. 1739:WateReuse Association 1454:microbial communities 1440:antibiotic resistance 1353: 1346:Environmental aspects 1142:(WSUD) in Australia, 1128:or to water a garden. 1080:can be flushed using 1030:Further information: 1007: 995:Design considerations 752:Planned potable reuse 736:for flora and fauna. 629:Further information: 581:Aquifer recharge for 240: 225: 44:industrial wastewater 22: 6893:Urban infrastructure 6587:Water heat recycling 6410:Conservation biology 6254:Steady-state economy 6229:Micro-sustainability 6214:Ecological footprint 6171:Planetary boundaries 5996:Groundwater recharge 5461:Water heat recycling 5451:Waste management law 4363:"Wastewater wonders" 3696:on February 19, 2021 3515:10.1002/2015WR018340 3317:Overseas Experiences 2975:10.3390/app112110355 2786:10.1007/698_2015_346 2055:Water heat recycling 1530:Excessive growth of 1279:improve this article 1132:Rainwater harvesting 1089:municipal wastewater 852:Direct potable reuse 730:wastewater treatment 726:constructed wetlands 677:developing countries 647:. This can make the 603:hydraulic fracturing 391:ecological footprint 156:rainwater harvesting 76:groundwater recharge 40:municipal wastewater 6994:Earth Summit (1992) 6648:Metrics and indices 6501:Sustainable fishery 6420:Holocene extinction 6239:Product stewardship 6209:Earth Overshoot Day 5910:Secondary treatment 5895:Membrane bioreactor 5850:Constructed wetland 5649:Infiltration/Inflow 5411:Ethical consumerism 5345:Urban lumberjacking 5275:Product stewardship 5225:Eco-industrial park 4089:"Water Reclamation" 3760:2018COESH...2...32V 3506:2016WRR....52.3212W 3428:2016JCPro.139....1P 3202:2015WatRe..77..213M 3033:2021ScTEn.76044026O 2751:10.3390/su141710715 2674:2021WRX....1300126T 2326:2021ESSD...13..237J 2220:2023ScTEn.89565185T 1847:Victoria, Australia 1606:European Commission 1521:household chemicals 1163:membrane filtration 1136:stormwater recovery 1109:Alternative options 1055:membrane bioreactor 1020:Treatment processes 838:membrane filtration 716:Environmental reuse 322:capital expenditure 231:constructed wetland 160:stormwater recovery 121:membrane bioreactor 7154:Water conservation 6453:Sustainable energy 6415:Endangered species 6372:Sustainable design 6286:Consumer behaviour 6075:Category: Sewerage 6036:Septic drain field 6001:Infiltration basin 5945:Stabilization pond 5865:Facultative lagoon 5729:Quality indicators 5609:Blackwater (waste) 5589:Acid mine drainage 5484:Environment portal 5355:Waste minimisation 5300:Reusable packaging 5245:Industrial ecology 4666:10.1039/C5EW00165J 4440:The World from PRX 4279:10.1039/C5EW00165J 3543:. Alexandria, VA: 3475:10.1039/C5EW00165J 2282:10.1039/C5EW00165J 2050:Water conservation 1732:Trade associations 1666:Los Angeles County 1475:, chemicals (i.e. 1459:Alteration of the 1360: 1244:pathogen avoidance 1224:organic pollutants 1171:steam distillation 1067:advanced oxidation 1010: 625:Agricultural reuse 551:Environmental uses 503:Processing water; 366:water availability 355:Potential benefits 247: 235: 133:advanced oxidation 33: 7106: 7105: 7032:Earth Summit 2002 7015:Lisbon Principles 6987:Our Common Future 6665:Sustainable yield 6471:Civic agriculture 6224:Green consumption 6161:Global governance 6083: 6082: 5860:Extended aeration 5807:Treatment options 5757:Oxygen saturation 5604:Blackwater (coal) 5582:Sources and types 5541: 5540: 5295:Resource recovery 5285:Refill (campaign) 5230:Ecological design 5210:Dematerialization 5020:Fluorescent lamps 4752:Solomon, Steven. 4586:978-1-84826-183-9 4417:. 18 October 2018 4054:on March 18, 2009 3616:978-0-309-25749-7 3581:978-0-9747586-3-3 3554:978-1-934183-12-0 2803:978-3-319-23891-3 2464:978-92-3-100201-4 2121:978-92-807-3488-1 2090:Wastewater Digest 2021:ultraviolet light 1649:In the U.S., the 1406:San Francisco Bay 1311: 1310: 1303: 1051:aerobic treatment 985:Mississippi River 875:waste reclamation 867:human spaceflight 589: 588: 532:Recreational uses 480:Agricultural uses 456:Categories of use 117:aerobic treatment 36:Water reclamation 7171: 7073: 7072: 7061: 7060: 7005:Agenda 21 (1992) 6976: 6941:Natural resource 6828:Organic movement 6803:Impact investing 6522:Hydroelectricity 6496:Sustainable diet 6448:Renewable energy 6443:Carbon footprint 6425:Invasive species 6362:Natural building 6313:World population 6274:Marketing myopia 6234:Over-consumption 6204:Circular economy 6199:Anti-consumerism 6156:Environmentalism 6110: 6103: 6096: 6087: 6086: 6072: 6071: 5991:Evaporation pond 5979:Disposal options 5950:Trickling filter 5935:Sewage treatment 5835:Carbon filtering 5815:Activated sludge 5568: 5561: 5554: 5545: 5544: 5529: 5528: 5492: 5491: 5482: 5456:Waste management 5446:Waste collection 5305:Reuse of bottles 5205:Circular economy 5182:Northern Ireland 4968: 4863: 4856: 4849: 4840: 4839: 4831: 4830: 4819: 4818: 4817: 4807: 4806: 4805: 4795: 4794: 4786: 4770: 4738:Hoffman, Steve. 4726: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4716: 4708: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4697: 4692: 4684: 4678: 4677: 4645: 4636: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4626: 4618: 4612: 4611: 4609: 4600: 4591: 4590: 4570: 4564: 4563: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4514: 4504: 4495:(3): 1174–1203. 4480: 4474: 4473: 4471: 4470: 4456: 4450: 4449: 4447: 4446: 4432: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4422: 4407: 4401: 4400: 4398: 4396: 4387:. 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Archived from 3084: 3075: 3069: 3068: 3012: 3006: 3005: 3004:. 21 March 2018. 2994: 2988: 2987: 2977: 2962:Applied Sciences 2953: 2947: 2946: 2936: 2927: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2917:. European Union 2916: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2883: 2877: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2867: 2859: 2853: 2842: 2836: 2835: 2814: 2808: 2807: 2772: 2766: 2765: 2763: 2753: 2729: 2720: 2719: 2701: 2662:Water Research X 2652: 2646: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2632: 2624: 2607: 2606: 2604: 2602: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2551: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2526: 2517: 2511: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2501: 2493: 2487: 2486: 2480: 2472: 2467:. Archived from 2448: 2442: 2435: 2422: 2421: 2419: 2418: 2403: 2397: 2396: 2394: 2393: 2379: 2373: 2372: 2370: 2369: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2337: 2305: 2294: 2293: 2261: 2250: 2249: 2231: 2199: 2188: 2187: 2177: 2136: 2123: 2109: 2100: 2099: 2097: 2096: 2081: 1942:activated carbon 1800:Country examples 1721:Golden Gate Park 1678:Golden Gate Park 1621:Sustainability). 1306: 1299: 1295: 1292: 1286: 1263: 1255: 1093:sewage treatment 1071:activated carbon 1026:Sewage treatment 830:saline intrusion 800:separately from 788:was kept out of 740:Industrial reuse 698:emerging nations 649:reuse of excreta 631:Reuse of excreta 567:Wildlife habitat 555:Aquifer recharge 507:; Recirculating 453: 452: 330:carbon footprint 314:world population 243:Dunedin, Florida 137:activated carbon 93:water management 52:wastewater reuse 7179: 7178: 7174: 7173: 7172: 7170: 7169: 7168: 7164:Water treatment 7109: 7108: 7107: 7102: 7049: 6974: 6966: 6965:Agreements and 6960: 6897: 6701:Climate finance 6669: 6596: 6552:Reclaimed water 6505: 6457: 6429: 6386: 6340: 6326:Family planning 6307: 6180: 6137: 6119: 6114: 6084: 6079: 6060: 6026:Reclaimed water 5974: 5900:Reverse osmosis 5801: 5723: 5689:Reverse osmosis 5614:Boiler blowdown 5577: 5572: 5542: 5537: 5470: 5441:Waste-to-energy 5406:Dumpster diving 5374: 5350:Waste hierarchy 5325:Right to repair 5193: 5162:The Netherlands 5117:Rate by country 5105: 5059: 4969: 4960: 4872: 4867: 4837: 4825: 4815: 4813: 4803: 4801: 4789: 4781: 4779: 4771: 4763: 4735: 4733:Further reading 4730: 4729: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4710: 4709: 4705: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4686: 4685: 4681: 4646: 4639: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4620: 4619: 4615: 4607: 4601: 4594: 4587: 4571: 4567: 4532: 4528: 4481: 4477: 4468: 4466: 4458: 4457: 4453: 4444: 4442: 4434: 4433: 4429: 4420: 4418: 4409: 4408: 4404: 4394: 4392: 4383: 4382: 4378: 4368: 4366: 4359: 4355: 4345: 4343: 4331: 4327: 4317: 4315: 4306: 4305: 4301: 4293: 4259: 4255: 4208: 4204: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4183: 4179: 4169: 4167: 4162: 4161: 4157: 4147: 4145: 4140: 4139: 4135: 4125: 4123: 4122:on May 28, 2009 4112: 4108: 4098: 4096: 4095:on June 4, 2008 4085: 4081: 4065: 4064: 4057: 4055: 4051: 4041: 4034: 4024: 4022: 4018: 4012: 4011: 4007: 3997: 3995: 3991: 3990: 3986: 3975: 3971: 3962: 3958: 3949: 3947: 3939: 3938: 3934: 3924: 3922: 3914: 3913: 3909: 3899: 3897: 3890: 3881: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3851: 3849: 3847: 3823: 3819: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3800: 3799: 3795: 3740: 3736: 3727: 3725: 3716: 3715: 3708: 3699: 3697: 3684: 3683: 3676: 3667: 3665: 3657: 3656: 3649: 3639: 3637: 3632: 3631: 3624: 3617: 3595:"Water Reuse". 3594: 3593: 3589: 3582: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3535: 3531: 3486: 3482: 3455: 3451: 3412: 3408: 3398: 3396: 3388: 3387: 3383: 3373: 3371: 3368: 3364: 3363: 3356: 3327: 3323: 3311: 3307: 3297: 3295: 3288: 3284: 3283: 3279: 3274:. May 20, 2009. 3266: 3265: 3261: 3251: 3249: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3229: 3225: 3182: 3178: 3168: 3166: 3156: 3152: 3142: 3140: 3125: 3121: 3111: 3109: 3105: 3082: 3076: 3072: 3013: 3009: 2996: 2995: 2991: 2954: 2950: 2937: 2930: 2920: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2909: 2905: 2895: 2893: 2885: 2884: 2880: 2870: 2868: 2865: 2861: 2860: 2856: 2843: 2839: 2815: 2811: 2804: 2773: 2769: 2730: 2723: 2653: 2649: 2639: 2637: 2630: 2626: 2625: 2610: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2572: 2568: 2558: 2556: 2549: 2545: 2544: 2540: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2518: 2514: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2495: 2494: 2490: 2474: 2473: 2465: 2449: 2445: 2436: 2425: 2416: 2414: 2412:Umweltbundesamt 2404: 2400: 2391: 2389: 2381: 2380: 2376: 2367: 2365: 2355: 2351: 2306: 2297: 2262: 2253: 2200: 2191: 2137: 2126: 2110: 2103: 2094: 2092: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2041: 2036: 2035: 1996: 1988: 1980: 1979: 1963: 1955: 1950: 1949: 1946:ultrafiltration 1894: 1886: 1881: 1880: 1872: 1864: 1859: 1858: 1845:, and Regional 1817:When there are 1815: 1807: 1802: 1794: 1784: 1749: 1747:Other countries 1734: 1729: 1728: 1708: 1651:Clean Water Act 1647: 1575: 1553: 1548: 1509:pharmaceuticals 1465:microbiological 1461:physicochemical 1377:which may help 1348: 1307: 1296: 1290: 1287: 1276: 1264: 1253: 1236:pricing systems 1212: 1180: 1167:reverse osmosis 1111: 1087:In the case of 1063:reverse osmosis 1059:forward osmosis 1047:ultrafiltration 1034: 1028: 1022: 1002: 997: 942: 888:mission. Human 863: 854: 847: 843: 810: 770:reverse osmosis 754: 742: 718: 686:water resources 673: 665:food processing 633: 627: 594: 521:Soil compaction 500:Industrial uses 440: 420: 377:water resources 357: 339:Achieving more 259: 245:, United States 220: 179: 154:reuse systems, 129:reverse osmosis 125:forward osmosis 113:ultrafiltration 80:toilet flushing 60:water recycling 17: 12: 11: 5: 7177: 7167: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7100: 7093: 7086: 7079: 7067: 7054: 7051: 7050: 7048: 7047: 7041: 7040:(Rio+20, 2012) 7035: 7029: 7024: 7018: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6996: 6991: 6983: 6978: 6970: 6968: 6962: 6961: 6959: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6907: 6905: 6899: 6898: 6896: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6794: 6793: 6788: 6786:Infrastructure 6783: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6716:Eco-capitalism 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6677: 6675: 6671: 6670: 6668: 6667: 6662: 6661: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6633:Sustainability 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6604: 6602: 6601:Accountability 6598: 6597: 6595: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6513: 6511: 6507: 6506: 6504: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6467: 6465: 6459: 6458: 6456: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6439: 6437: 6431: 6430: 6428: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6396: 6394: 6388: 6387: 6385: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6348: 6346: 6342: 6341: 6339: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6323: 6317: 6315: 6309: 6308: 6306: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6294: 6293: 6288: 6278: 6277: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6259:Sustainability 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6194:Anthropization 6190: 6188: 6182: 6181: 6179: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6147: 6145: 6139: 6138: 6136: 6135: 6130: 6124: 6121: 6120: 6117:Sustainability 6113: 6112: 6105: 6098: 6090: 6081: 6080: 6078: 6077: 6065: 6062: 6061: 6059: 6058: 6053: 6051:Surface runoff 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6031:Sanitary sewer 6028: 6023: 6021:Marine outfall 6018: 6016:Marine dumping 6013: 6008: 6006:Injection well 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5986:Combined sewer 5982: 5980: 5976: 5975: 5973: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5925:Settling basin 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5820:Aerated lagoon 5817: 5811: 5809: 5803: 5802: 5800: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5752:Coliform index 5749: 5744: 5739: 5733: 5731: 5725: 5724: 5722: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5694:Sanitary sewer 5691: 5686: 5681: 5679:Produced water 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5624:Combined sewer 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5585: 5583: 5579: 5578: 5571: 5570: 5563: 5556: 5548: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5535: 5523: 5518: 5517: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5486: 5475: 5472: 5471: 5469: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5393: 5388: 5386:Bottle cutting 5382: 5380: 5376: 5375: 5373: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5260:Land recycling 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5201: 5199: 5195: 5194: 5192: 5191: 5186: 5185: 5184: 5177:United Kingdom 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5113: 5111: 5107: 5106: 5104: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5067: 5065: 5061: 5060: 5058: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5006: 5005: 4995: 4990: 4988:Automotive oil 4985: 4979: 4977: 4971: 4970: 4963: 4961: 4959: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4882: 4880: 4874: 4873: 4866: 4865: 4858: 4851: 4843: 4836: 4835: 4823: 4811: 4809:Earth sciences 4799: 4765: 4764: 4762: 4761:External links 4759: 4758: 4757: 4750: 4745:Pearce, Fred. 4743: 4734: 4731: 4728: 4727: 4703: 4679: 4660:(5): 563–580. 4637: 4613: 4592: 4585: 4565: 4540:Water Research 4526: 4475: 4451: 4427: 4402: 4391:on 21 May 2014 4376: 4353: 4325: 4314:on 21 May 2014 4299: 4273:(5): 563–580. 4253: 4202: 4177: 4155: 4133: 4106: 4079: 4032: 4005: 3984: 3969: 3956: 3932: 3907: 3879: 3868: 3859: 3845: 3817: 3793: 3734: 3706: 3674: 3647: 3622: 3615: 3607:10.17226/13303 3587: 3580: 3560: 3553: 3529: 3480: 3469:(5): 563–580. 3449: 3406: 3381: 3354: 3321: 3305: 3277: 3259: 3234: 3223: 3190:Water Research 3176: 3150: 3119: 3108:on 5 July 2016 3093:(6): 321–338. 3070: 3007: 2989: 2948: 2928: 2903: 2878: 2854: 2837: 2826:(8): 455–479. 2809: 2802: 2794:10400.14/23023 2767: 2738:Sustainability 2721: 2647: 2608: 2594: 2566: 2538: 2512: 2488: 2471:on 2017-04-08. 2463: 2443: 2423: 2398: 2374: 2349: 2320:(2): 237–254. 2295: 2276:(5): 563–580. 2251: 2189: 2124: 2101: 2075: 2074: 2072: 2069: 2068: 2067: 2062: 2057: 2052: 2047: 2040: 2037: 2009:water scarcity 1997: 1989: 1987: 1984: 1964: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1895: 1887: 1885: 1882: 1873: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1816: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1783: 1780: 1779: 1778: 1774: 1771: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1743: 1733: 1730: 1709: 1701: 1654:usually using 1646: 1643: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1622: 1618: 1615:Soil pollution 1574: 1573:European Union 1571: 1570: 1569: 1566: 1560: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1543: 1542: 1539: 1536:eutrophication 1528: 1525:food additives 1457: 1450: 1443: 1347: 1344: 1309: 1308: 1267: 1265: 1258: 1252: 1251:Health aspects 1249: 1248: 1247: 1239: 1228:microorganisms 1219: 1211: 1208: 1193:climate change 1179: 1176: 1175: 1174: 1151: 1129: 1110: 1107: 1024:Main article: 1021: 1018: 1001: 998: 996: 993: 941: 938: 920:also produces 862: 859: 853: 850: 845: 841: 809: 806: 753: 750: 746:cooling towers 741: 738: 717: 714: 690:water polluted 672: 669: 626: 623: 622: 621: 617: 598:drinking water 593: 590: 587: 586: 583:drinking water 579: 575: 574: 552: 548: 547: 533: 529: 528: 509:cooling towers 501: 497: 496: 481: 477: 476: 467:Irrigation of 465: 461: 460: 457: 444:cooling towers 439: 436: 419: 416: 396: 395: 387: 384: 373: 370:drinking water 356: 353: 349:sustainability 328:and improving 300: 299: 284: 281: 274: 271:water scarcity 258: 257:Driving forces 255: 219: 216: 202:or municipal, 189:water scarcity 178: 175: 162:, or seawater 84:drinking water 42:or sewage and 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7176: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7116: 7114: 7099: 7098: 7094: 7092: 7091: 7087: 7085: 7084: 7080: 7078: 7077: 7068: 7066: 7065: 7056: 7055: 7052: 7045: 7042: 7039: 7036: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7022: 7021:Earth Charter 7019: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6988: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6972: 6971: 6969: 6963: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6911:Environmental 6909: 6908: 6906: 6904: 6900: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6843:Refurbishment 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6833:Organizations 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6778: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6746:Green economy 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6731:Eco-socialism 6729: 6727: 6726:Eco-investing 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6711:Disinvestment 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6678: 6676: 6672: 6666: 6663: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6635: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6605: 6603: 6599: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6532:Marine energy 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6514: 6512: 6508: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6486:Cultured meat 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6468: 6466: 6464: 6460: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6440: 6438: 6436: 6432: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6397: 6395: 6393: 6389: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6347: 6343: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6318: 6316: 6314: 6310: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6283: 6282: 6279: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6261: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6244:Simple living 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6191: 6189: 6187: 6183: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6148: 6146: 6144: 6140: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6125: 6122: 6118: 6111: 6106: 6104: 6099: 6097: 6092: 6091: 6088: 6076: 6067: 6066: 6063: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5983: 5981: 5977: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5915:Sedimentation 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5808: 5804: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5734: 5732: 5730: 5726: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5709:Sewage sludge 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5634:Cooling water 5632: 5630: 5629:Cooling tower 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5594:Ballast water 5592: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5569: 5564: 5562: 5557: 5555: 5550: 5549: 5546: 5534: 5533: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5515: 5514:organizations 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5496: 5495: 5487: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5476: 5473: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5431:Simple living 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5421:Pallet crafts 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5383: 5381: 5377: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5360:Waste picking 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5335: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5290:Repairability 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5240:Green economy 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5202: 5200: 5196: 5190: 5189:United States 5187: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5108: 5102: 5101:Waste sorting 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5068: 5066: 5062: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5030:Mobile phones 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5004: 5001: 5000: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4980: 4978: 4976: 4972: 4967: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4883: 4881: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4864: 4859: 4857: 4852: 4850: 4845: 4844: 4841: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4822: 4812: 4810: 4800: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4787: 4784: 4777: 4776: 4769: 4755: 4751: 4748: 4744: 4741: 4737: 4736: 4713: 4707: 4689: 4683: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4644: 4642: 4623: 4617: 4606: 4599: 4597: 4588: 4582: 4578: 4577: 4569: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4530: 4522: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4479: 4465: 4461: 4455: 4441: 4437: 4431: 4416: 4412: 4406: 4390: 4386: 4380: 4364: 4357: 4342: 4341: 4336: 4329: 4313: 4309: 4303: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4249: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4206: 4188: 4181: 4165: 4159: 4143: 4137: 4121: 4117: 4110: 4094: 4090: 4083: 4075: 4069: 4050: 4046: 4039: 4037: 4021:. USEPA. 2012 4017: 4016: 4009: 3994: 3988: 3980: 3973: 3966: 3960: 3946: 3942: 3936: 3921: 3917: 3911: 3895: 3888: 3886: 3884: 3877: 3872: 3863: 3848: 3846:9789279443992 3842: 3838: 3837:10.2788/29234 3834: 3830: 3829: 3821: 3803: 3797: 3789: 3785: 3780: 3779:10044/1/57005 3775: 3770: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3738: 3723: 3719: 3713: 3711: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3681: 3679: 3664: 3660: 3654: 3652: 3635: 3629: 3627: 3618: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3599: 3591: 3583: 3577: 3573: 3572: 3564: 3556: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3541: 3533: 3525: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3484: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3453: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3395: 3391: 3385: 3367: 3361: 3359: 3349: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3318: 3314: 3309: 3294: 3287: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3263: 3248: 3244: 3238: 3232: 3227: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3165: 3161: 3154: 3138: 3134: 3133:Distillations 3130: 3123: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3081: 3074: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3011: 3003: 2999: 2993: 2985: 2981: 2976: 2971: 2968:(21): 10355. 2967: 2963: 2959: 2952: 2944: 2943: 2935: 2933: 2913: 2907: 2892: 2888: 2882: 2864: 2858: 2851: 2847: 2841: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2813: 2805: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2771: 2762: 2761:10400.1/18203 2757: 2752: 2747: 2744:(17): 10715. 2743: 2739: 2735: 2728: 2726: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2700: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2651: 2636: 2629: 2623: 2621: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2597: 2595:9789279443992 2591: 2587: 2586:10.2788/29234 2583: 2579: 2578: 2570: 2555: 2548: 2542: 2523: 2516: 2498: 2492: 2484: 2478: 2470: 2466: 2460: 2456: 2455: 2447: 2440: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2413: 2409: 2408:"Water Reuse" 2402: 2388: 2384: 2378: 2364: 2360: 2353: 2345: 2341: 2336: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2304: 2302: 2300: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2260: 2258: 2256: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2185: 2181: 2176: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2108: 2106: 2091: 2087: 2080: 2076: 2066: 2063: 2061: 2058: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2048: 2046: 2043: 2042: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2005:Beaufort West 2002: 1994: 1983: 1977: 1973: 1968: 1961: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1892: 1877: 1870: 1857:, Queensland. 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1813: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1766: 1763: 1760: 1757: 1754: 1751: 1750: 1740: 1736: 1735: 1726: 1722: 1717: 1715: 1714:Orange County 1706: 1700: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1674:San Francisco 1672:was built at 1671: 1667: 1663: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1645:United States 1642: 1640: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1619: 1616: 1612: 1611: 1610: 1607: 1602: 1598: 1595: 1590: 1588: 1583: 1581: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1554: 1540: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1455: 1451: 1448: 1444: 1442:determinants; 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1416:Contamination 1414: 1413: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1363: 1357: 1352: 1343: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1327: 1325: 1321: 1315: 1305: 1302: 1294: 1284: 1280: 1274: 1273: 1268:This section 1266: 1262: 1257: 1256: 1245: 1240: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1220: 1217: 1216: 1215: 1207: 1205: 1204:storage tanks 1201: 1196: 1194: 1189: 1185: 1184:potable water 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1130: 1127: 1126:flush toilets 1123: 1120: 1119: 1118: 1116: 1106: 1103: 1101: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1085: 1083: 1079: 1074: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1033: 1027: 1017: 1015: 1006: 992: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 957: 955: 951: 947: 937: 934: 930: 925: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 884:and a crewed 883: 879: 876: 872: 868: 858: 849: 839: 833: 831: 826: 824: 818: 816: 805: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 786:human excreta 783: 778: 773: 771: 766: 762: 758: 749: 747: 737: 735: 731: 727: 723: 713: 711: 706: 703: 699: 693: 691: 687: 682: 678: 668: 666: 661: 656: 654: 651:contained in 650: 646: 641: 637: 632: 618: 615: 611: 610: 609: 606: 604: 599: 584: 580: 577: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 553: 550: 549: 545: 541: 537: 534: 531: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 505:Cooling water 502: 499: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 479: 478: 474: 470: 466: 463: 462: 458: 455: 454: 451: 449: 445: 435: 433: 428: 426: 415: 413: 409: 405: 401: 392: 388: 385: 382: 378: 374: 371: 367: 363: 362: 361: 352: 350: 346: 345:excreta reuse 342: 337: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 306: 303: 297: 293: 289: 285: 282: 279: 278:food security 275: 272: 268: 267: 266: 264: 254: 252: 244: 239: 232: 228: 224: 215: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 192: 190: 185: 174: 172: 167: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 144:potable water 140: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 100: 98: 94: 90: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 68:surface water 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 30: 26: 21: 7159:Water supply 7095: 7088: 7081: 7074: 7062: 6986: 6751:Construction 6674:Applications 6551: 6392:Biodiversity 6151:Anthropocene 6056:Vacuum sewer 6025: 5940:Sewer mining 5890:Ion exchange 5840:Chlorination 5762:Heavy metals 5719:Urban runoff 5659:Ion exchange 5639:Fecal sludge 5530: 5391:Cogeneration 5220:Durable good 4955: 4773: 4753: 4746: 4739: 4718:. 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