Race (human categorization)

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human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups. Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic "racial" groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes. This means that there is greater variation within "racial" groups than between them. In neighboring populations there is much overlapping of genes and their phenotypic (physical) expressions. Throughout history whenever different groups have come into contact, they have interbred. The continued sharing of genetic materials has maintained all of humankind as a single species. ... With the vast expansion of scientific knowledge in this century, ... it has become clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups. ... Given what we know about the capacity of normal humans to achieve and function within any culture, we conclude that present-day inequalities between so-called "racial" groups are not consequences of their biological inheritance but products of historical and contemporary social, economic, educational, and political circumstances.

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thousands of genetic markers had to be used in order for the answer to the question "How often is a pair of individuals from one population genetically more dissimilar than two individuals chosen from two different populations?" to be "never". This assumed three population groups separated by large geographic ranges (European, African and East Asian). The entire world population is much more complex and studying an increasing number of groups would require an increasing number of markers for the same answer. The authors conclude that "caution should be used when using geographic or genetic ancestry to make inferences about individual phenotypes". Witherspoon, et al. concluded: "The fact that, given enough genetic data, individuals can be correctly assigned to their populations of origin is compatible with the observation that most human genetic variation is found within populations, not between them. It is also compatible with our finding that, even when the most distinct populations are considered and hundreds of loci are used, individuals are frequently more similar to members of other populations than to members of their own population."

2455:, have argued that the cluster structure of genetic data is dependent on the initial hypotheses of the researcher and the influence of these hypotheses on the choice of populations to sample. When one samples continental groups, the clusters become continental, but if one had chosen other sampling patterns, the clustering would be different. Weiss and Fullerton have noted that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form and all other populations could be described as being clinally composed of admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan genetic materials. Kaplan and Winther therefore argue that, seen in this way, both Lewontin and Edwards are right in their arguments. They conclude that while racial groups are characterized by different allele frequencies, this does not mean that racial classification is a natural taxonomy of the human species, because multiple other genetic patterns can be found in human populations that crosscut racial distinctions. Moreover, the genomic data underdetermines whether one 3709:(Asian-Pakistani), A3 (Asian-Bangladeshi), A9 (Any other Asian background); B1 (Black Caribbean), B2 (Black African), B3 (Any other black background); O1 (Chinese), O9 (Any other). The other is categories used by the police when they visually identify someone as belonging to an ethnic group, e.g. at the time of a stop and search or an arrest: White – North European (IC1), White – South European (IC2), Black (IC3), Asian (IC4), Chinese, Japanese, or South East Asian (IC5), Middle Eastern (IC6), and Unknown (IC0). "IC" stands for "Identification Code;" these items are also referred to as Phoenix classifications. Officers are instructed to "record the response that has been given" even if the person gives an answer which may be incorrect; their own perception of the person's ethnic background is recorded separately. Comparability of the information being recorded by officers was brought into question by the 2340:

human group to another. Another observation is that traits or alleles that vary from one group to another do not vary at the same rate. This pattern is referred to as nonconcordant variation. Because the variation of physical traits is clinal and nonconcordant, anthropologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries discovered that the more traits and the more human groups they measured, the fewer discrete differences they observed among races and the more categories they had to create to classify human beings. The number of races observed expanded to the 1930s and 1950s, and eventually anthropologists concluded that there were no discrete races. Twentieth and 21st century biomedical researchers have discovered this same feature when evaluating human variation at the level of alleles and allele frequencies. Nature has not created four or five distinct, nonoverlapping genetic groups of people.

8767:, we ask authors to not use race and ethnicity when there is no biological, scientific, or sociological reason for doing so. Race or ethnicity should not be used as explanatory variables, when the underlying constructs are variables that can, and should, be measured directly (eg, educational level of subjects, household income of the families, single vs 2-parent households, employment of parents, owning vs renting one's home, and other measures of socioeconomic status). In contrast, the recent attention on decreasing health disparities uses race and ethnicity not as explanatory variables but as ways of examining the underlying sociocultural reasons for these disparities and appropriately targeting attention and resources on children and adolescents with poorer health. In select issues and questions such as these, use of race and ethnicity is appropriate. 2286:

is invalid." He further argued that one could use the term race if one distinguished between "race differences" and "the race concept". The former refers to any distinction in gene frequencies between populations; the latter is "a matter of judgment". He further observed that even when there is clinal variation: "Race differences are objectively ascertainable biological phenomena ... but it does not follow that racially distinct populations must be given racial (or subspecific) labels." In short, Livingstone and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that the use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention. They differ on whether the race concept remains a meaningful and useful social convention.

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perhaps – there is a major but gradual change in skin color from what we euphemistically call white to black, and that this is related to the latitudinal difference in the intensity of the ultraviolet component of sunlight. What we do not see, however, is the myriad other traits that are distributed in a fashion quite unrelated to the intensity of ultraviolet radiation. Where skin color is concerned, all the northern populations of the Old World are lighter than the long-term inhabitants near the equator. Although Europeans and Chinese are obviously different, in skin color they are closer to each other than either is to equatorial Africans. But if we test the distribution of the widely known ABO blood-group system, then Europeans and Africans are closer to each other than either is to Chinese.

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and thus maximize the probability of finding cluster patterns unique to each group. In light of the historically recent acceleration of human migration (and correspondingly, human gene flow) on a global scale, further studies were conducted to judge the degree to which genetic cluster analysis can pattern ancestrally identified groups as well as geographically separated groups. One such study looked at a large multiethnic population in the United States, and "detected only modest genetic differentiation between different current geographic locales within each race/ethnicity group. Thus, ancient geographic ancestry, which is highly correlated with self-identified race/ethnicity – as opposed to current residence – is the major determinant of genetic structure in the U.S. population."

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race), with 88% of variation between regions. The study concluded: "The apportionment of genetic diversity in skin color is atypical, and cannot be used for purposes of classification." Similarly, a 2009 study found that craniometrics could be used accurately to determine what part of the world someone was from based on their cranium; however, this study also found that there were no abrupt boundaries that separated craniometric variation into distinct racial groups. Another 2009 study showed that American blacks and whites had different skeletal morphologies, and that significant patterning in variation in these traits exists within continents. This suggests that classifying humans into races based on skeletal characteristics would necessitate many different "races" being defined.

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probably the primary forces of nature that have shaped human races with regard not only to skin color and hair form but also the underlying bony structures of the nose, cheekbones, etc. (For example, more prominent noses humidify air better.)" While he can see good arguments for both sides, the complete denial of the opposing evidence "seems to stem largely from socio-political motivation and not science at all". He also states that many biological anthropologists see races as real yet "not one introductory textbook of physical anthropology even presents that perspective as a possibility. In a case as flagrant as this, we are not dealing with science but rather with blatant, politically motivated censorship".

6793:(Summarizing Edwards' thesis): We can all happily agree that human racial classification is of no social value and is positively destructive of social and human relations. That is one reason why I object to ticking boxes on forms and why I object to positive discrimination in job selection. But that doesn't mean that race is of 'virtually no genetic or taxonomic significance.' This is Edwards's point, and he reasons as follows. However small the racial partition of total variation may be, if such racial characteristics as there are highly correlated with other racial characteristics, they are by definition informative, and therefore of taxonomic significance. 3601:, Sociology professor at Duke University, remarks: "I contend that racism is, more than anything else, a matter of group power; it is about a dominant racial group (whites) striving to maintain its systemic advantages and minorities fighting to subvert the racial status quo." The types of practices that take place under this new color-blind racism is subtle, institutionalized, and supposedly not racial. Color-blind racism thrives on the idea that race is no longer an issue in the United States. There are contradictions between the alleged color-blindness of most whites and the persistence of a color-coded system of inequality. 3767:(IPV) arrest decision might include a racial bias in favor of white victims. A 2011 study in a national sample of IPV arrests found that female arrest was more likely if the male victim was white and the female offender was black, while male arrest was more likely if the female victim was white. For both female and male arrest in IPV cases, situations involving married couples were more likely to lead to arrest compared to dating or divorced couples. More research is needed to understand agency and community factors that influence police behavior and how discrepancies in IPV interventions/ tools of justice can be addressed. 3225:. The study showed that the race concept was widely used among Chinese anthropologists. In a 2007 review paper, Štrkalj suggested that the stark contrast of the racial approach between the United States and China was due to the fact that race is a factor for social cohesion among the ethnically diverse people of China, whereas "race" is a very sensitive issue in America and the racial approach is considered to undermine social cohesion – with the result that in the socio-political context of US academics scientists are encouraged not to use racial categories, whereas in China they are encouraged to use them. 2459:. Under Kaplan and Winther's view, racial groupings are objective social constructions (see Mills 1998) that have conventional biological reality only insofar as the categories are chosen and constructed for pragmatic scientific reasons. In earlier work, Winther had identified "diversity partitioning" and "clustering analysis" as two separate methodologies, with distinct questions, assumptions, and protocols. Each is also associated with opposing ontological consequences vis-a-vis the metaphysics of race. Philosopher Lisa Gannett has argued that biogeographical ancestry, a concept devised by 2295: 3408:

not undergo such a reversal but many instead dropped their discussion of race altogether. The authors attributed this to biologists trying to avoid discussing the political implications of racial classifications, and to the ongoing discussions in biology about the validity of the idea of "subspecies". The authors concluded, "The concept of race, masking the overwhelming genetic similarity of all peoples and the mosaic patterns of variation that do not correspond to racial divisions, is not only socially dysfunctional but is biologically indefensible as well (pp. 5 18–5 19)."(

3756:(2010), argues that mass incarceration is best understood as not only a system of overcrowded prisons. Mass incarceration is also, "the larger web of laws, rules, policies, and customs that control those labeled criminals both in and out of prison". She defines it further as "a system that locks people not only behind actual bars in actual prisons, but also behind virtual bars and virtual walls", illustrating the second-class citizenship that is imposed on a disproportionate number of people of color, specifically African-Americans. She compares mass incarceration to 3815:

legal contexts in the United States. Some studies have reported that races can be identified with a high degree of accuracy using certain methods, such as that developed by Giles and Elliot. However, this method sometimes fails to be replicated in other times and places; for instance, when the method was re-tested to identify Native Americans, the average rate of accuracy dropped from 85% to 33%. Prior information about the individual (e.g. Census data) is also important in allowing the accurate identification of the individual's "race".

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anthropologist to classify an array of Englishmen, West Africans, and Chinese with 100% accuracy by features, skin color, and type of hair despite so much variability within each of these groups that every individual can easily be distinguished from every other." While in practice subspecies are often defined by easily observable physical appearance, there is not necessarily any evolutionary significance to these observed differences, so this form of classification has become less acceptable to evolutionary biologists. Likewise this

1725:("New division of Earth by the different species or races which inhabit it"), published in 1684. In the 18th century the differences among human groups became a focus of scientific investigation. But the scientific classification of phenotypic variation was frequently coupled with racist ideas about innate predispositions of different groups, always attributing the most desirable features to the White, European race and arranging the other races along a continuum of progressively undesirable attributes. The 1735 classification of 6418: 7975: 3655:

any group. They argue that overemphasizing genetic contributions to health disparities carries various risks such as reinforcing stereotypes, promoting racism or ignoring the contribution of non-genetic factors to health disparities. International epidemiological data show that living conditions rather than race make the biggest difference in health outcomes even for diseases that have "race-specific" treatments. Some studies have found that patients are reluctant to accept racial categorization in medical practice.

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African and European gene pools that were almost completely isolated for the last 70,000 years. With the help of these tools, we are learning that while race may be a social construct, differences in genetic ancestry that happen to correlate to many of today's racial constructs are real. Recent genetic studies have demonstrated differences across populations not just in the genetic determinants of simple traits such as skin color, but also in more complex traits like bodily dimensions and susceptibility to diseases.

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sequences. There is no such thing as a set of genes that belongs exclusively to one group and not to another. The clinal, gradually changing nature of geographic genetic difference is complicated further by the migration and mixing that human groups have engaged in since prehistory. Human beings do not fit the zoological definition of race. A mountain of evidence assembled by historians, anthropologists, and biologists proves that race is not and cannot be a natural division of human beings.

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populations and to non-African populations", and that "outside of Africa, regional groupings of populations are nested inside one another, and many of them are not monophyletic". Earlier research had also suggested that there has always been considerable gene flow between human populations, meaning that human population groups are not monophyletic. Rachel Caspari has argued that, since no groups currently regarded as races are monophyletic, by definition none of these groups can be clades.

3380:. Brace has criticized forensic anthropologists for this, arguing that they in fact should be talking about regional ancestry. He argues that while forensic anthropologists can determine that a skeletal remain comes from a person with ancestors in a specific region of Africa, categorizing that skeletal as being "black" is a socially constructed category that is only meaningful in the particular social context of the United States, and which is not itself scientifically valid. 3069:(European Commission against Racism and Intolerance) rejects theories based on the existence of different "races". However, in its Recommendation ECRI uses this term in order to ensure that those persons who are generally and erroneously perceived as belonging to "another race" are not excluded from the protection provided for by the legislation. The law claims to reject the existence of "race", yet penalize situations where someone is treated less favourably on this ground. 5548:

16th to 18th centuries that identified race in terms of skin color and physical difference. In the post-Enlightenment world, a 'scientific,' biological idea of race suggested that human difference could be explained by biologically distinct groups of humans, evolved from separate origins, who could be distinguished by physical differences, predominantly skin color .... Such categorizations would have confused the ancient Greeks and Romans.

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the concept is understood in the social sciences. Since 1932, an increasing number of college textbooks introducing physical anthropology have rejected race as a valid concept: from 1932 to 1976, only seven out of thirty-two rejected race; from 1975 to 1984, thirteen out of thirty-three rejected race; from 1985 to 1993, thirteen out of nineteen rejected race. According to one academic journal entry, where 78 percent of the articles in the 1931

2609: 14339:(28 April 2013) This review of current research includes chapters by Ian Whitmarsh, David S. Jones, Jonathan Kahn, Pamela Sankar, Steven Epstein, Simon M. Outram, George T. H. Ellison, Richard Tutton, Andrew Smart, Richard Ashcroft, Paul Martin, George T. H. Ellison, Amy Hinterberger, Joan H. Fujimura, Ramya Rajagopalan, Pilar N. Ossorio, Kjell A. Doksum, Jay S. Kaufman, Richard S. Cooper, Angela C. Jenks, Nancy Krieger, and Dorothy Roberts. 1463: 2808:

race referred preferentially to appearance, not heredity, and appearance is a poor indication of ancestry, because only a few genes are responsible for someone's skin color and traits: a person who is considered white may have more African ancestry than a person who is considered black, and the reverse can be also true about European ancestry. The complexity of racial classifications in Brazil reflects the extent of genetic mixing in

9485:, p. 132. "For example, what are we to make of the fact that African Americans suffer from disproportionately high rates of hypertension, but Africans in Nigeria have among the world's lowest rates of hypertension, far lower than the overwhelmingly white population of Germany? Genetics certainly plays a role in hypertension. But any role it plays in explaining such differences must surely be vanishingly small." Citing: 2306: 2278:. This point called attention to a problem common to phenotype-based descriptions of races (for example, those based on hair texture and skin color): they ignore a host of other similarities and differences (for example, blood type) that do not correlate highly with the markers for race. Thus, anthropologist Frank Livingstone's conclusion was that, since clines cross racial boundaries, "there are no races, only clines". 1565: 2398:

existing in all human populations, about 100% of human diversity exists in a single African population, whereas only about 60% of human genetic diversity exists in the least diverse population they analyzed (the Surui, a population derived from New Guinea). Statistical analysis that takes this difference into account confirms previous findings that "Western-based racial classifications have no taxonomic significance".

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clinical practice makes possible the application of new genetic findings, and provides a clue to diagnosis. Biomedical researchers' positions on race fall into two main camps: those who consider the concept of race to have no biological basis and those who consider it to have the potential to be biologically meaningful. Members of the latter camp often base their arguments around the potential to create genome-based

3847:, who accused Sesardić of "cherry pick the scientific evidence and reach conclusions that are contradicted by it". Specifically, Pigliucci argued that Sesardić misrepresented a paper by Ousley et al. (2009), and neglected to mention that they identified differentiation not just between individuals from different races, but also between individuals from different tribes, local environments, and time periods. 8123:'Race' as a typological characterization of human variation was to become a dominant theme in physical anthropology until the mid-twentieth century. ... Controversies over race did not end in the 1960s ... but there is a general sense in physical anthropology that the earlier use of race as a unit of study or as a conceptual unit is no longer viable and that this transition came in the 1960s. 2570:

of the previously assumed 1%), the types of variations do not support the notion of genetically defined races. Venter said, "Race is a social concept. It's not a scientific one. There are no bright lines (that would stand out), if we could compare all the sequenced genomes of everyone on the planet. ... When we try to apply science to try to sort out these social differences, it all falls apart."

2377:, but that real human races do not correspond very much, if at all, to folk racial categories. In contrast, Walsh & Yun reviewed the literature in 2011 and reported: "Genetic studies using very few chromosomal loci find that genetic polymorphisms divide human populations into clusters with almost 100 percent accuracy and that they correspond to the traditional anthropological categories." 5376:: "In many parts of Latin America, racial groupings are based less on the biological physical features and more on an intersection between physical features and social features such as economic class, dress, education, and context. Thus, a more fluid treatment allows for the construction of race as an achieved status rather than an ascribed status as is the case in the United States." 349: 4712:

the impact of notions of "race" on patterns of mating and self-identity in the US. Our results provide empirical support that, over recent centuries, many individuals with partial African and Native American ancestry have "passed" into the white community, with multiple lines of evidence establishing African and Native American ancestry in self-reported European Americans.

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have pointed out that "the paramount weakness of this statement is that if one gene can distinguish races then the number of races is as numerous as the number of human couples reproducing". Moreover, the anthropologist Stephen Molnar has suggested that the discordance of clines inevitably results in a multiplication of races that renders the concept itself useless. The

5580:'The Invention of Race' has assisted us in the process of locating the 'epistemological moment,' somewhere between 1730 and 1790, when the concept of race was invented and rationalized. A "moment" that was accompanied by a revolution in the way in which the human body was studied and observed in order to formulate scientific conclusions relating to human variability. 7534:'Money whitens' If any phrase encapsulates the association of whiteness and the modern in Latin America, this is it. It is a cliché formulated and reformulated throughout the region, a truism dependent upon the social experience that wealth is associated with whiteness, and that in obtaining the former one may become aligned with the latter (and vice versa). 3516:(1841–1913), considered to be one of the founders of American sociology, rejected notions that there were fundamental differences that distinguished one race from another, although he acknowledged that social conditions differed dramatically by race. At the turn of the 20th century, sociologists viewed the concept of race in ways that were shaped by the 3005:

1500 and 1760, 700.000 Europeans settled in Brazil, while 530.000 Europeans settled in the United States for the same given time. Thus, the historical construction of race in Brazilian society dealt primarily with gradations between persons of majority European ancestry and little minority groups with otherwise lower quantity therefrom in recent times.

2577:, "a metonym", "a human invention whose criteria for differentiation are neither universal nor fixed but have always been used to manage difference". As such, the use of the term "race" itself must be analyzed. Moreover, they argue that biology will not explain why or how people use the idea of race; only history and social relationships will. 9462:, p. 458 "On the other hand, information about the race of patients will be useless as soon as we discover and can type cheaply the underlying genes that are responsible for the associations. Can races be enumerated in any unambiguous way? Of course not, and this is well known not only to scientists but also to anyone on the street." 4436:. "Modern human biological variation is not structured into phylogenetic subspecies ('races'), nor are the taxa of the standard anthropological 'racial' classifications breeding populations. The 'racial taxa' do not meet the phylogenetic criteria. 'Race' denotes socially constructed units as a function of the incorrect usage of the term." 4420:: "For example, 'Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic "racial" groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes. This means that there is greater variation within 'racial' groups than between them. 2467:, is not an objective measure of the biological aspects of race as Shriver and Frudakis claim it is. She argues that it is actually just a "local category shaped by the U.S. context of its production, especially the forensic aim of being able to predict the race or ethnicity of an unknown suspect based on DNA found at the crime scene". 5817:... we should always remember, that by whatever means the Negro, for instance, acquired his present physical, mental and moral character, whether he has risen from an ape or descended from a perfect man, we still know that the Races of Europe have now much in their mental and moral nature which the races of Africa have not got. 2590:(2005), Richard T. Ford argued that while "there is no necessary correspondence between the ascribed identity of race and one's culture or personal sense of self" and "group difference is not intrinsic to members of social groups but rather contingent o the social practices of group identification", the social practices of 3233:

anthropologists, and middle-aged persons rejected race more frequently than those educated in Eastern Europe, people in other branches of science, and those from both younger and older generations. "The survey shows that the views on race are sociopolitically (ideologically) influenced and highly dependent on education."

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as geneticists Kenneth Weiss and Jeffrey Long put it, "multilayered, porous, ephemeral, and difficult to identify". Pure, geographically separated ancestral populations are an abstraction: "There is no reason to think that there ever were isolated, homogeneous parental populations at any time in our human past."

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discussions of race in the context of medical disorders have increased from none to 93% of textbooks. In general, the material on race has moved from surface traits to genetics and evolutionary history. The study argues that the textbooks' fundamental message about the existence of races has changed little.

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estimated to have occurred 20,000 to 50,000 years ago, partially accounts for the appearance of light skin in people who migrated out of Africa northward into what is now Europe. East Asians owe their relatively light skin to different mutations. On the other hand, the greater the number of traits (or

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Race is a poor empirical description of the patterns of difference that we encounter within our species. The billions of humans alive today simply do not fit into neat and tidy biological boxes called races. Science has proven this conclusively. The concept of race ... is not scientific and goes

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rule refers to the convention of defining a person as racially black if he or she has any known African ancestry. This rule meant that those that were mixed race but with some discernible African ancestry were defined as black. The one-drop rule is specific to not only those with African ancestry but

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until the 1950s, the proportion of the white population increased significantly while Brazil welcomed 5.5 million immigrants between 1821 and 1932, not much behind its neighbor Argentina with 6.4 million, and it received more European immigrants in its colonial history than the United States. Between

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Craig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000. Upon examining the data from the genome mapping, Venter realized that although the genetic variation within the human species is on the order of 1–3% (instead

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theory for humans would predict that in Africa there exists a great deal more diversity than elsewhere and that diversity should decrease the further from Africa a population is sampled. Hence, the 85% average figure is misleading: Long and Kittles find that rather than 85% of human genetic diversity

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Anthropologists long ago discovered that humans' physical traits vary gradually, with groups that are close geographic neighbors being more similar than groups that are geographically separated. This pattern of variation, known as clinal variation, is also observed for many alleles that vary from one

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The modern concept of race emerged as a product of the colonial enterprises of European powers from the 16th to 18th centuries which identified race in terms of skin color and physical differences. Author Rebecca F. Kennedy argues that the Greeks and Romans would have found such concepts confusing in

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Groups of humans have always identified themselves as distinct from neighboring groups, but such differences have not always been understood to be natural, immutable and global. These features are the distinguishing features of how the concept of race is used today. In this way the idea of race as we

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In summary, they argues that, in order to predict the clinical success of pharmacogenomic research, scholars must conduct subsidiary research on two fronts: Science, wherein the degree of correspondence between popular and professional racial categories can be assessed; and society at large, through

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The authors of the study also examined 77 college textbooks in biology and 69 in physical anthropology published between 1932 and 1989. Physical anthropology texts argued that biological races exist until the 1970s, when they began to argue that races do not exist. In contrast, biology textbooks did

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has said that the idea that race is only skin deep "is simply not true, as any experienced forensic anthropologist will affirm" and "Many morphological features tend to follow geographic boundaries coinciding often with climatic zones. This is not surprising since the selective forces of climate are

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have argued that even when individuals can be reliably assigned to specific population groups, it may still be possible for two randomly chosen individuals from different populations/clusters to be more similar to each other than to a randomly chosen member of their own cluster. They found that many

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Early human genetic cluster analysis studies were conducted with samples taken from ancestral population groups living at extreme geographic distances from each other. It was thought that such large geographic distances would maximize the genetic variation between the groups sampled in the analysis,

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Although commonalities in physical traits such as facial features, skin color, and hair texture comprise part of the race concept, this linkage is a social distinction rather than an inherently biological one. Other dimensions of racial groupings include shared history, traditions, and language. For

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The ancients would not understand the social construct we call 'race' any more than they would understand the distinction modem scholars and social scientists generally draw between race and 'ethnicity.' The modern concept of race is a product of the colonial enterprises of European powers from the

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Groundbreaking advances in DNA sequencing technology have been made over the last two decades. These advances enable us to measure with exquisite accuracy what fraction of an individual's genetic ancestry traces back to, say, West Africa 500 years ago – before the mixing in the Americas of the West

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The relationship between self-reported identity and genetic African ancestry, as well as the low numbers of self-reported African Americans with minor levels of African ancestry, provide insight into the complexity of genetic and social consequences of racial categorization, assortative mating, and

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ngoing contacts, plus the fact that we were a small, genetically homogeneous species to begin with, has resulted in relatively close genetic relationships, despite our worldwide presence. The DNA differences between humans increase with geographical distance, but boundaries between populations are,

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Other researchers point out that finding a difference in disease prevalence between two socially defined groups does not necessarily imply genetic causation of the difference. They suggest that medical practices should maintain their focus on the individual rather than an individual's membership to

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in the first decade of the twenty-first century. There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research. Proponents of the use of racial categories in biomedicine argue that continued use of racial categorizations in biomedical research and

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In the United States, federal government policy promotes the use of racially categorized data to identify and address health disparities between racial or ethnic groups. In clinical settings, race has sometimes been considered in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Doctors have noted

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In the United States both scholars and the general public have been conditioned to viewing human races as natural and separate divisions within the human species based on visible physical differences. With the vast expansion of scientific knowledge in this century, however, it has become clear that

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If a more consistent report with the genetic groups in the gradation of genetic mixing is to be considered (e.g. that would not cluster people with a balanced degree of African and non-African ancestry in the black group instead of the multiracial one, unlike elsewhere in Latin America where people

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stated that their findings "should not be taken as evidence of our support of any particular concept of biological race ... Genetic differences among human populations derive mainly from gradations in allele frequencies rather than from distinctive 'diagnostic' genotypes." Using a sample of 40

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Patterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to the consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. A skin-lightening mutation,

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argued that when talking about race one must be attentive to how the term is being used: "I agree with Dr. Livingstone that if races have to be 'discrete units', then there are no races, and if 'race' is used as an 'explanation' of the human variability, rather than vice versa, then the explanation

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By the 1970s, it had become clear that (1) most human differences were cultural; (2) what was not cultural was principally polymorphic – that is to say, found in diverse groups of people at different frequencies; (3) what was not cultural or polymorphic was principally clinal – that is to

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and upon their own internal interactions – for example, the hostility between the English and Irish powerfully influenced early European thinking about the differences between people – Europeans began to sort themselves and others into groups based on physical appearance, and to attribute

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Craniometric variation is geographically structured, allowing high levels of classification accuracy when comparing crania from different parts of the world. Nonetheless, the boundaries in global variation are not abrupt and do not fit a strict view of the race concept; the number of races and the

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Ancestry, then, is a more subtle and complex description of an individual's genetic makeup than is race. This is in part a consequence of the continual mixing and migration of human populations throughout history. Because of this complex and interwoven history, many loci must be examined to derive

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Identification of the ancestry of an individual is dependent upon knowledge of the frequency and distribution of phenotypic traits in a population. This does not necessitate the use of a racial classification scheme based on unrelated traits, although the race concept is widely used in medical and

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Surveying views on race in the scientific community in 2008, Morning concluded that biologists had failed to come to a clear consensus, and they often split along cultural and demographic lines. She notes: "At best, one can conclude that biologists and anthropologists now appear equally divided in

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in the United States has moved away from a typological understanding of human biological diversity towards a genomic and population-based perspective. Anthropologists have tended to understand race as a social classification of humans based on phenotype and ancestry as well as cultural factors, as

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Kaszycka et al. (2009) in 2002–2003 surveyed European anthropologists' opinions toward the biological race concept. Three factors – country of academic education, discipline, and age – were found to be significant in differentiating the replies. Those educated in Western Europe, physical

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Wagner et al. (2017) surveyed 3,286 American anthropologists' views on race and genetics, including both cultural and biological anthropologists. They found a consensus among them that biological races do not exist in humans, but that race does exist insofar as the social experiences of members of

3212:

Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation. It was never accurate in the past, and it remains inaccurate when referencing contemporary human populations. Humans are not divided biologically into distinct continental types or racial genetic clusters. Instead, the

2363:

defined race as: "A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard to the frequency of one or more of the genes it possesses. It is an arbitrary matter which, and how many, gene loci we choose to consider as a significant 'constellation'". Leonard Lieberman and Rodney Kirk

3774:

to determine race background has been used by some criminal investigators to narrow their search for the identity of both suspects and victims. Proponents of DNA profiling in criminal investigations cite cases where leads based on DNA analysis proved useful, but the practice remains controversial

2807:

Over a dozen racial categories would be recognized in conformity with all the possible combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and not one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is,

3834:

A 2002 study found that about 13% of human craniometric variation existed between regions, while 6% existed between local populations within regions and 81% within local populations. In contrast, the opposite pattern of genetic variation was observed for skin color (which is often used to define

3826:

The simple answer is that, as members of the society that poses the question, they are inculcated into the social conventions that determine the expected answer. They should also be aware of the biological inaccuracies contained in that "politically correct" answer. Skeletal analysis provides no

3465:

textbooks found that they all represented human biological variation in superficial and outdated ways, many of them making use of the race concept in ways that were current in 1950s anthropology. The authors recommended that anatomical education should describe human anatomical variation in more

2432:

remains poorly understood. However, Risch denied such limitations render the analysis useless: "Perhaps just using someone's actual birth year is not a very good way of measuring age. Does that mean we should throw it out? ... Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that

2392:

The distribution of genetic variants within and among human populations are impossible to describe succinctly because of the difficulty of defining a population, the clinal nature of variation, and heterogeneity across the genome (Long and Kittles 2003). In general, however, an average of 85% of

2269:

To this day, skin color grades by imperceptible means from Europe southward around the eastern end of the Mediterranean and up the Nile into Africa. From one end of this range to the other, there is no hint of a skin color boundary, and yet the spectrum runs from the lightest in the world at the

1815:

of race". According to this ideology, races are primordial, natural, enduring and distinct. It was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed

7549:

Pena, Sérgio D. J.; Di Pietro, Giuliano; Fuchshuber-Moraes, Mateus; Genro, Julia Pasqualini; Hutz, Mara H.; Kehdy, Fernanda de Souza Gomes; Kohlrausch, Fabiana; Magno, Luiz Alexandre Viana; Montenegro, Raquel Carvalho; Moraes, Manoel Odorico; de Moraes, Maria Elisabete Amaral; de Moraes, Milene

3228:

Lieberman et al. in a 2004 study researched the acceptance of race as a concept among anthropologists in the United States, Canada, the Spanish speaking areas, Europe, Russia and China. Rejection of race ranged from high to low, with the highest rejection rate in the United States and Canada, a

2323:, on the other hand, radiate out of specific geographical points in Africa. As the anthropologists Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson observed, "Discordant patterns of heterogeneity falsify any description of a population as if it were genotypically or even phenotypically homogeneous". 1443:

investigate implications of race as social construction by exploring how the images, ideas and assumptions of race are expressed in everyday life. A large body of scholarship has traced the relationships between the historical, social production of race in legal and criminal language, and their

4743:

On average, the scientists found, people who identified as African-American had genes that were only 73.2 percent African. European genes accounted for 24 percent of their DNA, while 0.8 percent came from Native Americans. Latinos, on the other hand, had genes that were on average 65.1 percent

3809:

he successful assignment of race to a skeletal specimen is not a vindication of the race concept, but rather a prediction that an individual, while alive was assigned to a particular socially constructed "racial" category. A specimen may display features that point to African ancestry. In this

3490:

was released on 14 March 2023. The report stated: "In humans, race is a socially constructed designation, a misleading and harmful surrogate for population genetic differences, and has a long history of being incorrectly identified as the major genetic reason for phenotypic differences between

3415:

A 1994 examination of 32 English sport/exercise science textbooks found that 7 (21.9%) claimed that there are biophysical differences due to race that might explain differences in sports performance, 24 (75%) did not mention nor refute the concept, and 1 (3.1%) expressed caution with the idea.

3363:

Well, you may ask, why can't we call those regional patterns "races"? In fact, we can and do, but it does not make them coherent biological entities. "Races" defined in such a way are products of our perceptions. ... We realize that in the extremes of our transit – Moscow to Nairobi,

3331:

interviewed over 40 American biologists and anthropologists and found significant disagreements over the nature of race, with no one viewpoint holding a majority among either group. Morning also argues that a third position, "antiessentialism", which holds that race is not a useful concept for

1423:

Scholars continue to debate the degrees to which racial categories are biologically warranted and socially constructed. For example, in 2008, John Hartigan Jr. argued for a view of race that focused primarily on culture, but which does not ignore the potential relevance of biology or genetics.

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officers, it is generally more important to arrive at a description that will readily suggest the general appearance of an individual than to make a scientifically valid categorization by DNA or other such means. Thus, in addition to assigning a wanted individual to a racial category, such a

4471:

The genetic differences that exist among populations are characterized by gradual changes across geographic regions, not sharp, categorical distinctions. Groups of people across the globe have varying frequencies of polymorphic genes, which are genes with any of several differing nucleotide

2240:

sample of 1,037 individuals in 52 populations, finding that diversity among non-African populations is the result of a serial founder effect process, with non-African populations as a whole nested among African populations, that "some African populations are equally related to other African

3433:

Morning (2008) looked at high school biology textbooks during the 1952–2002 period and initially found a similar pattern with only 35% directly discussing race in the 1983–92 period from initially 92% doing so. However, this has increased somewhat after this to 43%. More indirect and brief

3049:, ethnicity and ethnic origin are arguably more resonant and are less encumbered by the ideological baggage associated with "race". In European context, historical resonance of "race" underscores its problematic nature. In some states, it is strongly associated with laws promulgated by the 3708:

when individuals identify themselves as belonging to a particular ethnic group: W1 (White-British), W2 (White-Irish), W9 (Any other white background); M1 (White and black Caribbean), M2 (White and black African), M3 (White and Asian), M9 (Any other mixed background); A1 (Asian-Indian), A2

3178:

to the United States. Today, the word "Latino" is often used as a synonym for "Hispanic". The definitions of both terms are non-race specific, and include people who consider themselves to be of distinct races (Black, White, Amerindian, Asian, and mixed groups). However, there is a common

2183:

suggested that human populations that have long inhabited separated parts of the world should, in general, be considered different subspecies by the criterion that most individuals of such populations can be allocated correctly by inspection. Wright argued: "It does not require a trained

3323:

has argued that this may be because Lieberman and collaborators had looked at all the members of the American Anthropological Association irrespective of their field of research interest, while Cartmill had looked specifically at biological anthropologists interested in human variation.

2832:

aside, the "biologification" of race in Brazil referred above would match contemporary concepts of race in the United States quite closely, though, if Brazilians are supposed to choose their race as one among, Asian and Indigenous apart, three IBGE's census categories. While assimilated

2220:(2013) argued that multiple lines of evidence falsify the idea of a phylogenetic tree structure to human genetic diversity, and confirm the presence of gene flow among populations. Marks, Templeton, and Cavalli-Sforza all conclude that genetics does not provide evidence of human races. 4744:

European, 18 percent Native American, and 6.2 percent African. The researchers found that European-Americans had genomes that were on average 98.6 percent European, 0.19 percent African, and 0.18 percent Native American. These broad estimates masked wide variation among individuals.

1808:, but he did not propose any hierarchy among the races. Blumenbach also noted the graded transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups and suggested that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them". 3475:, found that "race" was used in only 5% of papers published in the last decade, down from 22% in the first. Together with an increase in use of the terms "ethnicity", "ancestry", and location-based terms, it suggests that human geneticists have mostly abandoned the term "race". 1318:, "while race may be a social construct, differences in genetic ancestry that happen to correlate to many of today's racial constructs are real". In response to Reich, a group of 67 scientists from a broad range of disciplines wrote that his concept of race was "flawed" as "the 2565:

in the United States and the emergence of numerous anti-colonial movements worldwide. They thus came to believe that race itself is a social construct, a concept that was believed to correspond to an objective reality but which was believed in because of its social functions.

5140:

robust body of scholarship recognizes the existence of geographically based genetic variation in our species, but shows that such variation is not consistent with biological definitions of race. Nor does that variation map precisely onto ever changing socially defined racial

3804:

noted that anthropologists had generally abandoned the concept of race as a valid representation of human biological diversity, except for forensic anthropologists. He asked, "If races don't exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them?" He concluded:

3827:

direct assessment of skin color, but it does allow an accurate estimate of original geographical origins. African, eastern Asian, and European ancestry can be specified with a high degree of accuracy. Africa of course entails "black", but "black" does not entail African.

2175:

are seen as geographically isolated and genetically differentiated populations. Studies of human genetic variation show that human populations are not geographically isolated. and their genetic differences are far smaller than those among comparable subspecies.

5334:: Psychiatric instrument called the "Perceived Racism Scale" "provides a measure of the frequency of exposure to many manifestations of racism ... including individual and institutional"; also assesses motional and behavioral coping responses to racism. 2424:. Geographically based human studies since have shown that such genetic clusters can be derived from analyzing of a large number of loci which can assort individuals sampled into groups analogous to traditional continental racial groups. Joanna Mountain and 1605:

understand it today came about during the historical process of exploration and conquest which brought Europeans into contact with groups from different continents, and of the ideology of classification and typology found in the natural sciences. The term

2996:

in Brazil (47.7% and 42.4% of the population as of 2010, respectively), because by research its population is believed to have between 65 and 80% of autosomal European ancestry, in average (also >35% of European mt-DNA and >95% of European Y-DNA).

2863:(as reported by the individuals), or 6.9% of the population, and those with about 45% or more of Subsaharan contribution most times do so (in average, Afro-Brazilian DNA was reported to be about 50% Subsaharan African, 37% European and 13% Amerindian). 2318:

In 1964, the biologists Paul Ehrlich and Holm pointed out cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly – for example, melanin is distributed in a decreasing pattern from the equator north and south; frequencies for the haplotype for

8530: 3554:(1868–1963), one of the first African-American sociologists, was the first sociologist to use sociological concepts and empirical research methods to analyze race as a social construct instead of a biological reality. Beginning in 1899 with his book 10227: 2508:

has written that human genetic variation is generally distributed continuously in gradients across much of Earth, and that there is no evidence that genetic boundaries between human populations exist as would be necessary for human races to exist.

3457:

33 health services researchers from differing geographic regions were interviewed in a 2008 study. The researchers recognized the problems with racial and ethnic variables but the majority still believed these variables were necessary and useful.

1395:

suspects. This use of racial categories is frequently criticized for perpetuating an outmoded understanding of human biological variation, and promoting stereotypes. Because in some societies racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of

1158:

scientists around the world continue to conceptualize race in widely differing ways. While some researchers continue to use the concept of race to make distinctions among fuzzy sets of traits or observable differences in behavior, others in the

9566: 4154:

In humans, race is a socially constructed designation, a misleading and harmful surrogate for population genetic differences, and has a long history of being incorrectly identified as the major genetic reason for phenotypic differences between

3120:

Since the early history of the United States, Amerindians, African Americans, and European Americans have been classified as belonging to different races. Efforts to track mixing between groups led to a proliferation of categories, such as

2232:

grouping limits and skews interpretations, obscures other lineage relationships, deemphasizes the impact of more immediate clinal environmental factors on genomic diversity, and can cloud our understanding of the true patterns of affinity.

10006: 1229:

created, often by socially dominant groups, to establish meaning in a social context. Different cultures define different racial groups, often focused on the largest groups of social relevance, and these definitions can change over time.

9487:

Cooper, Richard; Wolf-Maier, Katharina; Luke, Amy; Adeyemo, Adebowale; Banegas, José R.; Forrester, Terrence; Giampaoli, Simona; Joffres, Michel; Kastarinen, Mika; Primatesta, Paola; Stegmayr, Birgitta; Thamm, Michael (5 January 2005).

3486:, formally declared that "researchers should not use race as a proxy for describing human genetic variation". The report of its Committee on the Use of Race, Ethnicity, and Ancestry as Population Descriptors in Genomics Research titled 3570:

shaped ideas about race and racial categories. Social scientists largely abandoned scientific racism and biological reasons for racial categorization schemes by the 1930s. Other early sociologists, especially those associated with the

3441:

Gissis (2008) examined several important American and British journals in genetics, epidemiology and medicine for their content during the 1946–2003 period. He wrote that "Based upon my findings I argue that the category of race only

13276:

Xing, Jinchuan; Watkins, W. Scott; Shlien, Adam; Walker, Erin; Huff, Chad D.; Witherspoon, David J.; Zhang, Yuhua; Simonson, Tatum S.; Weiss, Robert B.; Schiffman, Joshua D.; Malkin, David; Woodward, Scott R.; Jorde, Lynn B. (2010).

3842:

argued that when several traits are analyzed at the same time, forensic anthropologists can classify a person's race with an accuracy of close to 100% based on only skeletal remains. Sesardić's claim has been disputed by philosopher

2223:

Previously, anthropologists Lieberman and Jackson (1995) had also critiqued the use of cladistics to support concepts of race. They argued that "the molecular and biochemical proponents of this model explicitly use racial categories

8297: 3064:

The concept of racial origin relies on the notion that human beings can be separated into biologically distinct "races", an idea generally rejected by the scientific community. Since all human beings belong to the same species, the

2484:

disputed this and offered an analysis of the Human Genetic Diversity Panel showing that there were small discontinuities in the smooth genetic variation for ancestral populations at the location of geographic barriers such as the

3425:

asked "authors to not use race and ethnicity when there is no biological, scientific, or sociological reason for doing so". The editors also stated that "analysis by race and ethnicity has become an analytical knee-jerk reflex".

7550:

Raiol; Ojopi, Élida B.; Perini, Jamila A.; Racciopi, Clarice; Ribeiro-dos-Santos, Ândrea Kely Campos; Rios-Santos, Fabrício; Romano-Silva, Marco A.; Sortica, Vinicius A.; Suarez-Kurtz, Guilherme (2011). Harpending, Henry (ed.).

2643:, as it was in the United States. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only a very limited number of categories to choose from, to the extent that full 9021: 9391:

which attitudinal factors moderate the relationship between scientific soundness and societal acceptance. To accept race-as-proxy, then, may be necessary but insufficient to solidify the future of race-based pharmacogenomics.

2583:

has argued that race "is produced by social arrangements and political decision making", and that "race is something that happens, rather than something that is. It is dynamic, but it holds no objective truth." Similarly, in

3687:

employs the term "race" to summarize the general appearance (skin color, hair texture, eye shape, and other such easily noticed characteristics) of individuals whom they are attempting to apprehend. From the perspective of

2826:, or brown people, are likely to start declaring themselves white or black if socially upward, and being seen as relatively "whiter" as their perceived social status increases (much as in other regions of Latin America). 12910:

Tang, Hua; Quertermous, Tom; Rodriguez, Beatriz; Kardia, Sharon L. R.; Zhu, Xiaofeng; Brown, Andrew; Pankow, James S.; Province, Michael A.; Hunt, Steven C.; Boerwinkle, Eric; Schork, Nicholas J.; Risch, Neil J. (2005).

2228:". For example, the large and highly diverse macroethnic groups of East Indians, North Africans, and Europeans are presumptively grouped as Caucasians prior to the analysis of their DNA variation. They argued that this 11931:

McNeilly, M. D.; Anderson, M. B.; Armstead, C. A.; Clark, R.; Corbett, M.; Robinson, E. L. (1996). "The perceived racism scale: A multidimensional assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans".

1236:

have included a wide variety of schemes to divide local or worldwide populations into races and sub-races. Across the world, different organizations and societies choose to disambiguate race to different extents:

1137:

which is assigned based on rules made by society. While partly based on physical similarities within groups, race does not have an inherent physical or biological meaning. The concept of race is foundational to

8218: 7780:

De Assis Poiares, Lilian; De Sá Osorio, Paulo; Spanhol, Fábio Alexandre; Coltre, Sidnei César; Rodenbusch, Rodrigo; Gusmão, Leonor; Largura, Alvaro; Sandrini, Fabiano; Da Silva, Cláudia Maria Dornelles (2010).

2095:

undermined the scientific standing of racial essentialism, leading race anthropologists to revise their conclusions about the sources of phenotypic variation. A significant number of modern anthropologists and

7369: 5401:: "The very naturalness of 'reality' is itself the effect of a particular set of discursive constructions. In this way, discourse does not simply reflect reality, but actually participates in its construction" 2136:

A consensus consequently developed among anthropologists and geneticists that race as the previous generation had known it – as largely discrete, geographically distinct, gene pools – did not exist.

2393:

statistical genetic variation exists within local populations, ≈7% is between local populations within the same continent, and ≈8% of variation occurs between large groups living on different continents. The

2368:

states "People who have lived in the same geographic region for many generations may have some alleles in common, but no allele will be found in all members of one population and in no members of any other."

9598: 8402:

An article in the same issue questions the precise rate of decline, but from their opposing perspective agrees that the Negroid/ Caucasoid/ Mongoloid paradigm has fallen into near-total disfavor.

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relation to their own systems of classification. According to Bancel et al., the epistemological moment where the modern concept of race was invented and rationalized lies somewhere between 1730 and 1790.

2479:

argued for smooth, clinal genetic variation in ancestral populations even in regions previously considered racially homogeneous, with the apparent gaps turning out to be artifacts of sampling techniques.

9574: 3041:

uses the terms racial origin and ethnic origin synonymously in its documents and according to it "the use of the term 'racial origin' in this directive does not imply an acceptance of such theories".

14464: 6195:"Genetic surveys and the analyses of DNA haplotype trees show that human 'races' are not distinct lineages, and that this is not due to recent admixture; human 'races' are not and never were 'pure'." 3179:

misconception in the US that Hispanic/Latino is a race or sometimes even that national origins such as Mexican, Cuban, Colombian, Salvadoran, etc. are races. In contrast to "Latino" or "Hispanic", "

3800:

draw on highly heritable morphological features of human remains (e.g. cranial measurements) to aid in the identification of the body, including in terms of race. In a 1992 article, anthropologist

10016: 7980: 7978: 7831: 2417:

argued that rather than using a locus-by-locus analysis of variation to derive taxonomy, it is possible to construct a human classification system based on characteristic genetic patterns, or

5560:

Bancel, Nicolas; David, Thomas; Thomas, Dominic, eds. (23 May 2019). "Introduction: The Invention of Race: Scientific and Popular Representations of Race from Linnaeus to the Ethnic Shows".

3319:

A line of research conducted by Cartmill (1998), however, seemed to limit the scope of Lieberman's finding that there was "a significant degree of change in the status of the race concept".

5364:: For example, "the association of blacks with poverty and welfare ... is due, not to race per se, but to the link that race has with poverty and its associated disadvantages". p. 75. 5274:

who first arranged all animals into a single, graded scale that placed humans at the top as the most perfect iteration. By the late 19th century, the idea that inequality was the basis of

4815:, p. 714 "Pure races, in the sense of genetically homogeneous populations, do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past." 3595:

to describe the process by which racial categories are created. Omi and Winant assert that "there is no biological basis for distinguishing among human groups along the lines of race".

4167:

Amutah, C.; Greenidge, K.; Mante, A.; Munyikwa, M.; Surya, S. L.; Higginbotham, E.; Jones, D. S.; Lavizzo-Mourey, R.; Roberts, D.; Tsai, J.; Aysola, J. (March 2021). Malina, D. (ed.).

2428:

cautioned that while genetic clusters may one day be shown to correspond to phenotypic variations between groups, such assumptions were premature as the relationship between genes and

1163:

suggest that the idea of race is inherently naive or simplistic. Still others argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance because all living humans belong to the same

3302:

The same survey, conducted again in 1999, showed that the number of anthropologists disagreeing with the idea of biological race had risen substantially. The results were as follows:

15548: 14343:

Wilson, J. F.; Weale, M. E.; Smith, A. C.; Gratrix, F.; Fletcher, B.; Thomas, M. G.; Bradman, N.; Goldstein, D. B. (2001). "Population genetic structure of variable drug response".

3355:

argues that the reason laymen and biological anthropologists can determine the geographic ancestry of an individual can be explained by the fact that biological characteristics are

7639: 4879:. "Many terms requiring definition for use describe demographic population groups better than the term 'race' because they invite examination of the criteria for classification." 1811:

From the 17th through 19th centuries, the merging of folk beliefs about group differences with scientific explanations of those differences produced what Smedley has called an "

3088: 2553:" to refer to self-identifying groups based on beliefs concerning shared culture, ancestry and history. Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with "race", following the 2124:

is predominantly within races, continuous, and complex in structure, which is inconsistent with the concept of genetic human races. According to the biological anthropologist

2359:

Another way to look at differences between populations is to measure genetic differences rather than physical differences between groups. The mid-20th-century anthropologist

3782:

contains a line about 'people of any race for whom it is deemed necessary to make special laws', despite there being no agreed definition of race described in the document.

3604:

Today, sociologists generally understand race and racial categories as socially constructed, and reject racial categorization schemes that depend on biological differences.

7611: 3630:

that some medical conditions are more prevalent in certain racial or ethnic groups than in others, without being sure of the cause of those differences. Recent interest in

1904:, their underlined difference lying, relevantly, in the so-called "Negro question": a substantial racist view by the former, and a more liberal view on race by the latter. 2133:

say, gradually variable over geography; and (4) what was left – the component of human diversity that was not cultural, polymorphic, or clinal – was very small.

8962: 8720: 3229:

moderate rejection rate in Europe, and the lowest rejection rate in Russia and China. Methods used in the studies reported included questionnaires and content analysis.

8340:

Kaszycka, Katarzyna A.; Štrkalj, Goran; Strzalko, Jan (2009). "Current Views of European Anthropologists on Race: Influence of Educational and Ideological Background".

12281:

Ousley, Stephen; Jantz, Richard; Freid, Donna (18 February 2009). "Understanding race and human variation: Why forensic anthropologists are good at identifying race".

10278: 8255: 4408:: "We caution against making the naive leap to a genetic explanation for group differences in complex traits, especially for human behavioral traits such as IQ scores" 2212:(2008) responded by arguing that Andreasen had misinterpreted the genetic literature: "These trees are phenetic (based on similarity), rather than cladistic (based on 2200:

might be used to categorize human races biologically, and that races can be both biologically real and socially constructed. Andreasen cited tree diagrams of relative

10741: 3735:. There is active debate regarding the cause of a marked correlation between the recorded crimes, punishments meted out, and the country's populations. Many consider 15500: 9685: 4249: 4123: 3479: 1341:

through which social categorization is achieved. In this sense, races are said to be social constructs. These constructs develop within various legal, economic, and

1214: 13379:

Critical Perspectives on Racial and Ethnic Differences in Health in Late Life: 2. Racial and Ethnic Identification, Official Classifications, and Health Disparities

9595: 2475:

Recent studies of human genetic clustering have included a debate over how genetic variation is organized, with clusters and clines as the main possible orderings.

14682: 10056: 7216: 7152:"The global pattern of gene identity variation reveals a history of long-range migrations, bottlenecks, and local mate exchange: Implications for biological race" 2331:) considered, the more subdivisions of humanity are detected, since traits and gene frequencies do not always correspond to the same geographical location. Or as 3213:

Western concept of race must be understood as a classification system that emerged from, and in support of, European colonialism, oppression, and discrimination.

2512:

Over time, human genetic variation has formed a nested structure that is inconsistent with the concept of races that have evolved independently of one another.

1368:

as both racially defined and morally inferior. As a result, racial groups possessing relatively little power often find themselves excluded or oppressed, while

1334:, especially in areas of the United States where racial segregation exists. Furthermore, people often self-identify as members of a race for political reasons. 15516: 14474: 7960: 2384:), and that certain genetic markers have varying frequencies among human populations, some of which correspond more or less to traditional racial groupings. 2118:

then challenged the concept from the perspective of general animal systematics, and further rejected the claim that "races" were equivalent to "subspecies".

4485: 1836:

were influential. He saw Africans as inferior to Whites especially in regards to their intellect, and imbued with unnatural sexual appetites, but described

5521:. "Religious, cultural, social, national, ethnic, linguistic, genetic, geographical and anatomical groups have been and sometimes still are called 'races'" 5415: 3221:

Wang, Štrkalj et al. (2003) examined the use of race as a biological concept in research papers published in China's only biological anthropology journal,

13417: 4316: 8718:

Hallinan, Christopher J. (March 1994). "The presentation of human biological diversity in sport and exercise science textbooks: The example of 'race'".

3045:

warns that using "race" as a category within the law tends to legitimize its existence in the popular imagination. In the diverse geographic context of

1113:. The term came into common usage during the 16th century, when it was used to refer to groups of various kinds, including those characterized by close 13708:

Helms, Janet E.; Jernigan, Maryam; Mascher, Jackquelyn (2005). "The meaning of race in psychology and how to change it: A methodological perspective".

3713:(ONS) in September 2007, as part of its Equality Data Review; one problem cited was the number of reports that contained an ethnicity of "Not Stated". 3204:

The concept of race classification in physical anthropology lost credibility around the 1960s and is now considered untenable. A 2019 statement by the

3066: 1705:, and used to stress the unity of ethnic groups in China. Brutal conflicts between ethnic groups have existed throughout history and across the world. 9022:"Researchers Need to Rethink and Justify How and Why Race, Ethnicity, and Ancestry Labels Are Used in Genetics and Genomics Research, Says New Report" 5127: 3320: 9683:

Dichter, M. E.; Marcus, S. M.; Morabito, M. S.; Rhodes, K. V. (2011). "Explaining the IPV arrest decision: Incident, agency, and community factors".

7782: 2502:, p. 208) found that "genetic diversity is distributed in a more clinal pattern when more geographically intermediate populations are sampled". 3532:(1864–1929) theorized that differences among races were "natural", and that biological differences result in differences in intellectual abilities. 1360:

Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups.

14591: 10073: 9318: 9165: 6826:: "If enough markers are used ... individuals can be partitioned into genetic clusters that match major geographic subdivisions of the globe." 3205: 1949:, evolved in East Africa at least 2 million years ago, and members of this species populated different parts of Africa in a relatively short time. 1633:

According to Smedley and Marks the European concept of "race", along with many of the ideas now associated with the term, arose at the time of the

170: 7949:

Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin

7912:

Venâncio, Renato Pinto (2000). "Presença portuguesa: de colonizadores a imigrantes" [Portuguese presence: from colonizers to immigrants].

5081: 4968: 1349:

While race is understood to be a social construct by many, most scholars agree that race has real material effects in the lives of people through

14268:"What is a population? An empirical evaluation of some genetic methods for identifying the number of gene pools and their degree of connectivity" 9048: 8737: 1892:

promoted this theory in the mid-19th century. Polygenism was popular and most widespread in the 19th century, culminating in the founding of the

14032:"Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real: Anthropological and historical perspectives on the social construction of race" 12815: 8451: 3902: 1852:, the belief that different races had evolved separately in each continent and shared no common ancestor, was advocated in England by historian 7633:

Guerreiro-Junior, Vanderlei; Bisso-Machado, Rafael; Marrero, Andrea; Hünemeier, Tábita; Salzano, Francisco M.; Bortolini, Maria Cátira (2009).

3962: 3421: 2410: 10416: 9401:

Lee, Catherine (March 2009). "'Race' and 'ethnicity' in biomedical research: How do scientists construct and explain differences in health?".

2071:

taught that race was an entirely biological phenomenon and that this was core to a person's behavior and identity, a position commonly called

15460: 1267: 1259:

The Brazilian census classifies people into brancos (Whites), pardos (multiracial), pretos (Blacks), amarelos (Asians), and indigenous (see

14675: 9238:

Wilson, William Julius (1978). "The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions". In Grusky, David B. (ed.).

8056: 3250:

employed these or nearly synonymous terms reflecting a bio-race paradigm, only 36 percent did so in 1965, and just 28 percent did in 1996.

1299:

used in the 19th-century United States to exclude those with any amount of African ancestry from the dominant racial grouping, defined as "

17: 8462: 3749:

Mass incarceration in the United States disproportionately impacts African American and Latino communities. Michelle Alexander, author of

3137:" of known "Black blood" to be Black, regardless of appearance. By the early 20th century, this notion was made statutory in many states. 8779: 3343:

are overwhelmingly in support of the idea of the basic biological reality of human races. Forensic physical anthropologist and professor

14031: 11819:(2009). "Update to Long and Kittles's 'Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races' (2003): Fixation on an Index". 10805: 10326:

Bamshad, M.; Wooding, S.; Salisbury, B. A.; Stephens, J. C. (August 2004). "Deconstructing the relationship between genetics and race".

3257:, which they argue "represents generally the contemporary thinking and scholarly positions of a majority of anthropologists", declares: 15452: 4828: 9861: 8166:

Wagner, Jennifer K.; Yu, Joon-Ho; Ifekwunigwe, Jayne O.; Harrell, Tanya M.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Royal, Charmaine D. (February 2017).

8031: 16129: 15476: 12283: 11593: 10064: 9929: 9869: 9759: 8172: 7159: 6365: 4759:

Lieberman, L.; Kaszycka, K. A.; Martinez Fuentes, A. J.; Yablonsky, L.; Kirk, R. C.; Strkalj, G.; Wang, Q.; Sun, L. (December 2004).

4695: 3540:, believed that whites were the superior race, and that there were essential differences in "temperament" among races. In 1910, the 3159:

conducted since 1790 in the United States created an incentive to establish racial categories and fit people into these categories.

2406:

A 2002 study of random biallelic genetic loci found little to no evidence that humans were divided into distinct biological groups.

14906: 12530:"Forensic Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races Don't Exist, Why are Forensic Anthropologists So Good at Identifying them" 4860:

mass noun The fact or condition of belonging to a racial division or group; the qualities or characteristics associated with this.

14599: 12086: 9754: 2859:. In several genetic tests, people with less than 60-65% of European descent and 5–10% of Amerindian descent usually cluster with 16061: 14933: 14668: 13792: 11392:

King, Desmond (2007). "Making people work: Democratic consequences of workfare". In Beem, Christopher; Mead, Lawrence M. (eds.).

7619: 3130: 3078: 1225:

Modern scholarship views racial categories as socially constructed, that is, race is not intrinsic to human beings but rather an

1036: 232: 11661: 8923:

Moscou, Susan (June 2008). "The conceptualization and operationalization of race and ethnicity by health services researchers".

3430:

now ask authors to "explain why they make use of particular ethnic groups or populations, and how classification was achieved".

15068: 14895: 14267: 14155:"The concept and measurement of race and their relationship to public health: a review focused on Brazil and the United States" 3704:

use at least two separate racial/ethnic classification systems when reporting crime, as of 2010. One is the system used in the

3508: 2026: 1089: 116: 14491: 6236:

Human populations do not exhibit the levels of geographic isolation or genetic divergence to fit the subspecies model of race.

4119:

Using Population Descriptors in Genetics and Genomics Research: A New Framework for an Evolving Field (Consensus Study Report)

4063: 1153:

obsolete, and generally discourage racial explanations for collective differentiation in both physical and behavioral traits.

14418: 14322: 14106: 13896: 13690: 13406: 12879: 12856: 12718: 12699: 12420: 11999: 11713: 11420: 11401: 11285: 11224: 11143: 11115: 11085: 10982: 10902: 10884: 10731: 10668: 10623: 10498: 10475: 10443: 10216: 10128: 9265: 9142: 8116: 7764: 7527: 6786: 6648: 6229: 5905: 5573: 5540: 4951: 4139: 4079: 2030: 1364:

often coincides with racist mindsets, whereby the individuals and ideologies of one group come to perceive the members of an

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Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences

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Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences

7101:

Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences

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country that person is likely to have been labeled Black regardless of whether or not such a race actually exists in nature.

2992:

of high quantity of African descent tend to classify themselves as mixed), more people would report themselves as white and

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Keita, S. O. Y.; Kittles, R. A.; Royal, C. D. M.; Bonney, G. M.; Furbert-Harris, P.; Dunston, G. M.; Rotimi, C. M. (2004).

10738: 10040: 3670: 3254: 2557:, evolutionary and social scientists were acutely aware of how beliefs about race had been used to justify discrimination, 1955:

evolved more than 1.8 million years ago, and by 1.5 million years ago had spread throughout Europe and Asia. Virtually all

1853: 289: 155: 136: 4231: 3499:

of Duke University agreed in the meeting: "Classifying people by race is a practice entangled with and rooted in racism."

2855:, for those of lower quantity of Amerindian descent a higher European genetic contribution is expected to be grouped as a 2311:

Skin color (above) and blood type B (below) are nonconcordant traits since their geographical distribution is not similar.

16066: 15653: 15620: 14911: 13279:"Toward a more uniform sampling of human genetic diversity: A survey of worldwide populations by high-density genotyping" 10493:. National Research Council (U.S.) Panel on Methods for Assessing Discrimination. National Adademies Press. p. 317. 8808: 7725: 5413:

Hartigan, John (June 2008). "Is Race Still Socially Constructed? The Recent Controversy over Race and Medical Genetics".

4173: 3968: 3674: 1405: 1184:

system of classification. Although still used in general contexts, race has often been replaced by less ambiguous and/or

1061: 953: 227: 140: 13225: 13108: 3528:(1860–1935), for example, used biological arguments to claim the inferiority of African Americans. American sociologist 3253:

A 1998 "Statement on 'Race'" composed by a select committee of anthropologists and issued by the executive board of the

2087:

program, along with the rise of anti-colonial movements, racial essentialism lost widespread popularity. New studies of

1295:

The establishment of racial boundaries often involves the subjugation of groups defined as racially inferior, as in the

16046: 16041: 16022: 16017: 16004: 13553: 5117: 4649: 4636: 3922: 3912: 3471: 3102: 3014: 1837: 1801: 1581: 14583: 14395: 13991:

Shriver, M. D.; Kittles, R. A. (2004). "Opinion: Genetic ancestry and the search for personalized genetic histories".

6283: 1681:

to individuals belonging to these groups behaviors and capacities which were claimed to be deeply ingrained. A set of

1156:

Even though there is a broad scientific agreement that essentialist and typological conceptions of race are untenable,

15524: 15468: 14256: 14081: 13922: 13597: 13387: 13179:

Witherspoon, D. J.; Wooding, S.; Rogers, A. R.; Marchani, E. E.; Watkins, W. S.; Batzer, M. A.; Jorde, L. B. (2007).

13097: 13072: 12900: 12804: 12785: 12236: 12072: 12020: 11957: 11904: 11879: 11582: 11516: 11493: 11247: 10852: 10376: 9084: 8502: 8273: 8093:, This reference is speaking in historic terms but there is not reason to think that this perception has altered much 7448: 7336: 6089: 5948: 1893: 1242: 998: 911: 617: 4096: 16115: 16071: 16051: 15492: 14332: 11526:

Lieberman, L. (February 2001). "How 'Caucasoids' got such big crania and why they shrank: from Morton to Rushton".

10680:"From types to populations: A century of race, physical anthropology, and the American Anthropological Association" 8787: 7968: 7924: 1657:, they speculated about the physical, social, and cultural differences among various human groups. The rise of the 1253: 284: 11211:

Harpending, Henry (2006). "Chapter 16: Anthropological Genetics: Present and Future". In Crawford, Michael (ed.).

9541: 4725: 16110: 16030: 14567: 13510: 13172:

Eugenics and education in America: Institutionalized racism and the implications of history, ideology, and memory

12955: 10510: 10140: 8407: 8378: 8035: 7552:"The Genomic Ancestry of Individuals from Different Geographical Regions of Brazil Is More Uniform Than Expected" 6924: 6547: 4997: 4014: 3705: 3684: 1922: 1149:

that define essential types of individuals based on perceived traits. Modern scientists consider such biological

13974: 13957: 13860:

Keita, S. O. Y.; Kittles, R. A. (1997). "The persistence of racial thinking and the myth of racial divergence".

12529: 11270:

Kahn, Jonathan (2011). "Chapter 7: Bidil and Racialized Medicine". In Krimsky, Sheldon; Sloan, Kathleen (eds.).

10679: 10178: 7849: 2631:

Race in Brazil was "biologized", but in a way that recognized the difference between ancestry (which determines

2620:

was characterized by a perceived relative absence of sharply defined racial groups. According to anthropologist

16240: 16076: 15484: 15348: 15298: 15283: 14921: 14721: 14644: 11166: 8960:Štrkalj, Goran; Solyali, Veli (2010). "Human Biological Variation in Anatomy Textbooks: The Role of Ancestry". 3958: 3710: 2573:

Anthropologist Stephan Palmié has argued that race "is not a thing but a social relation"; or, in the words of

2373:

and Jonathan Kaplan argue that human races do exist, and that they correspond to the genetic classification of

2237: 2079:, cultural, and social groups fundamentally existed along racial lines, formed the basis of what is now called 1897: 1018: 801: 315: 222: 212: 14442: 13442: 12247: 11914:

Marks, Jonathan (2008). "Race: Past, present and future. Chapter 1". In Koenig, Barbara; Soo-Jin Lee, Sandra;

1289:, due to a dispute over whether this classification should be considered a white ethnicity or a separate race. 16153: 16100: 16090: 16056: 15508: 14726: 13669: 12999:

Templeton, Alan R. (2002). "The genetic and evolutionary significance of human races". In Fish, J. M. (ed.).

11411:

Lee, Jayne Chong-Soon (1997). "Review essay: Navigating the topology of race". In Gates, E. Nathaniel (ed.).

8845: 8006: 7238: 4182: 3483: 3020: 2526:

As anthropologists and other evolutionary scientists have shifted away from the language of race to the term

1051: 1041: 65: 12034: 11732: 10967:

Fullwiley, Duana (2011). "Chapter 6: Can DNA "Witness" Race?". In Krimsky, Sheldon; Sloan, Kathleen (eds.).

9358:

Condit, Celeste; Templeton, Alan; Bates, Benjamin R.; Bevan, Jennifer L.; Harris, Tina M. (September 2003).

3084: 2153:

is used with caution because it can be ambiguous. Generally, when it is used it is effectively a synonym of

16649: 15408: 15073: 11371: 11258: 9807: 9403: 9089: 8691: 8577: 7813: 4627:

Bryc, Katarzyna; Durand, Eric Y.; Macpherson, Michael; Reich, David; Mountain, Joanna L. (8 January 2015).

1468: 1260: 1046: 639: 217: 11432:"The ethics of characterizing difference: guiding principles on using racial categories in human genetics" 9256:

Omi, Michael; Winant, Howard (2014). "Racial Formation in the United States". In Grusky, David B . (ed.).

16205: 16105: 15900: 15123: 15088: 15038: 14550: 14073: 13230: 12871: 12534: 9322: 8235: 7303:

More Beautiful and More Terrible: The Embrace and Transcendence of Racial Inequality in the United States

7281:

More Beautiful and More Terrible: The Embrace and Transcendence of Racial Inequality in the United States

7151: 6968: 2546:, i.e., a way among many possible ways in which a society chooses to divide its members into categories. 1783: 1649:

which established political relations between Europeans and peoples with distinct cultural and political

1278: 816: 729: 592: 12913:"Genetic Structure, Self-identified Race/Ethnicity, and Confounding in Case-control Association Studies" 12823:. Race, Human Variation and Disease: Consensus and Frontiers, March 14–17, 2007 in Warrenton, Virginia. 12603: 7845: 6542: 3558:, Du Bois studied and wrote about race and racism throughout his career. In his work, he contended that 16654: 16123: 16095: 15540: 15434: 15253: 14708: 14456: 12412: 11415:. Vol. 4: The Judicial Isolation of the "Racially" Oppressed. New York: Garland Pub. pp. 393–426. 11304:"Prisoners of Abstraction? The Theory and Measure of Genetic Variation, and the Very Concept of 'Race'" 11216: 11128:(2011). "Chapter 8: Evolutionary Versus Racial Medicine". In Krimsky, Sheldon; Sloan, Kathleen (eds.). 10723: 10639: 10116: 7948: 7436: 7363:

Parra, F. C.; Amado, R. C.; Lambertucci, J. R.; Rocha, J.; Antunes, C. M.; Pena, S. D. (January 2003).

7328: 5807: 5275: 5091: 4029: 3572: 3332:

biologists, should be introduced into this debate in addition to "constructionism" and "essentialism".

2586: 1998: 1303:". Such racial identities reflect the cultural attitudes of imperial powers dominant during the age of 1082: 1056: 699: 679: 607: 81: 13271:. Vol. 4: Variability Within and Among Natural Populations. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press. p. 438. 12795:

Smedley, Audrey (2002). "Science and the Idea of Race: A Brief History". In Fish, Jefferson M. (ed.).

10762: 9634: 2249:

One crucial innovation in reconceptualizing genotypic and phenotypic variation was the anthropologist

16171: 15885: 15218: 15168: 14940: 14627: 13888: 13589: 12828: 12228: 11990:

Miles, Robert (2000). "Apropos the idea of race ... again". In Back, Les; Solomos, John (eds.).

11369:

Kennedy, Kenneth A. R. (1995). "But Professor, Why Teach Race Identification if Races Don't Exist?".

11277: 11135: 10974: 10715: 9490:"An International Comparative Study of Blood Pressure in Populations of European vs. African Descent" 8067: 7306: 7284: 6774: 6694:"Patterns of human diversity, within and among continents, inferred from biallelic DNA polymorphisms" 5049: 4629:"The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States" 3779: 3693:

description will include: height, weight, eye color, scars and other distinguishing characteristics.

3579:

argued that race and racial classification systems were declining in significance, and that instead,

3027:

The European Union rejects theories which attempt to determine the existence of separate human races.

2543: 2205: 1961: 1857: 1286: 1226: 1134: 1109:

based on shared physical or social qualities into groups generally viewed as distinct within a given

772: 511: 446: 253: 11777:; Kittles, R. A. (August 2003). "Human genetic diversity and the nonexistence of biological races". 7894: 16260: 15590: 15358: 15183: 14871: 14751: 14691: 14098: 13089: 12141: 11923: 11508: 11107: 10866: 10449: 9542:"Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2010, Appendix C: Classifications of ethnicity" 8088: 7061: 6584: 3831:

In association with a NOVA program in 2000 about race, he wrote an essay opposing use of the term.

3548:(1865–1940) that called for white supremacy and segregation of the races to protect racial purity. 3525: 3397: 1918: 1453: 1327: 1315: 1233: 983: 973: 963: 938: 859: 689: 531: 506: 456: 60: 14429: 13648:"What We Know and What We Don't Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race" 10435: 7001:"What We Know and What We Don't Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race" 6582:

Walsh, Anthony; Yun, Ilhong (October 2011). "Race and Criminology in the Age of Genomic Science".

3583:

more accurately described what sociologists had earlier understood as race. By 1986, sociologists

3466:

detail and rely on newer research that demonstrates the inadequacies of simple racial typologies.

1701:, where a concept often translated as "race" was associated with supposed common descent from the 1376:

are charged with holding racist attitudes. Racism has led to many instances of tragedy, including

16142: 16134: 15979: 15646: 15048: 14235: 13993: 13862: 13425: 12960: 12573: 12483:"Clines, Clusters, and the Effect of Study Design on the Inference of Human Population Structure" 12111: 11821: 11779: 11631: 11485: 11262: 11077: 10684: 10553: 10427: 10328: 10208: 8843:

Morning, Ann (2008). "Reconstructing Race in Science and Society: Biology Textbooks, 1952–2002".

8412: 8383: 8342: 7864: 5853: 4836: 4596: 4511: 3857: 3680: 3592: 3312: 3306: 3292: 3286: 2354: 2185: 2121: 1956: 1436: 1429: 1176:

Since the second half of the 20th century, race has been associated with discredited theories of

1008: 874: 806: 722: 602: 494: 431: 396: 386: 364: 359: 11629:

Lieberman, Leonard; Jackson, Fatimah Linda C. (1995). "Race and Three Models of Human Origins".

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distributed across the planet, and that does not translate into the concept of race. He states:

3061:

adopted a resolution stating that "the term should therefore be avoided in all official texts".

16380: 16280: 15723: 15393: 15148: 15008: 14408: 14206: 11896: 11601: 9360:"Attitudinal barriers to delivery of race-targeted pharmacogenomics among informed lay persons" 9304: 8054:

U.S. Census Bureau Guidance on the Presentation and Comparison of Race and Hispanic Origin Data

7440: 7428: 5841: 3764: 3689: 3110: 2617: 2612:

Portrait "Redenção de Cam" (1895), showing a Brazilian family becoming "whiter" each generation

2421: 1585: 1388: 1365: 1304: 948: 749: 734: 674: 582: 521: 12151:"Assessing genetic contributions to phenotypic differences among 'racial' and 'ethnic' groups" 10593: 10461: 10386:

Barbujani, Guido (1 June 2005). "Human Races: Classifying People vs Understanding Diversity".

10120: 10110: 10106: 9834: 8791: 8283: 4867:

Provides 8 definitions, from biological to literary; only the most pertinent have been quoted.

2550: 16644: 16405: 16190: 16084: 15691: 15532: 15388: 15368: 15313: 14945: 14039: 13710: 12478: 12404: 12252: 10844: 10606: 8458: 7320: 6778: 3797: 3791: 3648: 3598: 3576: 3520:

of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Many sociologists focused on African Americans, called

3369: 3340: 3336: 3242: 2813: 2562: 2535: 2456: 2394: 2275: 2208:

as the basis for a phylogenetic tree of human races (p. 661). Biological anthropologist

1686: 1634: 1580:, Yellow (Mongoloid) race, shown in yellow, Negroid race, shown in brown, "Secondary races" ( 1397: 1361: 1271: 1075: 988: 968: 754: 694: 654: 624: 612: 562: 516: 466: 391: 332: 268: 176: 166: 15173: 14191: 13787: 13243: 13123: 11161: 9927:

Relethford, John H. (18 February 2009). "Race and global patterns of phenotypic variation".

9616: 6221: 16618: 16542: 16450: 16275: 16158: 15910: 15880: 15875: 15713: 15708: 15701: 15585: 15303: 15268: 15083: 13758: 13667:

Hawks, John (2013). "Significance of Neandertal and Denisovan Genomes in Human Evolution".

12353: 11969: 11737: 11673: 11567:"Teaching About Human Variation: An Anthropological Tradition for the Twenty-first Century" 11528: 11175: 10806:"Race, reform, and retrenchment: Transformation and legitimation in antidiscrimination law" 10291: 9902: 9805:(1995). "Region Does not Mean 'Race': Reality Versus Convention in Forensic Anthropology". 8689:(1995). "Region Does not Mean 'Race': Reality Versus Convention in Forensic Anthropology". 8226: 8039: 7565: 7378: 5875: 5280: 4840: 4320: 4009: 3932: 3917: 3877: 3743: 3639: 3545: 3533: 3156: 3129:. The criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century. During the 2817: 2574: 2365: 2294: 1967: 1881: 1658: 1642: 1497: 1440: 1350: 1169: 1160: 1142:, the belief that humans can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. 978: 659: 629: 597: 572: 471: 461: 436: 426: 196: 161: 14620:"Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity" 13567: 13548: 12052: 11618: 11160:

Haig, S. M.; Beever, E. A.; Chambers, S. M.; Draheim, H. M.; et al. (December 2006).

10763:"What's New in Science and Race since the 1930s?: Anthropologists and Racial Essentialism" 8065:

B03002. Hispanic or Latino Origin by Race. 2007 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates

5217: 8: 16582: 16485: 16480: 16367: 16285: 15905: 15696: 15248: 15198: 15143: 15023: 14759: 14496: 13797: 13682: 13113: 12745: 12039: 11915: 10467: 10286: 8032:"Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity" 5533:

Race and Ethnicity in the Classical world: An Anthology of Primary Sources in Translation

4628: 4236: 4117: 3631: 3377: 3373: 3058: 2282: 2188:

approach to race is generally regarded as discredited by biologists and anthropologists.

2092: 2072: 1877: 1677: 993: 826: 709: 684: 587: 577: 557: 401: 15293: 15028: 13844:

Race, Religion, and The Haitian Revolution: Essays on Faith, Freedom, and Decolonization

13762: 11677: 11569:. In Rice, Patricia; Kottak, Conrad Phillip; White, Jane G.; Furlow, Richard H. (eds.). 11179: 10295: 9159: 7569: 7382: 4324: 2639:

differences. There, racial identity was not governed by rigid descent rule, such as the

1718: 16465: 16425: 16420: 16325: 16265: 16210: 15895: 15790: 15743: 15718: 15686: 15639: 15413: 15343: 15203: 15158: 15058: 14834: 14611: 14542: 14447: 14370: 14297: 14232:

The Color of Citizenship: Race, Modernity and Latin American/Hispanic Political Thought

14018: 13979: 13944: 13911: 13735: 13634: 13572: 13535: 13491: 13462: 13364: 13356: 13313: 13283: 13278: 13255: 13207: 13185: 13180: 13158: 13042: 13009: 12987: 12937: 12912: 12890: 12762: 12735: 12625: 12608: 12590: 12511: 12482: 12308: 12211: 12182: 12094: 12010: 11868: 11854: 11838: 11804: 11762: 11754: 11719: 11648: 11553: 11460: 11431: 11199: 11071: 11053: 11024: 10942: 10872:

Darwin's sacred cause: how a hatred of slavery shaped Darwin's views on human evolution

10827: 10810: 10792: 10575: 10548: 10535: 10486: 10403: 10353: 10250: 10183: 10165: 10157: 10011: 9894: 9862:"Apportionment of global human genetic diversity based on craniometrics and skin color" 9753:

Konigsberg, Lyle W.; Algee-Hewitt, Bridget F. B.; Steadman, Dawnie Wolfe (1 May 2009).

9702: 9376: 9359: 9192: 9106: 8979: 8870: 8735:

Rivara, Frederick P.; Finberg, Laurence (2001). "Use of the Terms Race and Ethnicity".

8599: 8582: 8578:"'Everyone Knows It's a Social Construct': Contemporary Science and the Nature of Race" 8555: 8538: 8359: 8322: 8305: 8247: 8194: 8167: 7661: 7634: 7588: 7551: 7053: 7035: 6941: 6564: 6119: 6084: 5973: 5894: 5845: 5691: 5666: 5432: 5086: 4933: 4898: 4730: 4687: 4674: 4573: 4352: 4212: 3983: 3887: 3267: 3143: 2594:

may coerce individuals into the "compulsory" enactment of "prewritten racial scripts".

2164: 1662: 1614: 1392: 1013: 704: 649: 421: 308: 181: 12669: 12642: 12460: 12431: 11162:"Taxonomic considerations in listing subspecies under the U.S. Endangered Species Act" 10303: 10109:. In Wasserman, David T.; Wachbroit, Robert Samuel; Bickenbach, Jerome Edmund (eds.). 9518: 9489: 7783:"Allele frequencies of 15 STRs in a representative sample of the Brazilian population" 7635:"Genetic signatures of parental contribution in black and white populations in Brazil" 7401: 7364: 6728: 6693: 4864:

A group of people sharing the same culture, history, language, etc.; an ethnic group .

4507:

The Royal Institution - panel discussion - What Science Tells us about Race and Racism

4302: 3191:, most of whom speak the English language but are not necessarily of English descent. 3042: 16547: 16460: 16445: 16430: 16390: 16385: 16375: 16310: 16195: 16185: 15915: 15556: 15444: 15403: 15328: 15243: 15213: 15113: 14982: 14955: 14928: 14829: 14700: 14657:

A public education program, including history, human variation, and lived experience.

14469: 14414: 14362: 14318: 14289: 14284: 14252: 14218: 14179: 14141: 14102: 14077: 14056: 14010: 13918: 13892: 13830: 13774: 13749: 13727: 13696: 13686: 13626: 13609: 13593: 13576: 13527: 13496: 13402: 13383: 13318: 13300: 13247: 13212: 13093: 13083: 13068: 13047: 13029: 12979: 12942: 12896: 12875: 12852: 12800: 12781: 12775: 12766: 12714: 12695: 12674: 12638: 12559: 12551: 12547: 12516: 12465: 12416: 12391: 12339: 12322: 12300: 12269: 12232: 12215: 12174: 12134: 12068: 12016: 11995: 11953: 11900: 11890: 11875: 11846: 11796: 11766: 11709: 11610: 11578: 11557: 11545: 11512: 11489: 11465: 11416: 11397: 11357: 11311: 11281: 11243: 11220: 11191: 11187: 11139: 11111: 11100: 11081: 11058: 10978: 10934: 10898: 10880: 10848: 10784: 10780: 10727: 10664: 10619: 10586: 10527: 10494: 10471: 10439: 10372: 10345: 10307: 10254: 10212: 10201: 10169: 10124: 9946: 9886: 9784: 9776: 9706: 9523: 9420: 9381: 9261: 9196: 9138: 9053: 8999: 8942: 8938: 8905: 8862: 8825: 8754: 8603: 8498: 8490:

Race and Other Misadventures: Essays in Honor of Ashley Montagu in His Ninetieth Year

8355: 8251: 8199: 8112: 7999: 7805: 7760: 7707: 7666: 7593: 7523: 7444: 7406: 7332: 7232: 7186: 7116: 6782: 6733: 6715: 6644: 6597: 6392: 6384: 6225: 6124: 6106: 5977: 5965: 5961: 5901: 5696: 5569: 5536: 5014: 4947: 4903: 4772: 4679: 4661: 4565: 4557: 4356: 4344: 4336: 4307: 4241: 4216: 4204: 4196: 4145: 4135: 4075: 4071: 4023: 3973: 3892: 3872: 3844: 3517: 3513: 3496: 3188: 3147:). To be White one had to have perceived "pure" White ancestry. The one-drop rule or 3114: 2809: 2591: 2370: 2350: 2254: 2209: 2125: 2080: 1865: 1825: 1589: 1457: 1401: 1331: 1177: 821: 811: 789: 536: 526: 146: 100: 30:

This article is about categorization of human populations. For "the human race", see

15128: 14374: 14174: 13983: 13638: 13539: 13368: 13259: 13226:"The medicalization of race: scientific legitimization of a flawed social construct" 12450: 12374:

Pigliucci, Massimo (September 2013). "What are we to make of the concept of race?".

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Each of the major division of humankind, having distinct physical characteristics .

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Some biologists argue that racial categories correlate with biological traits (e.g.

16517: 16512: 16395: 15954: 15937: 15927: 15823: 15383: 15378: 15353: 15333: 15098: 14809: 14607: 14354: 14301: 14279: 14169: 14131: 14092: 14048: 14022: 14002: 13969: 13871: 13820: 13766: 13739: 13719: 13678: 13618: 13562: 13519: 13486: 13476: 13434: 13348: 13308: 13292: 13239: 13202: 13194: 13150: 13037: 13021: 12969: 12932: 12924: 12754: 12743:

Smaje, Chris (1997). "Not just a social construct: Theorising race and ethnicity".

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Lieberman, Leonard; Hampton, Raymond E.; Littlefield, Alice; Hallead, Glen (1992).

11640: 11537: 11455: 11445: 11380: 11347: 11324: 11320: 11203: 11183: 11125: 11095: 11048: 11038: 10926: 10912: 10819: 10776: 10701: 10693: 10570: 10562: 10539: 10519: 10431: 10395: 10337: 10299: 10242: 10149: 10077: 9938: 9898: 9878: 9816: 9768: 9694: 9513: 9503: 9412: 9371: 9182: 9174: 9098: 9058: 8975: 8971: 8934: 8897: 8854: 8817: 8746: 8700: 8595: 8591: 8551: 8547: 8421: 8392: 8351: 8318: 8314: 8239: 8189: 8181: 7797: 7697: 7656: 7648: 7583: 7573: 7396: 7386: 7176: 7168: 7108: 7027: 6933: 6723: 6707: 6593: 6556: 6374: 6217: 6114: 6098: 5957: 5686: 5678: 5424: 5006: 4937: 4691: 4669: 4653: 4601: 4547: 4534: 4490: 4328: 4186: 4127: 3993: 3907: 3897: 3771: 3751: 3739: 3728: 3724: 3664: 3635: 3624: 3551: 3536:(1866–1951), also an important figure in the founding of American sociology, and a 3299:

Lieberman's study also showed that more women reject the concept of race than men.

3106: 3001: 2837:

and people with very high quantities of Amerindian ancestry are usually grouped as

2625: 2554: 2521: 2452: 2414: 2201: 2110:, who provided evidence of phenotypic plasticity due to environmental factors, and 1833: 1521: 1164: 1130: 759: 739: 476: 451: 263: 186: 12124: 11644: 10752:

Conley, D. (2007). "Being black, living in the red"". In Rothenberg, P. S. (ed.).

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Quality of life and human difference: genetic testing, health care, and disability

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Program announcement and request for grant applications (through 1 February 2006).

8531:"The Status of the Race Concept in Contemporary Biological Anthropology: A Review" 8298:"The Status of the Race Concept in Contemporary Biological Anthropology: A Review" 7686:"Genetic heritage variability of Brazilians in even regional averages, 2009 study" 7465: 4169:"Misrepresenting Race — The Role of Medical Schools in Propagating Physician Bias" 2820:

factors are also significant to the limits of racial lines, because a minority of

2561:, slavery, and genocide. This questioning gained momentum in the 1960s during the 16552: 16498: 16470: 16410: 16345: 16300: 16235: 15969: 15964: 15942: 15870: 15418: 15373: 15263: 15233: 15108: 15093: 15033: 14970: 14866: 14660: 14391: 14345: 14336: 14122: 13811: 13481: 12729: 12691: 12647: 12501: 12335: 12155: 11816: 11774: 11705: 11338: 11271: 11239: 11129: 11043: 10968: 10745: 10634: 10366: 10228:"Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race in forensic anthropology" 9802: 9602: 9134: 8925: 8686: 8108: 8071: 8060: 7898: 7838:

The Impact of Migration on the Genetic Constitution of Latin American Populations

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The Mongoloid race sees the widest geographic distribution, including all of the

1337:

When people define and talk about a particular conception of race, they create a

1185: 1145:

Social conceptions and groupings of races have varied over time, often involving

1003: 943: 920: 669: 273: 191: 151: 111: 106: 14631: 13296: 13198: 13025: 12758: 12387: 11413:

Critical Race Theory: Essays on the Social Construction and Reproduction of Race

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O Impacto das Migrações na Constituição Genética de Populações Latino-Americanas

7112: 5667:"The Use of Racial, Ethnic, and Ancestral Categories in Human Genetics Research" 5010: 4942: 3638:, has been fueled by the proliferation of human genetic data which followed the 1896:(1863), which, during the period of the American Civil War, broke away from the 1723:

Nouvelle division de la terre par les différents espèces ou races qui l'habitent

16577: 16567: 16537: 16475: 16455: 16400: 15989: 15959: 15818: 15785: 15738: 15733: 15728: 15363: 15323: 15273: 15258: 15238: 15188: 15153: 15138: 15118: 15103: 14975: 14916: 14769: 13770: 13377: 12643:"Evidence for gradients of human genetic diversity within and among continents" 12436: 12265: 12082: 12060: 12030: 11945: 11436: 11073:

Assimilation in American life: the role of race, religion, and national origins

10955: 10862: 9178: 8750: 7728:[Brazil: 500 years of settlement] (in Portuguese). IBGE. Archived from 7684:

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Jorde, Lynn B.; Carey, John C.; Bamshad, Michael J.; White, Raymond L. (2000).

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against what is known about our ever-changing and complex biological diversity.

3529: 3524:

at that time, and claimed that they were inferior to whites. White sociologist

3344: 3184: 3038: 2860: 2603: 2429: 2217: 2146: 2111: 2100:

in the West came to view race as an invalid genetic or biological designation.

2042: 1817: 1791: 1787: 1702: 1610: 1545: 1484: 1354: 1342: 1338: 1213:, depending on context. Its use in genetics was formally renounced by the U.S. 958: 664: 481: 441: 132: 86: 35: 14052: 13723: 13438: 12974: 12586: 12571:

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Genetics and the races of man: an introduction to modern physical anthropology

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In partial response to Gill's statement, Professor of Biological Anthropology

2265:. For example, with respect to skin color in Europe and Africa, Brace writes: 1444:

effects on the policing and disproportionate incarceration of certain groups.

16633: 16557: 16522: 16315: 16255: 16230: 16225: 15994: 15949: 15843: 15770: 15750: 15595: 15398: 15338: 15308: 15288: 15228: 15193: 15178: 15163: 15133: 15078: 15003: 14814: 14794: 14784: 13875: 13853:

From Toussaint to Price-Mars: Rhetoric, Race, and Religion in Haitian Thought

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Andreasen, Robin O. (2000). "Race: Biological Reality or Social Construct?".

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Many research findings appear to agree that the impact of victim race in the

3757: 3679:

In an attempt to provide general descriptions that may facilitate the job of

3588: 3575:, joined Du Bois in theorizing race as a socially constructed fact. By 1978, 3175: 3098: 3094: 2640: 2621: 2464: 2320: 2258: 2216:

descent, that is from a series of unique ancestors)." Evolutionary biologist

2180: 2084: 2058: 2006: 1993: 1889: 1869: 1829: 1821: 1726: 1417: 1296: 1203: 1181: 1146: 836: 831: 779: 501: 301: 91: 14154: 13943:(1). MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts & Sciences: 89–94. 13622: 11450: 10841:

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History of anthropometry § Race, identity and cranio-facial description

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emerged in the 20th century with the rise of migration of laborers from the

3152:

to the United States, making it a particularly African-American experience.

1669:

to categorize human groups in order to justify the subordination of African

16592: 16532: 16415: 16357: 16350: 16305: 16245: 16176: 15984: 15974: 15922: 15860: 15848: 15838: 15828: 15813: 15765: 15681: 15575: 15278: 15063: 14849: 14804: 14799: 14741: 14716: 14521: 14366: 14293: 14183: 14145: 14118:"Implications of biogeography of human populations for 'race' and medicine" 14070:

The leopard's spots: scientific attitudes toward race in America, 1815–1859

14060: 14014: 13834: 13778: 13731: 13630: 13531: 13500: 13322: 13216: 13051: 12946: 12678: 12520: 12469: 12395: 12343: 12304: 12273: 12178: 11850: 11800: 11685: 11662:"Race in Biology and Anthropology: A Study of College Texts and Professors" 11549: 11469: 11430:

Lee, Sandra S. J.; Mountain, Joanna; Koenig, Barbara; Altman, Russ (2008).

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Jacoby, Russell; Glauberman, Naomi, eds. (1995). "Genius, Fame, and Race".

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disagreed with the proposition: "There are biological races in the species

3278:

with the following proposition: "There are biological races in the species

3171: 2457:

wishes to see subdivisions (i.e., splitters) or a continuum (i.e., lumpers)

2270:

northern edge to as dark as it is possible for humans to be at the equator.

2115: 2104: 2068: 1951: 1945: 1805: 1731: 1714: 1646: 1638: 1577: 1553: 1413: 1308: 1300: 1150: 1118: 744: 634: 340: 258: 14987: 13647: 13251: 12563: 12432:"Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease" 11792: 9508: 9258:

Social Stratification: Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological Perspective

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Schwartz, Robert S. (3 May 2001). "Racial Profiling in Medical Research".

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Coop, G.; Pickrell, J. K.; Novembre, J.; Kudaravalli, S.; Li, J. (2009).

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continue to be defined by a certain percentage of "Indian blood" (called

3138: 2834: 2580: 2103:

The first to challenge the concept of race on empirical grounds were the

2076: 2054: 1885: 1760: 1682: 1525: 1373: 1209: 1190: 1122: 916: 784: 541: 414: 381: 248: 14505: 14329: 14311:

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populations distributed roughly evenly across the Earth's land surface,

1697:

qualities. Similar ideas can be found in other cultures, for example in

16602: 16597: 16572: 16507: 16440: 16330: 15775: 15610: 15600: 15318: 15223: 15053: 15043: 15013: 14856: 14824: 14789: 14731: 13932: 13906: 13360: 13162: 13014:

Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences

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A 2021 study that examined over 11,000 papers from 1949 to 2018 in the

3446:

disappeared from scientific discourse after World War II and has had a

3057:

governments in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s. Indeed, in 1996, the

2636: 2425: 2305: 2197: 2172: 2155: 2107: 2062: 2050: 1986: 1901: 1849: 1768: 1690: 1685:

took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to

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among medical ethicists, defense lawyers and some in law enforcement.

2236:

In 2015, Keith Hunley, Graciela Cabana, and Jeffrey Long analyzed the

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doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility."

2381: 2253:'s observation that such variations, insofar as they are affected by 2213: 2097: 1936: 1666: 1541: 1490: 1476: 1409: 1117:

relations. By the 17th century, the term began to refer to physical (

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era, increasing numbers of Americans began to consider anyone with "

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published classification of humans into distinct races seems to be

1597: 1533: 1425: 1381: 1369: 1281:

proposed but then withdrew plans to add a new category to classify

1246: 14534: 14358: 13935:(Winter 2002). "The Biology of Race and the Concept of Equality". 13138: 12868:

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11659: 11396:. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Publications. pp. 65–81. 11259:"Human Genome Project Information: Minorities, Race, and Genomics" 8128: 7927:[Brazilian territory and settlement] (in Portuguese). IBGE 3409: 3389: 3271: 2549:

Many social scientists have replaced the word race with the word "

2191: 16270: 16200: 15550:

An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus

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5285: 3697: 3462: 3122: 3054: 2848: 2839: 2644: 2531: 2374: 2160: 2088: 2046: 1861: 1796: 1564: 1507: 1377: 1263:), though many people use different terms to identify themselves. 1126: 1114: 1110: 906: 886: 854: 644: 13178: 12799:. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 172. 12476: 12248:"Controversies in biomedical, behavioral, and forensic sciences" 9755:"Estimation and evidence in forensic anthropology: Sex and race" 9260:(4th ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. p. 683. 9225:

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does not correspond directly with any of them.) Traditionally,

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4401: 4399: 3862: 3701: 3521: 3180: 2822: 1729:, inventor of zoological taxonomy, divided the human species 1698: 1694: 1670: 1654: 1511: 1106: 31: 15631: 11952:(revised ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: DaCapo Press. 7056:(1988). "But What Are You Really? The Metaphysics of Race". 6918:

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4760: 4300: 4166: 2542:

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employed in different disciplines vary in their emphasis on

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and then migrated out of Africa, mixing with and replacing

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In the last two decades of the 18th century, the theory of

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contexts, and may be the effect, rather than the cause, of

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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

3480:

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

3097:

came from every region of Europe, Africa, and Asia. They

2344: 1828:

all classified "Negros" as inferior to Europeans. In the

1782:

The 1775 treatise "The Natural Varieties of Mankind", by

1775:

was described as active, acute, and adventurous, whereas

1322:

of the groups is produced through social interventions".

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Race, Nature and Culture: An anthropological perspective

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different races can have significant effects on health.

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Gissis, S. (2008). "When is 'race' a race? 1946–2003".

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In the social sciences, theoretical frameworks such as

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studying social inequality, race can be a significant

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The History of the Idea of Race... and Why It Matters

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even an approximate portrayal of individual ancestry.

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during the time span from 1946 to 2003, and has even

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The concept of "race" is still sometimes used within

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edition of a popular physical anthropology textbook,

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Compared to 19th-century United States, 20th-century

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An antagonist's perspective" 10057:"AAPA statement on biological aspects of race" 9972: 9571:Suffolk Constabulary Policies & Procedures 9131:Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory 8959: 8881: 8566: 8150: 8148: 8146: 7944: 7942: 7017: 6447: 6445: 6329: 6294: 6172: 6036: 5934: 5474: 4232:"Race Is a Social Construct, Scientists Argue" 3452:become more pronounced from the early 1970s on 3422:Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 3282:." Among anthropologists, the responses were: 15647: 15462:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races 14676: 14192:"UNESCO and Its Programme: The Race Question" 14116:Tishkoff, Sarah A.; Kidd, Kenneth K. (2004). 12604:"'The European': Allegories of Racial Purity" 12405:"Post World-War II Expert Discourses on Race" 12245: 12148: 11564: 11301: 10592:. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 10459: 10290:. 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This view rejects the notion that race is 1252:The government of Myanmar recognizes eight " 14266:Waples, Robin S.; Gaggiotti, Oscar (2006). 13955: 13463:"The Role of Geography in Human Adaptation" 13136: 12688:Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society 11773: 10953: 10839:Currell, Susan; Cogdell, Christina (2006). 9961: 9337: 8953: 8289: 8216: 8210: 8143: 7939: 6882: 6761: 6462: 6442: 6241: 6154: 6068: 5872:Human Evolution an illustrated introduction 4783: 3241:Since the second half of the 20th century, 3117:have some African or Amerindian ancestors. 2411:Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy 1984: 1931:are classified as belonging to the species 1843: 1779:was said to be crafty, lazy, and careless. 1448:Historical origins of racial classification 1274:were often challenged for specific groups. 15654: 15640: 15454:Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question 14683: 14669: 14229: 13583: 13275: 13059:Thompson, William; Hickey, Joseph (2005). 12708: 12636: 12193: 11210: 10718:; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1994). 10601:Brace, C. 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Anthropologists support the idea that 1965:(A group including the possible species 1563: 1461: 27:Grouping by physical or social qualities 14411:: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Evolution 14405: 14390: 14219:"Four Statements on the Race Questions" 14090: 14067: 13793:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 13396: 13244:10.7326/0003-4819-125-8-199610150-00008 13121: 13081: 12813: 12794: 12773: 12727: 12402: 12081: 12059: 12029: 11944: 11666:Journal of Research in Science Teaching 11368: 10911: 10760: 10677: 10226:Armelagos, George; Smay, Diana (2000). 10004: 9741: 9730: 9719: 9082: 8842: 8668: 8575: 8528: 8295: 8082: 8013: 7863:Lopes, Reinaldo José (5 October 2009). 7491: 7417: 7098: 6958: 6750: 6512: 6456: 6412: 6355:Hunley, Keith L.; Cabana, Graciela S.; 6082: 6073: 6055: 6050: 6024: 6008: 5993: 5928: 5923: 5914: 5736: 5713: 5707: 5605: 5599: 5594: 5530: 5247: 4483: 4464: 4450:. 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Modern 269:Social stratification 16619:Minzu (anthropology) 16588:Separatist movements 16451:Ethnographic village 16276:Legendary progenitor 15911:Transidioethnography 15714:Hyphenated ethnicity 15709:Ethnographic realism 15702:Ethnoreligious group 15586:Great chain of being 15304:Ludwig Hermann Plate 15269:Samuel George Morton 15084:Samuel A. Cartwright 14934:in the United States 14655:on 1 September 2019. 14243:Wade, Peter (2002). 13524:10.1056/NEJMsb022863 13082:Todorov, T. (1993). 12774:Smedley, A. 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Weatherly 3534:Edward Alsworth Ross 3032:Directive 2000/43/EC 2575:Katya Gibel Mevorach 2516:Social constructions 2409:In his 2003 paper, " 2366:Human Genome Project 2206:Luigi Cavalli-Sforza 1962:Archaic Homo sapiens 1882:Samuel George Morton 1802:American Indian race 1659:Atlantic slave trade 1643:European imperialism 1441:critical race theory 1430:biological reduction 1170:Homo sapiens sapiens 1161:scientific community 1042:Anthropology by year 979:Boasian anthropology 954:Cultural materialism 939:Actor–network theory 537:Paleoanthropological 16650:Kinship and descent 16486:Multinational state 16481:Model minority myth 16368:Multiethnic society 16286:Linguistic homeland 15697:Ethnonational group 15542:The Races of Europe 15470:The Races of Europe 15249:Dominick McCausland 15199:Thomas Henry Huxley 15144:Stanley Marion Garn 15024:Robert Bennett Bean 14752:Historical concepts 14577:Official statements 14497:Scientific American 14409:The Ancestor's Tale 14396:"Race and creation" 14394:(23 October 2004). 13798:Stanford University 13763:1926Sci....63...75H 13617:(5712): 1050–1051. 13114:The Washington Post 12889:Takaki, R. 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Royal 3189:European Americans 3157:decennial censuses 3111:European ancestors 2614: 2015:H. heidelbergensis 2011:H. heidelbergensis 1968:H. heidelbergensis 1908:Modern scholarship 1602: 1562: 1129:regards race as a 1014:Post-structuralism 773:Research framework 16655:Social inequality 16627: 16626: 16548:Ethnic stereotype 16461:Indigenous rights 16446:Ethnographic film 16431:Ethnic theme park 16391:Dominant minority 16386:Diaspora politics 16376:Consociationalism 16311:National language 16196:Cultural identity 16186:Cross-race effect 16130:Aboriginal groups 15629: 15628: 15558:The Race Question 15404:John H. Van Evrie 15329:William Z. Ripley 15299:Charles Pickering 15244:Felix von Luschan 15214:Robert E. 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Cooley 3518:scientific racism 3514:Lester Frank Ward 3497:Robert O. Keohane 3115:European American 3019:According to the 2989: 2988: 2929: 2928: 2810:Brazilian society 2805: 2804: 2592:identity politics 2540:social scientists 2371:Massimo Pigliucci 2351:Race and genetics 2321:beta-S hemoglobin 2255:natural selection 2202:genetic distances 2081:scientific racism 1866:Christoph Meiners 1864:by ethnographers 1826:Christoph Meiners 1777:Homo sapiens afer 1641:, and the age of 1590:Samoyedic peoples 1458:Scientific racism 1402:social scientists 1351:institutionalized 1332:African Americans 1277:Furthermore, the 1178:scientific racism 1100: 1099: 999:Political economy 822:Thick description 619:Political economy 482:Zooarchaeological 442:Bioarchaeological 326: 325: 117:Sociology of race 101:scientific racism 82:Color terminology 16:(Redirected from 16662: 16518:Ethnic cleansing 16513:Ethnic bioweapon 16396:Ethnic democracy 16005:Groups by region 15955:Ethnomethodology 15938:Ethnomathematics 15928:Ethnolinguistics 15824:Ethnoarchaeology 15656: 15649: 15642: 15633: 15632: 15437: 15384:Lothrop Stoddard 15379:Morris Steggerda 15354:Ilse Schwidetzky 15349:Heinrich Schmidt 15334:Alfred Rosenberg 15294:Isaac La Peyrère 15099:Carleton S. Coon 15074:Charles Caldwell 15029:François Bernier 14912:in Latin America 14685: 14678: 14671: 14662: 14661: 14656: 14638:Federal Register 14635: 14615: 14608:US Census Bureau 14595: 14571: 14554: 14538: 14529: 14517: 14501: 14478: 14460: 14452: 14437: 14424: 14403: 14392:Dawkins, Richard 14378: 14328: 14305: 14287: 14278:(6): 1419–1439. 14262: 14239: 14226: 14214: 14202: 14196: 14187: 14177: 14159: 14149: 14139: 14112: 14087: 14064: 14036: 14026: 13987: 13977: 13952: 13928: 13916: 13902: 13879: 13856: 13847: 13838: 13828: 13801: 13782: 13743: 13704: 13663: 13661: 13659: 13642: 13603: 13580: 13570: 13543: 13504: 13494: 13484: 13457: 13455: 13453: 13447: 13441:. Archived from 13422: 13412: 13393: 13372: 13326: 13316: 13272: 13263: 13220: 13210: 13175: 13166: 13133: 13118: 13103: 13078: 13061:Society in Focus 13055: 13045: 13004: 12995: 12977: 12950: 12940: 12906: 12885: 12862: 12843: 12841: 12839: 12833: 12827:. Archived from 12822: 12810: 12791: 12770: 12739: 12724: 12705: 12694:. p. 1096. 12682: 12672: 12633: 12598: 12581:(143): 143–162. 12567: 12524: 12514: 12504: 12479:Pritchard, J. K. 12473: 12463: 12453: 12426: 12399: 12370: 12347: 12316: 12277: 12242: 12219: 12190: 12172: 12145: 12139: 12128: 12119:(5:1): 919–928. 12106: 12104: 12102: 12093:. Archived from 12078: 12056: 12026: 12005: 11986: 11963: 11941: 11927: 11910: 11885: 11873: 11862: 11829:(5/6): 799–803. 11817:Long, Jeffrey C. 11812: 11770: 11727: 11689: 11656: 11625: 11623: 11617:. Archived from 11598: 11588: 11561: 11522: 11499: 11473: 11463: 11453: 11426: 11407: 11388: 11365: 11355: 11346:(11s): S17–S20. 11328: 11308: 11298: 11296: 11294: 11266: 11253: 11230: 11207: 11174:(6): 1584–1594. 11156: 11154: 11152: 11121: 11105: 11091: 11066: 11056: 11046: 11019: 11017: 11015: 10995: 10993: 10991: 10963: 10950: 10908: 10889: 10858: 10843:. Athens, Ohio: 10835: 10818:(7): 1331–1337. 10800: 10757: 10737: 10711: 10709: 10674: 10655: 10653: 10651: 10629: 10610: 10597: 10591: 10580: 10578: 10543: 10504: 10481: 10456: 10454: 10448:. Archived from 10421: 10411: 10388:Current Genomics 10382: 10368:The idea of race 10361: 10322: 10321:on 14 June 2007. 10320: 10314:. Archived from 10283: 10273: 10271: 10269: 10263: 10257:. Archived from 10232: 10222: 10206: 10195: 10193: 10191: 10173: 10134: 10101: 10092: 10091:on 23 July 2004. 10090: 10084:. Archived from 10061: 10052: 10050: 10048: 10028: 10026: 10024: 10015:. Archived from 9992: 9987: 9981: 9976: 9970: 9965: 9959: 9958: 9924: 9918: 9917: 9915: 9913: 9907: 9901:. Archived from 9866: 9857: 9851: 9850: 9848: 9846: 9831: 9825: 9824: 9803:Brace, C. Loring 9799: 9793: 9792: 9750: 9744: 9739: 9733: 9728: 9722: 9717: 9711: 9710: 9680: 9674: 9668: 9662: 9656: 9650: 9649: 9647: 9645: 9631: 9625: 9624: 9612: 9606: 9593: 9587: 9586: 9584: 9582: 9573:. Archived from 9563: 9557: 9556: 9554: 9552: 9546: 9538: 9532: 9531: 9521: 9511: 9480: 9474: 9469: 9463: 9457: 9451: 9446: 9440: 9435: 9429: 9428: 9411:(6): 1183–1190. 9398: 9392: 9389: 9379: 9355: 9346: 9341: 9335: 9334: 9332: 9330: 9315: 9309: 9308: 9303:(2nd ed.). 9296: 9287: 9286: 9278: 9272: 9271: 9253: 9244: 9243: 9235: 9229: 9228: 9220: 9209: 9208: 9201:Republished as: 9200: 9190: 9155: 9149: 9148: 9126: 9115: 9114: 9080: 9067: 9066: 9044: 9038: 9037: 9035: 9033: 9018: 9009: 9008: 8994: 8988: 8987: 8957: 8951: 8950: 8920: 8914: 8913: 8885: 8879: 8878: 8840: 8834: 8833: 8803: 8797: 8795: 8776: 8770: 8769: 8732: 8726: 8725: 8715: 8709: 8708: 8687:Brace, C. Loring 8683: 8677: 8672: 8666: 8641: 8635: 8629: 8623: 8617: 8608: 8607: 8573: 8564: 8563: 8535: 8526: 8520: 8515: 8509: 8508: 8484: 8478: 8477: 8475: 8473: 8467: 8461:. Archived from 8456: 8447: 8441: 8436: 8430: 8429: 8400: 8374: 8368: 8367: 8337: 8331: 8330: 8302: 8293: 8287: 8277: 8271: 8270: 8268: 8266: 8260: 8254:. Archived from 8223: 8214: 8208: 8207: 8197: 8163: 8157: 8152: 8141: 8135: 8126: 8125: 8100: 8094: 8092: 8080: 8074: 8051: 8049: 8047: 8042:on 15 March 2009 8028: 8022: 8017: 8011: 8010: 8004: 7994: 7988: 7982: 7973: 7972: 7971:on 24 July 2012. 7957: 7951: 7946: 7937: 7936: 7934: 7932: 7921: 7909: 7903: 7902: 7891: 7879: 7873: 7872: 7871:(in Portuguese). 7869:Folha de S.Paulo 7860: 7854: 7853: 7848:. Archived from 7843: 7827: 7821: 7820: 7819:on 8 April 2011. 7818: 7812:. Archived from 7787: 7777: 7771: 7770: 7748: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7737: 7722: 7716: 7715: 7705: 7681: 7675: 7674: 7664: 7630: 7624: 7623: 7608: 7602: 7601: 7591: 7581: 7546: 7537: 7536: 7511: 7505: 7504: 7489: 7483: 7482: 7480: 7478: 7461: 7455: 7454: 7421: 7415: 7414: 7404: 7394: 7360: 7354: 7349: 7343: 7342: 7321:Ford, Richard T. 7317: 7311: 7310: 7295: 7289: 7288: 7273: 7267: 7261: 7255: 7249: 7243: 7242: 7236: 7228: 7226: 7224: 7213: 7207: 7201: 7195: 7194: 7184: 7156: 7148:Long, Jeffrey C. 7143: 7137: 7131: 7125: 7124: 7096: 7090: 7089: 7087: 7085: 7080: 7072: 7066: 7065: 7050: 7044: 7043: 7015: 7009: 7008: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6978: 6977: 6965: 6956: 6950: 6949: 6932:(5): 1039–1052. 6915: 6909: 6903: 6898: 6892: 6886: 6880: 6875: 6866: 6861: 6855: 6850: 6844: 6841:Tang et al. 2005 6838: 6829: 6819:Tang et al. 2005 6802: 6796: 6795: 6772: 6763:Dawkins, Richard 6759: 6753: 6748: 6742: 6741: 6731: 6690:Barbujani, Guido 6673: 6667: 6661: 6655: 6654: 6639:(2nd ed.). 6637:Medical Genetics 6632: 6626: 6620: 6614: 6608: 6602: 6601: 6592:(5): 1279–1296. 6579: 6573: 6572: 6555:(5): 1161–1172. 6538: 6532: 6527: 6521: 6516: 6510: 6504: 6498: 6493: 6487: 6482: 6476: 6471: 6465: 6460: 6454: 6449: 6440: 6434: 6428: 6422: 6416: 6410: 6401: 6400: 6382: 6357:Long, Jeffrey C. 6352: 6341: 6336: 6327: 6321: 6315: 6314:, p. 28–29. 6309: 6303: 6298: 6292: 6291: 6280: 6271: 6256: 6250: 6245: 6239: 6238: 6202: 6196: 6190: 6184: 6179: 6170: 6168:Haig et al. 2006 6165: 6159: 6139: 6133: 6132: 6122: 6080: 6071: 6066: 6060: 6040: 6034: 6019: 6013: 5988: 5982: 5981: 5943: 5937: 5932: 5926: 5921: 5912: 5911: 5899: 5886: 5880: 5879: 5864: 5858: 5857: 5838: 5832: 5826: 5820: 5819: 5798: 5792: 5791:, pp. 38–40 5786: 5780: 5779:, pp. 42–43 5774: 5768: 5763: 5757: 5751: 5740: 5734: 5728: 5722: 5716: 5711: 5705: 5704: 5694: 5662: 5653: 5636: 5630: 5625: 5619: 5614: 5608: 5603: 5597: 5592: 5583: 5582: 5557: 5551: 5550: 5528: 5522: 5516: 5510: 5464: 5458: 5452: 5441: 5440: 5410: 5404: 5383: 5377: 5371: 5365: 5359: 5353: 5348: 5342: 5316: 5310: 5297: 5291: 5232: 5226: 5225: 5214: 5208: 5183: 5177: 5162: 5156: 5150: 5144: 5143: 5137: 5135: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5101: 5099: 5090:. Archived from 5077: 5071: 5065: 5054: 5053: 5041: 5035: 5029: 5023: 5022: 4992: 4986: 4985: 4983: 4981: 4964: 4958: 4957: 4945: 4925: 4919: 4918: 4916: 4914: 4889: 4880: 4874: 4868: 4866: 4850: 4848: 4839:. Archived from 4825: 4816: 4810: 4804: 4799: 4793: 4787: 4781: 4780: 4756: 4747: 4746: 4740: 4738: 4721: 4715: 4714: 4708: 4706: 4700: 4677: 4633: 4624: 4618: 4617: 4611: 4609: 4602:Pacific Standard 4595:White, Michael. 4592: 4586: 4585: 4555: 4525: 4516: 4515: 4502: 4496: 4495: 4491:Psychology Today 4481: 4475: 4474: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4448:Race and Reality 4443: 4437: 4431: 4425: 4423: 4415: 4409: 4403: 4394: 4388: 4382: 4367: 4361: 4360: 4298: 4292: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4271: 4262: 4261: 4259: 4257: 4227: 4221: 4220: 4194: 4164: 4158: 4157: 4114: 4105: 4104: 4092: 4086: 4085: 4059: 4035: 4010:Races of Mankind 3994:Raciolinguistics 3908:Human skin color 3898:Genetic distance 3772:cluster analysis 3752:The New Jim Crow 3740:racial profiling 3729:unconstitutional 3725:racial profiling 3665:Racial profiling 3636:pharmacogenomics 3625:Pharmacogenomics 3593:racial formation 3552:W. E. B. Du Bois 3187:or non-Hispanic 3107:African American 3033: 2931: 2930: 2866: 2865: 2843:, a subgroup of 2708:Amerindian only 2650: 2649: 2626:social relations 2555:Second World War 2522:Race and society 2415:A. W. F. Edwards 2402:Cluster analysis 2308: 2297: 2009:species such as 1990: 1902:monogenic stance 1838:Native Americans 1834:Thomas Jefferson 1771:, respectively. 1719:François Bernier 1372:individuals and 1348: 1287:2020 U.S. census 1270:used before the 1182:pseudoscientific 1157: 1131:social construct 1092: 1085: 1078: 620: 502:Anthrozoological 351: 328: 327: 318: 311: 304: 264:Human skin color 43: 42: 21: 16670: 16669: 16665: 16664: 16663: 16661: 16660: 16659: 16630: 16629: 16628: 16623: 16607: 16553:Ethnic violence 16501: 16499:ethnic conflict 16497: 16490: 16471:Minority rights 16411:Ethnic majority 16362: 16346:Detribalization 16301:Nation-building 16236:Ethnic religion 16179: 16175: 16165: 16072:Central America 15999: 15970:Ethnophilosophy 15965:Ethnomusicology 15943:Ethnostatistics 15901:Person-centered 15871:Autoethnography 15800: 15665: 15660: 15630: 15625: 15564: 15502:Castes in India 15423: 15419:Ludwig Woltmann 15374:Herbert Spencer 15264:Lewis H. Morgan 15234:Cesare Lombroso 15109:Jan Czekanowski 15094:Sonia Mary Cole 15034:Renato Biasutti 14992: 14971:Nazism and race 14890: 14867:Proto-Mongoloid 14746: 14703: 14694: 14689: 14643: 14618: 14598: 14582: 14579: 14558: 14541: 14520: 14514:History Matters 14504: 14486: 14481: 14463: 14455: 14434:Morning Edition 14421: 14386: 14381: 14346:Nature Genetics 14337:Wayback Machine 14325: 14259: 14217: 14205: 14194: 14190: 14157: 14123:Nature Genetics 14109: 14084: 14034: 14007:10.1038/nrg1405 13925: 13899: 13812:Nature Genetics 13757:(1621): 75–81. 13693: 13657: 13655: 13652:Is Race "Real"? 13600: 13475:(6): e1000500. 13451: 13449: 13445: 13420: 13409: 13390: 13353:10.2307/1364805 13334: 13332:Further reading 13329: 13155:10.2307/2411818 13100: 13075: 12903: 12882: 12874:. p. 380. 12859: 12837: 12835: 12831: 12820: 12807: 12788: 12721: 12713:. Pluto Press. 12702: 12692:SAGE Publishing 12648:Genome Research 12622:10.2307/3032780 12423: 12239: 12156:Nature Genetics 12108: 12100: 12098: 12083:Montagu, Ashley 12075: 12061:Montagu, Ashley 12031:Montagu, Ashley 12023: 12002: 11960: 11946:Meltzer, Milton 11940:(1–2): 154–166. 11907: 11882: 11716: 11621: 11596: 11585: 11519: 11496: 11423: 11404: 11339:Nature Genetics 11306: 11292: 11290: 11288: 11280:. p. 132. 11250: 11240:Greenwood Press 11227: 11150: 11148: 11146: 11118: 11088: 11013: 11011: 10989: 10987: 10985: 10956:Montagu, Ashley 10905: 10887: 10863:Desmond, Adrian 10855: 10847:. p. 203. 10824:10.2307/1341398 10746:Wayback Machine 10734: 10671: 10649: 10647: 10626: 10501: 10478: 10452: 10446: 10419: 10379: 10342:10.1038/nrg1401 10318: 10281: 10267: 10265: 10261: 10230: 10219: 10189: 10187: 10131: 10088: 10059: 10046: 10044: 10022: 10020: 10019:on 17 July 2011 10000: 9995: 9988: 9984: 9977: 9973: 9966: 9962: 9925: 9921: 9911: 9909: 9905: 9864: 9858: 9854: 9844: 9842: 9833: 9832: 9828: 9800: 9796: 9751: 9747: 9740: 9736: 9729: 9725: 9718: 9714: 9681: 9677: 9669: 9665: 9657: 9653: 9643: 9641: 9633: 9632: 9628: 9613: 9609: 9603:Wayback Machine 9594: 9590: 9580: 9578: 9565: 9564: 9560: 9550: 9548: 9544: 9540: 9539: 9535: 9481: 9477: 9472:Lee et al. 2008 9470: 9466: 9460:Harpending 2006 9458: 9454: 9447: 9443: 9436: 9432: 9399: 9395: 9356: 9349: 9342: 9338: 9328: 9326: 9317: 9316: 9312: 9297: 9290: 9279: 9275: 9268: 9254: 9247: 9236: 9232: 9221: 9212: 9156: 9152: 9145: 9135:Sage Publishing 9127: 9118: 9103:10.2307/2086515 9081: 9070: 9045: 9041: 9031: 9029: 9028:. 14 March 2023 9020: 9019: 9012: 8996: 8995: 8991: 8958: 8954: 8926:Nursing Inquiry 8921: 8917: 8886: 8882: 8841: 8837: 8804: 8800: 8784:Grants1.NIH.gov 8778: 8777: 8773: 8733: 8729: 8716: 8712: 8684: 8680: 8673: 8669: 8642: 8638: 8630: 8626: 8618: 8611: 8574: 8567: 8533: 8527: 8523: 8516: 8512: 8505: 8485: 8481: 8471: 8469: 8465: 8454: 8448: 8444: 8437: 8433: 8403: 8401: 8375: 8371: 8338: 8334: 8300: 8294: 8290: 8278: 8274: 8264: 8262: 8258: 8221: 8215: 8211: 8164: 8160: 8153: 8144: 8136: 8129: 8119: 8109:Wiley-Blackwell 8101: 8097: 8081: 8077: 8072:Wayback Machine 8061:Wayback Machine 8045: 8043: 8030: 8029: 8025: 8018: 8014: 7995: 7991: 7983: 7976: 7959: 7958: 7954: 7947: 7940: 7930: 7928: 7923: 7910: 7906: 7899:Yale University 7893: 7880: 7876: 7861: 7857: 7852:on 6 July 2011. 7841: 7828: 7824: 7816: 7785: 7778: 7774: 7767: 7749: 7745: 7735: 7733: 7724: 7723: 7719: 7696:(10): 870–876. 7682: 7678: 7631: 7627: 7616:afrobras.org.br 7610: 7609: 7605: 7547: 7540: 7530: 7512: 7508: 7490: 7486: 7476: 7474: 7462: 7458: 7451: 7422: 7418: 7361: 7357: 7350: 7346: 7339: 7318: 7314: 7296: 7292: 7274: 7270: 7262: 7258: 7250: 7246: 7230: 7229: 7222: 7220: 7215: 7214: 7210: 7202: 7198: 7154: 7144: 7140: 7132: 7128: 7097: 7093: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7074: 7073: 7069: 7051: 7047: 7016: 7012: 6997: 6993: 6985: 6981: 6963: 6957: 6953: 6916: 6912: 6901: 6899: 6895: 6887: 6883: 6876: 6869: 6862: 6858: 6851: 6847: 6839: 6832: 6803: 6799: 6789: 6760: 6756: 6749: 6745: 6699:Genome Research 6686:Batzer, Mark A. 6682:Stoneking, Mark 6674: 6670: 6662: 6658: 6651: 6633: 6629: 6621: 6617: 6609: 6605: 6580: 6576: 6539: 6535: 6528: 6524: 6517: 6513: 6505: 6501: 6494: 6490: 6483: 6479: 6472: 6468: 6461: 6457: 6450: 6443: 6435: 6431: 6423: 6419: 6411: 6404: 6353: 6344: 6337: 6330: 6322: 6318: 6310: 6306: 6299: 6295: 6282: 6281: 6274: 6257: 6253: 6246: 6242: 6232: 6203: 6199: 6191: 6187: 6180: 6173: 6166: 6162: 6140: 6136: 6081: 6074: 6067: 6063: 6041: 6037: 6020: 6016: 5989: 5985: 5944: 5940: 5933: 5929: 5922: 5915: 5908: 5890:Stringer, Chris 5887: 5883: 5865: 5861: 5839: 5835: 5827: 5823: 5799: 5795: 5787: 5783: 5775: 5771: 5764: 5760: 5752: 5743: 5735: 5731: 5723: 5719: 5712: 5708: 5663: 5656: 5637: 5633: 5626: 5622: 5615: 5611: 5604: 5600: 5593: 5586: 5576: 5558: 5554: 5543: 5529: 5525: 5517: 5513: 5465: 5461: 5453: 5444: 5411: 5407: 5384: 5380: 5372: 5368: 5360: 5356: 5349: 5345: 5327:Muffoletto 2003 5322:Sivanandan 1982 5317: 5313: 5298: 5294: 5278:, known as the 5253:Sivanandan 1982 5233: 5229: 5216: 5215: 5211: 5184: 5180: 5163: 5159: 5151: 5147: 5133: 5131: 5116: 5115: 5111: 5097: 5095: 5078: 5074: 5066: 5057: 5042: 5038: 5030: 5026: 4993: 4989: 4979: 4977: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4926: 4922: 4912: 4910: 4890: 4883: 4875: 4871: 4846: 4844: 4827: 4826: 4819: 4811: 4807: 4800: 4796: 4788: 4784: 4757: 4750: 4736: 4734: 4722: 4718: 4704: 4702: 4698: 4631: 4625: 4621: 4607: 4605: 4593: 4589: 4544:Nature Research 4526: 4519: 4504: 4503: 4499: 4482: 4478: 4467:Fatal Invention 4463: 4459: 4444: 4440: 4432: 4428: 4421: 4416: 4412: 4406:Lee et al. 2008 4404: 4397: 4389: 4385: 4368: 4364: 4299: 4295: 4285: 4283: 4272: 4265: 4255: 4253: 4228: 4224: 4165: 4161: 4142: 4116: 4115: 4108: 4093: 4089: 4082: 4070:. Vol. 1. 4060: 4047: 4043: 4038: 4028: 4019:Malvina Hoffman 3979:Race and health 3883:Epicanthic fold 3853: 3820:C. Loring Brace 3794: 3788: 3690:law enforcement 3677: 3667: 3661: 3659:Law enforcement 3627: 3621: 3619:Race and health 3615: 3610: 3511: 3505: 3428:Nature Genetics 3386: 3353:C. Loring Brace 3239: 3202: 3197: 3185:White Americans 3091: 3081: 3075: 3034: 3031: 3017: 3011: 2861:Afro-Brazilians 2654: 2606: 2600: 2524: 2518: 2506:Guido Barbujani 2493:. Nonetheless, 2473: 2449:C. Loring Brace 2404: 2390: 2361:William C. Boyd 2357: 2349:Main articles: 2347: 2316: 2315: 2314: 2313: 2312: 2309: 2300: 2299: 2298: 2251:C. Loring Brace 2247: 2194: 2144: 2105:anthropologists 2069:anthropologists 2065: 2039: 2023:H. rhodesiensis 1973:H. rhodesiensis 1925: 1915: 1910: 1846: 1713:The first post- 1711: 1663:trade in slaves 1631: 1558:Pacific Islands 1531: 1479:race, shown in 1460: 1450: 1418:self-identities 1389:law enforcement 1346: 1285:peoples in the 1223: 1147:folk taxonomies 1096: 1067: 1066: 1032: 1024: 1023: 1004:Practice theory 944:Alliance theory 934: 926: 925: 921:Postcolonialism 850: 842: 841: 775: 765: 764: 730:Anthropological 725: 715: 714: 618: 568: 567: 547: 546: 497: 487: 486: 417: 407: 406: 377: 369: 322: 274:White supremacy 112:Racial politics 107:Racial equality 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 16668: 16658: 16657: 16652: 16647: 16642: 16625: 16624: 16622: 16621: 16615: 16613: 16609: 16608: 16606: 16605: 16600: 16595: 16590: 16585: 16580: 16578:Indigenization 16575: 16570: 16568:Ethnosymbolism 16565: 16560: 16555: 16550: 16545: 16540: 16538:Ethnic penalty 16535: 16530: 16525: 16520: 16515: 16510: 16504: 16502: 16495: 16492: 16491: 16489: 16488: 16483: 16478: 16476:Model minority 16473: 16468: 16463: 16458: 16456:Ethnopluralism 16453: 16448: 16443: 16438: 16433: 16428: 16423: 16418: 16413: 16408: 16403: 16401:Ethnic enclave 16398: 16393: 16388: 16383: 16378: 16372: 16370: 16364: 16363: 16361: 16360: 16355: 16354: 16353: 16348: 16338: 16333: 16328: 16323: 16318: 16313: 16308: 16303: 16298: 16293: 16288: 16283: 16278: 16273: 16268: 16263: 16258: 16253: 16248: 16243: 16238: 16233: 16228: 16223: 16218: 16213: 16208: 16203: 16198: 16193: 16188: 16182: 16180: 16170: 16167: 16166: 16164: 16163: 16162: 16161: 16156: 16146: 16139: 16138: 16137: 16132: 16120: 16119: 16118: 16113: 16111:Southeast Asia 16108: 16103: 16098: 16093: 16081: 16080: 16079: 16074: 16069: 16064: 16059: 16054: 16049: 16044: 16034: 16027: 16026: 16025: 16020: 16009: 16007: 16001: 16000: 15998: 15997: 15992: 15990:Ethnosemiotics 15987: 15982: 15977: 15972: 15967: 15962: 15960:Ethnomuseology 15957: 15952: 15947: 15946: 15945: 15935: 15930: 15925: 15920: 15919: 15918: 15913: 15908: 15903: 15898: 15893: 15888: 15883: 15878: 15873: 15863: 15858: 15853: 15852: 15851: 15846: 15841: 15836: 15826: 15821: 15819:Ethnic studies 15816: 15810: 15808: 15802: 15801: 15799: 15798: 15793: 15788: 15786:Supraethnicity 15783: 15778: 15773: 15768: 15763: 15758: 15753: 15748: 15747: 15746: 15739:Minority group 15736: 15734:Metroethnicity 15731: 15729:Meta-ethnicity 15726: 15721: 15716: 15711: 15706: 15705: 15704: 15699: 15694: 15689: 15679: 15673: 15671: 15667: 15666: 15659: 15658: 15651: 15644: 15636: 15627: 15626: 15624: 15623: 15618: 15613: 15608: 15603: 15598: 15593: 15588: 15583: 15578: 15572: 15570: 15566: 15565: 15563: 15562: 15554: 15546: 15538: 15530: 15522: 15514: 15506: 15498: 15490: 15482: 15474: 15472:(Ripley, 1899) 15466: 15458: 15450: 15442: 15431: 15429: 15425: 15424: 15422: 15421: 15416: 15411: 15406: 15401: 15396: 15391: 15386: 15381: 15376: 15371: 15366: 15364:Giuseppe Sergi 15361: 15356: 15351: 15346: 15341: 15336: 15331: 15326: 15324:Gustaf Retzius 15321: 15316: 15311: 15306: 15301: 15296: 15291: 15286: 15281: 15276: 15274:Josiah C. Nott 15271: 15266: 15261: 15259:Ashley Montagu 15256: 15251: 15246: 15241: 15239:Bertil Lundman 15236: 15231: 15226: 15221: 15216: 15211: 15206: 15201: 15196: 15191: 15189:Earnest Hooton 15186: 15181: 15176: 15171: 15166: 15161: 15156: 15154:George Gliddon 15151: 15146: 15141: 15139:Francis Galton 15136: 15131: 15129:Anténor Firmin 15126: 15121: 15119:Joseph Deniker 15116: 15111: 15106: 15104:Georges Cuvier 15101: 15096: 15091: 15086: 15081: 15076: 15071: 15066: 15061: 15056: 15051: 15046: 15041: 15036: 15031: 15026: 15021: 15016: 15011: 15006: 15000: 14998: 14994: 14993: 14991: 14990: 14985: 14980: 14979: 14978: 14976:Racial hygiene 14973: 14968: 14963: 14958: 14953: 14943: 14938: 14937: 14936: 14931: 14926: 14925: 14924: 14919: 14909: 14900: 14898: 14892: 14891: 14889: 14888: 14887: 14886: 14876: 14875: 14874: 14869: 14859: 14854: 14853: 14852: 14847: 14842: 14837: 14832: 14827: 14822: 14817: 14812: 14807: 14802: 14797: 14792: 14787: 14782: 14777: 14767: 14762: 14756: 14754: 14748: 14747: 14745: 14744: 14739: 14734: 14729: 14724: 14719: 14713: 14711: 14705: 14704: 14699: 14696: 14695: 14688: 14687: 14680: 14673: 14665: 14659: 14658: 14641: 14616: 14614:on 9 May 2008. 14596: 14578: 14575: 14574: 14573: 14556: 14539: 14530: 14518: 14502: 14485: 14484:External links 14482: 14480: 14479: 14461: 14453: 14438: 14425: 14419: 14387: 14385: 14382: 14380: 14379: 14353:(3): 265–269. 14340: 14323: 14306: 14263: 14257: 14240: 14227: 14215: 14203: 14188: 14168:(3): 660–678. 14150: 14137:10.1038/ng1438 14113: 14107: 14088: 14082: 14065: 14027: 14001:(8): 611–618. 13988: 13953: 13929: 13923: 13903: 13897: 13880: 13870:(3): 534–544. 13857: 13848: 13839: 13826:10.1038/ng1435 13802: 13783: 13744: 13705: 13691: 13664: 13643: 13604: 13598: 13581: 13544: 13505: 13458: 13448:on 17 May 2017 13413: 13407: 13394: 13388: 13373: 13347:(6): 250–258. 13335: 13333: 13330: 13328: 13327: 13291:(4): 199–210. 13273: 13264: 13238:(8): 675–679. 13221: 13193:(1): 351–359. 13176: 13167: 13134: 13119: 13104: 13098: 13079: 13073: 13056: 13020:(3): 262–271. 13005: 12996: 12968:(3): 632–650. 12951: 12929:10.1086/427888 12923:(2): 268–275. 12907: 12901: 12886: 12880: 12863: 12857: 12844: 12811: 12805: 12792: 12786: 12771: 12753:(2): 307–327. 12740: 12725: 12719: 12706: 12700: 12683: 12655:(9): 1679–85. 12634: 12599: 12568: 12542:(2): 107–111. 12525: 12474: 12437:Genome Biology 12427: 12421: 12400: 12382:(3): 272–277. 12371: 12361:(2): 205–222. 12348: 12317: 12278: 12260:(1): 115–128. 12243: 12237: 12220: 12191: 12170:10.1038/ng1456 12146: 12129: 12115:. 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Gill 3317: 3316: 3310: 3297: 3296: 3290: 3238: 3235: 3201: 3198: 3196: 3193: 3131:Reconstruction 3077:Main article: 3074: 3071: 3039:European Union 3029: 3010: 3009:European Union 3007: 2987: 2986: 2983: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2970: 2969: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2957: 2953: 2952: 2949: 2946: 2943: 2940: 2936: 2935: 2927: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2913: 2912: 2909: 2906: 2903: 2899: 2898: 2895: 2892: 2889: 2885: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2875: 2871: 2870: 2803: 2802: 2799: 2796: 2793: 2789: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2775: 2774: 2771: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2760: 2757: 2754: 2751: 2747: 2746: 2743: 2740: 2737: 2733: 2732: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2719: 2718: 2715: 2712: 2709: 2705: 2704: 2701: 2698: 2695: 2691: 2690: 2687: 2684: 2681: 2680:European only 2677: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2657: 2656: 2604:Race in Brazil 2602:Main article: 2599: 2596: 2520:Main article: 2517: 2514: 2472: 2469: 2430:complex traits 2403: 2400: 2389: 2386: 2346: 2343: 2310: 2303: 2302: 2301: 2292: 2291: 2290: 2289: 2288: 2246: 2243: 2218:Alan Templeton 2210:Jonathan Marks 2193: 2190: 2143: 2140: 2126:Jonathan Marks 2112:Ashley Montagu 2043:Race (biology) 2038: 2035: 1914: 1911: 1909: 1906: 1856:and anatomist 1845: 1842: 1818:Georges Buffon 1792:Mongoloid race 1788:Caucasoid race 1710: 1707: 1703:Yellow Emperor 1630: 1627: 1546:Southeast Asia 1530: 1529: 1515: 1505: 1488: 1473: 1449: 1446: 1416:attributions, 1355:discrimination 1343:sociopolitical 1339:social reality 1293: 1292: 1291: 1290: 1264: 1257: 1250: 1222: 1219: 1098: 1097: 1095: 1094: 1087: 1080: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1065: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1025: 1022: 1021: 1019:Systems theory 1016: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 981: 976: 971: 966: 961: 959:Culture theory 956: 951: 946: 941: 935: 932: 931: 928: 927: 924: 923: 914: 909: 904: 899: 894: 889: 884: 879: 878: 877: 867: 862: 857: 851: 848: 847: 844: 843: 840: 839: 834: 829: 824: 819: 814: 809: 804: 799: 794: 793: 792: 782: 776: 771: 770: 767: 766: 763: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 732: 726: 721: 720: 717: 716: 713: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 569: 566: 565: 560: 554: 553: 552: 549: 548: 545: 544: 542:Primatological 539: 534: 529: 524: 519: 514: 509: 504: 498: 493: 492: 489: 488: 485: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 424: 418: 415:Archaeological 413: 412: 409: 408: 405: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 382:Archaeological 378: 375: 374: 371: 370: 368: 367: 362: 356: 353: 352: 344: 343: 337: 336: 324: 323: 321: 320: 313: 306: 298: 295: 294: 293: 292: 287: 279: 278: 277: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 243: 242: 241:Related topics 238: 237: 236: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 207: 206: 202: 201: 200: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 164: 159: 149: 144: 137:United Kingdom 127: 126: 122: 121: 120: 119: 114: 109: 104: 94: 89: 87:Race relations 84: 76: 75: 71: 70: 69: 68: 63: 55: 54: 50: 49: 36:Race (biology) 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 16667: 16656: 16653: 16651: 16648: 16646: 16643: 16641: 16638: 16637: 16635: 16620: 16617: 16616: 16614: 16610: 16604: 16601: 16599: 16596: 16594: 16591: 16589: 16586: 16584: 16581: 16579: 16576: 16574: 16571: 16569: 16566: 16564: 16561: 16559: 16558:Ethnocentrism 16556: 16554: 16551: 16549: 16546: 16544: 16541: 16539: 16536: 16534: 16531: 16529: 16526: 16524: 16523:Ethnic hatred 16521: 16519: 16516: 16514: 16511: 16509: 16506: 16505: 16503: 16500: 16493: 16487: 16484: 16482: 16479: 16477: 16474: 16472: 16469: 16467: 16464: 16462: 16459: 16457: 16454: 16452: 16449: 16447: 16444: 16442: 16439: 16437: 16434: 16432: 16429: 16427: 16424: 16422: 16419: 16417: 16414: 16412: 16409: 16407: 16404: 16402: 16399: 16397: 16394: 16392: 16389: 16387: 16384: 16382: 16379: 16377: 16374: 16373: 16371: 16369: 16365: 16359: 16356: 16352: 16349: 16347: 16344: 16343: 16342: 16339: 16337: 16334: 16332: 16329: 16327: 16324: 16322: 16319: 16317: 16316:National myth 16314: 16312: 16309: 16307: 16304: 16302: 16299: 16297: 16294: 16292: 16289: 16287: 16284: 16282: 16279: 16277: 16274: 16272: 16269: 16267: 16264: 16262: 16259: 16257: 16256:Folk religion 16254: 16252: 16249: 16247: 16244: 16242: 16239: 16237: 16234: 16232: 16231:Ethnic origin 16229: 16227: 16226:Ethnic option 16224: 16222: 16219: 16217: 16214: 16212: 16209: 16207: 16204: 16202: 16199: 16197: 16194: 16192: 16189: 16187: 16184: 16183: 16181: 16178: 16173: 16168: 16160: 16157: 16155: 16152: 16151: 16150: 16147: 16145: 16144: 16140: 16136: 16133: 16131: 16128: 16127: 16126: 16125: 16121: 16117: 16114: 16112: 16109: 16107: 16104: 16102: 16101:Northern Asia 16099: 16097: 16094: 16092: 16089: 16088: 16087: 16086: 16082: 16078: 16077:South America 16075: 16073: 16070: 16068: 16065: 16063: 16062:United States 16060: 16058: 16055: 16053: 16050: 16048: 16045: 16043: 16040: 16039: 16038: 16035: 16033: 16032: 16028: 16024: 16021: 16019: 16016: 16015: 16014: 16011: 16010: 16008: 16006: 16002: 15996: 15995:Ethnotaxonomy 15993: 15991: 15988: 15986: 15983: 15981: 15978: 15976: 15973: 15971: 15968: 15966: 15963: 15961: 15958: 15956: 15953: 15951: 15950:Ethnomedicine 15948: 15944: 15941: 15940: 15939: 15936: 15934: 15931: 15929: 15926: 15924: 15921: 15917: 15914: 15912: 15909: 15907: 15904: 15902: 15899: 15897: 15894: 15892: 15889: 15887: 15886:Institutional 15884: 15882: 15879: 15877: 15874: 15872: 15869: 15868: 15867: 15864: 15862: 15859: 15857: 15854: 15850: 15847: 15845: 15844:Ethnomycology 15842: 15840: 15837: 15835: 15832: 15831: 15830: 15827: 15825: 15822: 15820: 15817: 15815: 15812: 15811: 15809: 15807: 15803: 15797: 15794: 15792: 15789: 15787: 15784: 15782: 15779: 15777: 15774: 15772: 15771:Polyethnicity 15769: 15767: 15764: 15762: 15759: 15757: 15754: 15752: 15751:Monoethnicity 15749: 15745: 15742: 15741: 15740: 15737: 15735: 15732: 15730: 15727: 15725: 15722: 15720: 15717: 15715: 15712: 15710: 15707: 15703: 15700: 15698: 15695: 15693: 15690: 15688: 15685: 15684: 15683: 15680: 15678: 15675: 15674: 15672: 15668: 15664: 15657: 15652: 15650: 15645: 15643: 15638: 15637: 15634: 15622: 15619: 15617: 15614: 15612: 15609: 15607: 15604: 15602: 15599: 15597: 15596:Miscegenation 15594: 15592: 15589: 15587: 15584: 15582: 15579: 15577: 15574: 15573: 15571: 15567: 15561: 15559: 15555: 15553: 15551: 15547: 15545: 15543: 15539: 15537: 15535: 15531: 15529: 15527: 15523: 15521: 15519: 15515: 15513: 15511: 15507: 15505: 15503: 15499: 15497: 15495: 15491: 15489: 15487: 15483: 15481: 15479: 15475: 15473: 15471: 15467: 15465: 15463: 15459: 15457: 15455: 15451: 15449: 15447: 15443: 15441: 15439: 15433: 15432: 15430: 15426: 15420: 15417: 15415: 15412: 15410: 15407: 15405: 15402: 15400: 15399:Paul Topinard 15397: 15395: 15392: 15390: 15387: 15385: 15382: 15380: 15377: 15375: 15372: 15370: 15367: 15365: 15362: 15360: 15357: 15355: 15352: 15350: 15347: 15345: 15342: 15340: 15339:Benjamin Rush 15337: 15335: 15332: 15330: 15327: 15325: 15322: 15320: 15317: 15315: 15312: 15310: 15309:Alfred Ploetz 15307: 15305: 15302: 15300: 15297: 15295: 15292: 15290: 15289:Oscar Peschel 15287: 15285: 15284:Roger Pearson 15282: 15280: 15277: 15275: 15272: 15270: 15267: 15265: 15262: 15260: 15257: 15255: 15254:John Mitchell 15252: 15250: 15247: 15245: 15242: 15240: 15237: 15235: 15232: 15230: 15229:Carl Linnaeus 15227: 15225: 15222: 15220: 15217: 15215: 15212: 15210: 15207: 15205: 15202: 15200: 15197: 15195: 15194:Julian Huxley 15192: 15190: 15187: 15185: 15182: 15180: 15179:Ernst Haeckel 15177: 15175: 15172: 15170: 15167: 15165: 15164:Madison Grant 15162: 15160: 15157: 15155: 15152: 15150: 15147: 15145: 15142: 15140: 15137: 15135: 15134:Eugen Fischer 15132: 15130: 15127: 15125: 15122: 15120: 15117: 15115: 15112: 15110: 15107: 15105: 15102: 15100: 15097: 15095: 15092: 15090: 15087: 15085: 15082: 15080: 15079:Petrus Camper 15077: 15075: 15072: 15070: 15067: 15065: 15062: 15060: 15057: 15055: 15052: 15050: 15047: 15045: 15042: 15040: 15037: 15035: 15032: 15030: 15027: 15025: 15022: 15020: 15017: 15015: 15012: 15010: 15007: 15005: 15004:Louis Agassiz 15002: 15001: 14999: 14995: 14989: 14986: 14984: 14981: 14977: 14974: 14972: 14969: 14967: 14964: 14962: 14959: 14957: 14954: 14952: 14949: 14948: 14947: 14944: 14942: 14939: 14935: 14932: 14930: 14927: 14923: 14920: 14918: 14915: 14914: 14913: 14910: 14908: 14905: 14904: 14902: 14901: 14899: 14897: 14893: 14885: 14882: 14881: 14880: 14877: 14873: 14870: 14868: 14865: 14864: 14863: 14860: 14858: 14855: 14851: 14848: 14846: 14843: 14841: 14838: 14836: 14835:Mediterranean 14833: 14831: 14828: 14826: 14823: 14821: 14818: 14816: 14813: 14811: 14808: 14806: 14803: 14801: 14798: 14796: 14793: 14791: 14788: 14786: 14783: 14781: 14778: 14776: 14773: 14772: 14771: 14768: 14766: 14763: 14761: 14758: 14757: 14755: 14753: 14749: 14743: 14740: 14738: 14735: 14733: 14730: 14728: 14725: 14723: 14720: 14718: 14715: 14714: 14712: 14710: 14706: 14702: 14697: 14693: 14686: 14681: 14679: 14674: 14672: 14667: 14666: 14663: 14654: 14650: 14646: 14642: 14639: 14633: 14629: 14625: 14621: 14617: 14613: 14609: 14605: 14601: 14597: 14593: 14589: 14585: 14581: 14580: 14569: 14565: 14561: 14557: 14552: 14548: 14544: 14540: 14536: 14531: 14527: 14523: 14519: 14515: 14511: 14509: 14503: 14499: 14498: 14493: 14488: 14487: 14476: 14472: 14471: 14466: 14462: 14458: 14454: 14450: 14449: 14444: 14439: 14435: 14431: 14426: 14422: 14416: 14412: 14410: 14404:Extract from 14401: 14397: 14393: 14389: 14388: 14384:Popular press 14376: 14372: 14368: 14364: 14360: 14359:10.1038/ng761 14356: 14352: 14348: 14347: 14341: 14338: 14334: 14331: 14326: 14320: 14316: 14312: 14307: 14303: 14299: 14295: 14291: 14286: 14281: 14277: 14273: 14269: 14264: 14260: 14258:0-7453-1459-7 14254: 14250: 14246: 14241: 14237: 14233: 14228: 14224: 14220: 14216: 14212: 14208: 14204: 14200: 14193: 14189: 14185: 14181: 14176: 14171: 14167: 14163: 14156: 14151: 14147: 14143: 14138: 14133: 14129: 14125: 14124: 14119: 14114: 14110: 14104: 14100: 14096: 14095: 14089: 14085: 14083:0-226-77122-9 14079: 14075: 14071: 14066: 14062: 14058: 14054: 14050: 14046: 14042: 14041: 14033: 14028: 14024: 14020: 14016: 14012: 14008: 14004: 14000: 13996: 13995: 13989: 13985: 13981: 13976: 13971: 13967: 13963: 13959: 13954: 13950: 13946: 13942: 13938: 13934: 13930: 13926: 13924:0-07-041143-3 13920: 13915: 13914: 13908: 13904: 13900: 13894: 13890: 13886: 13881: 13877: 13873: 13869: 13865: 13864: 13858: 13854: 13849: 13845: 13840: 13836: 13832: 13827: 13822: 13818: 13814: 13813: 13808: 13803: 13799: 13795: 13794: 13789: 13784: 13780: 13776: 13772: 13768: 13764: 13760: 13756: 13752: 13751: 13745: 13741: 13737: 13733: 13729: 13725: 13721: 13717: 13713: 13712: 13706: 13702: 13698: 13694: 13688: 13684: 13680: 13676: 13672: 13671: 13665: 13653: 13649: 13644: 13640: 13636: 13632: 13628: 13624: 13620: 13616: 13612: 13611: 13605: 13601: 13599:0-231-02837-7 13595: 13591: 13587: 13582: 13578: 13574: 13569: 13564: 13560: 13556: 13555: 13550: 13545: 13541: 13537: 13533: 13529: 13525: 13521: 13517: 13513: 13512: 13506: 13502: 13498: 13493: 13488: 13483: 13478: 13474: 13470: 13469: 13468:PLOS Genetics 13464: 13459: 13444: 13440: 13436: 13432: 13428: 13427: 13419: 13414: 13410: 13404: 13400: 13395: 13391: 13389:0-309-09211-6 13385: 13381: 13380: 13374: 13370: 13366: 13362: 13358: 13354: 13350: 13346: 13342: 13337: 13336: 13324: 13320: 13315: 13310: 13306: 13302: 13298: 13294: 13290: 13286: 13285: 13280: 13274: 13270: 13265: 13261: 13257: 13253: 13249: 13245: 13241: 13237: 13233: 13232: 13227: 13222: 13218: 13214: 13209: 13204: 13200: 13196: 13192: 13188: 13187: 13182: 13177: 13173: 13168: 13164: 13160: 13156: 13152: 13149:(3): 97–110. 13148: 13144: 13140: 13135: 13131: 13130: 13125: 13120: 13116: 13115: 13110: 13105: 13101: 13099:0-674-63438-1 13095: 13091: 13087: 13086: 13080: 13076: 13074:0-205-41365-X 13070: 13066: 13062: 13057: 13053: 13049: 13044: 13039: 13035: 13031: 13027: 13023: 13019: 13015: 13011: 13006: 13002: 12997: 12993: 12989: 12985: 12981: 12976: 12971: 12967: 12963: 12962: 12957: 12952: 12948: 12944: 12939: 12934: 12930: 12926: 12922: 12918: 12914: 12908: 12904: 12902:0-316-83112-3 12898: 12894: 12893: 12887: 12883: 12877: 12873: 12869: 12864: 12860: 12854: 12850: 12845: 12830: 12826: 12819: 12818: 12812: 12808: 12806:0-8058-3757-4 12802: 12798: 12793: 12789: 12787:0-8133-3448-9 12783: 12779: 12778: 12772: 12768: 12764: 12760: 12756: 12752: 12748: 12747: 12741: 12737: 12733: 12732: 12726: 12722: 12716: 12712: 12707: 12703: 12697: 12693: 12689: 12684: 12680: 12676: 12671: 12666: 12662: 12658: 12654: 12650: 12649: 12644: 12640: 12635: 12631: 12627: 12623: 12619: 12615: 12611: 12610: 12605: 12600: 12596: 12592: 12588: 12584: 12580: 12576: 12575: 12569: 12565: 12561: 12557: 12553: 12549: 12545: 12541: 12537: 12536: 12531: 12526: 12522: 12518: 12513: 12508: 12503: 12498: 12494: 12490: 12489: 12488:PLOS Genetics 12484: 12480: 12475: 12471: 12467: 12462: 12457: 12452: 12447: 12443: 12439: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12424: 12418: 12414: 12410: 12406: 12401: 12397: 12393: 12389: 12385: 12381: 12377: 12372: 12368: 12364: 12360: 12356: 12355: 12349: 12345: 12341: 12337: 12333: 12329: 12325: 12324: 12318: 12314: 12310: 12306: 12302: 12298: 12294: 12290: 12286: 12285: 12279: 12275: 12271: 12267: 12263: 12259: 12255: 12254: 12249: 12244: 12240: 12238:0-8047-4059-3 12234: 12230: 12226: 12221: 12217: 12213: 12209: 12205: 12201: 12197: 12192: 12188: 12184: 12180: 12176: 12171: 12166: 12162: 12158: 12157: 12152: 12147: 12143: 12138: 12137: 12130: 12126: 12122: 12118: 12114: 12113: 12096: 12092: 12088: 12084: 12080: 12076: 12074:0-8039-4648-1 12070: 12066: 12062: 12058: 12054: 12050: 12046: 12042: 12041: 12036: 12032: 12028: 12024: 12022:0-13-446162-2 12018: 12014: 12013: 12007: 12003: 11997: 11993: 11988: 11984: 11980: 11976: 11972: 11971: 11965: 11961: 11959:0-306-80536-7 11955: 11951: 11947: 11943: 11939: 11935: 11929: 11925: 11921: 11917: 11912: 11908: 11906:0-8058-3757-4 11902: 11898: 11894: 11893: 11887: 11883: 11881:0-585-39559-4 11877: 11872: 11871: 11864: 11860: 11856: 11852: 11848: 11844: 11840: 11836: 11832: 11828: 11824: 11823: 11822:Human Biology 11818: 11814: 11810: 11806: 11802: 11798: 11794: 11790: 11787:(4): 449–71. 11786: 11782: 11781: 11780:Human Biology 11776: 11772: 11768: 11764: 11760: 11756: 11752: 11748: 11744: 11740: 11739: 11734: 11729: 11725: 11721: 11717: 11711: 11707: 11703: 11699: 11695: 11691: 11687: 11683: 11679: 11675: 11671: 11667: 11663: 11658: 11654: 11650: 11646: 11642: 11638: 11634: 11633: 11627: 11620: 11616: 11612: 11608: 11604: 11603: 11595: 11590: 11586: 11584:1-55934-711-2 11580: 11576: 11572: 11568: 11563: 11559: 11555: 11551: 11547: 11543: 11539: 11535: 11531: 11530: 11524: 11520: 11518:0-674-01327-1 11514: 11510: 11506: 11501: 11497: 11495:0-19-506283-3 11491: 11487: 11483: 11479: 11475: 11471: 11467: 11462: 11457: 11452: 11447: 11443: 11439: 11438: 11433: 11428: 11424: 11418: 11414: 11409: 11405: 11399: 11395: 11390: 11386: 11382: 11379:(5): 15386J. 11378: 11374: 11373: 11367: 11363: 11359: 11354: 11349: 11345: 11341: 11340: 11335: 11330: 11326: 11322: 11318: 11314: 11313: 11305: 11300: 11289: 11283: 11279: 11275: 11274: 11268: 11264: 11260: 11255: 11251: 11249:0-313-22359-9 11245: 11241: 11237: 11232: 11228: 11222: 11218: 11214: 11209: 11205: 11201: 11197: 11193: 11189: 11185: 11181: 11177: 11173: 11169: 11168: 11163: 11158: 11147: 11141: 11137: 11133: 11132: 11127: 11123: 11119: 11113: 11109: 11104: 11103: 11097: 11093: 11089: 11083: 11079: 11075: 11074: 11068: 11064: 11060: 11055: 11050: 11045: 11040: 11036: 11032: 11031: 11030:PLOS Genetics 11026: 11021: 11010: 11006: 11002: 10997: 10986: 10980: 10976: 10972: 10971: 10965: 10961: 10957: 10952: 10948: 10944: 10940: 10936: 10932: 10928: 10924: 10920: 10919: 10914: 10910: 10906: 10900: 10896: 10891: 10888: 10882: 10878: 10874: 10873: 10868: 10864: 10860: 10856: 10854:0-8214-1691-X 10850: 10846: 10842: 10837: 10833: 10829: 10825: 10821: 10817: 10813: 10812: 10807: 10802: 10798: 10794: 10790: 10786: 10782: 10778: 10774: 10770: 10769: 10768:The Historian 10764: 10759: 10755: 10750: 10747: 10743: 10740: 10735: 10729: 10725: 10721: 10717: 10713: 10708: 10707:2027.42/65890 10703: 10699: 10695: 10691: 10687: 10686: 10681: 10676: 10672: 10666: 10662: 10657: 10646: 10642: 10641: 10636: 10631: 10627: 10621: 10617: 10612: 10608: 10604: 10599: 10595: 10590: 10589: 10582: 10577: 10572: 10568: 10564: 10560: 10556: 10555: 10550: 10545: 10541: 10537: 10533: 10529: 10525: 10521: 10517: 10513: 10512: 10506: 10502: 10496: 10492: 10488: 10483: 10479: 10473: 10469: 10465: 10464: 10458: 10451: 10447: 10441: 10437: 10433: 10429: 10425: 10418: 10413: 10409: 10405: 10401: 10397: 10393: 10389: 10384: 10380: 10378:0-89158-719-5 10374: 10370: 10369: 10363: 10359: 10355: 10351: 10347: 10343: 10339: 10335: 10331: 10330: 10324: 10317: 10313: 10309: 10305: 10301: 10297: 10293: 10289: 10288: 10280: 10275: 10260: 10256: 10252: 10248: 10244: 10240: 10236: 10229: 10224: 10220: 10214: 10210: 10205: 10204: 10197: 10186: 10185: 10180: 10175: 10171: 10167: 10163: 10159: 10155: 10151: 10147: 10143: 10142: 10136: 10132: 10126: 10122: 10118: 10114: 10113: 10108: 10103: 10099: 10094: 10087: 10083: 10079: 10075: 10071: 10067: 10066: 10058: 10054: 10043:. 17 May 1998 10042: 10038: 10034: 10030: 10018: 10014: 10013: 10008: 10003: 10002: 9991: 9986: 9980: 9979:Sesardic 2010 9975: 9969: 9964: 9957: 9952: 9948: 9944: 9940: 9936: 9932: 9931: 9923: 9904: 9900: 9896: 9892: 9888: 9884: 9880: 9876: 9872: 9871: 9863: 9856: 9840: 9836: 9830: 9822: 9818: 9814: 9810: 9809: 9804: 9798: 9790: 9786: 9782: 9778: 9774: 9770: 9766: 9762: 9761: 9756: 9749: 9743: 9738: 9732: 9727: 9721: 9716: 9708: 9704: 9700: 9696: 9692: 9688: 9687: 9679: 9673:, p. 12. 9672: 9667: 9661:, p. 13. 9660: 9655: 9640: 9636: 9630: 9622: 9618: 9611: 9604: 9600: 9597: 9592: 9576: 9572: 9568: 9562: 9543: 9537: 9529: 9525: 9520: 9515: 9510: 9505: 9501: 9497: 9496: 9491: 9484: 9479: 9473: 9468: 9461: 9456: 9450: 9445: 9439: 9434: 9426: 9422: 9418: 9414: 9410: 9406: 9405: 9397: 9387: 9383: 9378: 9373: 9369: 9365: 9361: 9354: 9352: 9345: 9340: 9324: 9320: 9314: 9306: 9302: 9295: 9293: 9284: 9277: 9269: 9263: 9259: 9252: 9250: 9241: 9234: 9226: 9219: 9217: 9215: 9206: 9198: 9194: 9189: 9188:2027.42/66770 9184: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9168: 9167: 9161: 9154: 9146: 9140: 9136: 9132: 9125: 9123: 9121: 9112: 9108: 9104: 9100: 9096: 9092: 9091: 9086: 9079: 9077: 9075: 9073: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9055: 9050: 9043: 9027: 9023: 9017: 9015: 9006: 9002: 9001: 8993: 8985: 8981: 8977: 8973: 8969: 8965: 8964: 8956: 8948: 8944: 8940: 8936: 8933:(2): 94–105. 8932: 8928: 8927: 8919: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8899: 8895: 8891: 8884: 8876: 8872: 8868: 8864: 8860: 8856: 8852: 8848: 8847: 8839: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8819: 8815: 8811: 8810: 8802: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8775: 8768: 8766: 8760: 8756: 8752: 8748: 8744: 8740: 8739: 8731: 8723: 8722: 8714: 8706: 8702: 8698: 8694: 8693: 8688: 8682: 8676: 8671: 8663: 8660: 8658: 8655: 8653: 8650: 8648: 8645: 8644: 8640: 8633: 8628: 8621: 8616: 8614: 8605: 8601: 8597: 8593: 8589: 8585: 8584: 8579: 8572: 8570: 8561: 8557: 8553: 8549: 8545: 8541: 8540: 8532: 8525: 8519: 8514: 8506: 8504:1-882-28935-8 8500: 8496: 8492: 8491: 8483: 8464: 8460: 8453: 8446: 8440: 8435: 8427: 8423: 8419: 8415: 8414: 8409: 8398: 8394: 8390: 8386: 8385: 8380: 8373: 8365: 8361: 8357: 8353: 8349: 8345: 8344: 8336: 8328: 8324: 8320: 8316: 8312: 8308: 8307: 8299: 8292: 8285: 8281: 8276: 8257: 8253: 8249: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8233: 8229: 8228: 8220: 8213: 8205: 8201: 8196: 8191: 8187: 8183: 8179: 8175: 8174: 8169: 8162: 8156: 8151: 8149: 8147: 8139: 8134: 8132: 8124: 8120: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8099: 8090: 8086: 8079: 8073: 8069: 8066: 8062: 8058: 8055: 8041: 8037: 8033: 8027: 8021: 8016: 8008: 8003: 8002: 7993: 7986: 7981: 7979: 7970: 7966: 7962: 7956: 7950: 7945: 7943: 7926: 7919: 7915: 7908: 7900: 7896: 7889: 7888:Prentice Hall 7885: 7878: 7870: 7866: 7859: 7851: 7847: 7839: 7835: 7834: 7826: 7815: 7811: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7784: 7776: 7768: 7762: 7758: 7754: 7747: 7731: 7727: 7721: 7713: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7680: 7672: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7654: 7650: 7646: 7642: 7641: 7636: 7629: 7621: 7617: 7613: 7607: 7599: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7571: 7567: 7564:(2): e17063. 7563: 7559: 7558: 7553: 7545: 7543: 7535: 7531: 7525: 7521: 7517: 7510: 7502: 7498: 7494: 7488: 7473: 7472: 7467: 7460: 7452: 7450:0-691-11866-3 7446: 7442: 7438: 7434: 7430: 7426: 7420: 7412: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7388: 7384: 7380: 7376: 7372: 7371: 7366: 7359: 7353: 7348: 7340: 7338:0-691-11960-0 7334: 7330: 7326: 7322: 7316: 7309:. p. 24. 7308: 7304: 7300: 7294: 7287:. p. 23. 7286: 7282: 7278: 7272: 7265: 7264:Mevorach 2007 7260: 7253: 7248: 7240: 7234: 7218: 7212: 7205: 7200: 7192: 7188: 7183: 7182:2027.42/62159 7178: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7161: 7153: 7149: 7142: 7135: 7130: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7102: 7095: 7077: 7071: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7049: 7041: 7037: 7033: 7029: 7025: 7021: 7014: 7006: 7002: 6995: 6988: 6983: 6976:(2): 204–223. 6975: 6971: 6970: 6962: 6955: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6926: 6921: 6914: 6907: 6897: 6891:, p. 326 6890: 6885: 6879: 6874: 6872: 6865: 6860: 6854: 6849: 6842: 6837: 6835: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815:, p. 599 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6805: 6801: 6794: 6790: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6771: 6770: 6764: 6758: 6752: 6747: 6739: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6705: 6701: 6700: 6695: 6691: 6687: 6683: 6679: 6672: 6665: 6660: 6652: 6646: 6642: 6638: 6631: 6624: 6623:Lewontin 1972 6619: 6612: 6607: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6587: 6586: 6578: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6549: 6544: 6537: 6531: 6526: 6520: 6515: 6509:, p. 195 6508: 6503: 6497: 6492: 6486: 6481: 6475: 6470: 6464: 6459: 6453: 6448: 6446: 6438: 6433: 6426: 6421: 6414: 6409: 6407: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6367: 6362: 6358: 6351: 6349: 6347: 6340: 6335: 6333: 6325: 6320: 6313: 6308: 6302: 6297: 6289: 6285: 6279: 6277: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6259: 6255: 6249: 6244: 6237: 6233: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6201: 6194: 6189: 6183: 6178: 6176: 6169: 6164: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6142: 6138: 6130: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6091: 6086: 6079: 6077: 6070: 6065: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6043: 6039: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6022: 6018: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6004:Amundson 2005 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5991: 5987: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5950: 5942: 5936: 5931: 5925: 5920: 5918: 5909: 5903: 5898: 5897: 5891: 5885: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5863: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5837: 5830: 5825: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5809: 5804: 5797: 5790: 5789:Stocking 1968 5785: 5778: 5773: 5767: 5762: 5755: 5750: 5748: 5746: 5738: 5733: 5726: 5721: 5715: 5710: 5702: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5661: 5659: 5650: 5649:Dikötter 1992 5647: 5645: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5635: 5629: 5624: 5618: 5613: 5607: 5602: 5596: 5591: 5589: 5581: 5577: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5556: 5549: 5544: 5538: 5534: 5527: 5520: 5515: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5496:Mevorach 2007 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5467: 5463: 5456: 5451: 5449: 5447: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5417: 5409: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5386: 5382: 5375: 5374:Schaefer 2008 5370: 5363: 5358: 5352: 5347: 5339: 5336: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5319: 5315: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5296: 5287: 5283: 5282: 5277: 5276:natural order 5273: 5269: 5268:Winfield 2007 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5258:Crenshaw 1988 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244:, p. 407 5243: 5239: 5236: 5235: 5231: 5223: 5219: 5213: 5205:, p. 407 5204: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5186: 5182: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5165: 5161: 5154: 5149: 5142: 5129: 5125: 5124: 5123:Buzzfeed News 5119: 5113: 5106: 5093: 5089: 5088: 5083: 5076: 5069: 5064: 5062: 5060: 5051: 5047: 5040: 5033: 5028: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4999: 4991: 4976: 4975: 4970: 4963: 4955: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4924: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4900: 4895: 4888: 4886: 4878: 4873: 4865: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4824: 4822: 4814: 4809: 4803: 4798: 4791: 4786: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4755: 4753: 4745: 4733: 4732: 4727: 4720: 4713: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4638: 4630: 4623: 4616: 4604: 4603: 4598: 4591: 4584: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4536: 4531: 4524: 4522: 4513: 4509: 4508: 4501: 4493: 4492: 4487: 4480: 4473: 4468: 4461: 4454: 4449: 4442: 4435: 4430: 4419: 4414: 4407: 4402: 4400: 4392: 4387: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4370: 4366: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4309: 4304: 4297: 4281: 4277: 4276:"Race: Human" 4270: 4268: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4238: 4233: 4226: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4175: 4170: 4163: 4156: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4120: 4113: 4111: 4102: 4098: 4091: 4083: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4058: 4056: 4054: 4052: 4050: 4045: 4034: 4033: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4011: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3989:Racialization 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3964: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3855: 3848: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3803: 3799: 3793: 3783: 3781: 3776: 3773: 3768: 3766: 3761: 3759: 3758:Jim Crow laws 3755: 3753: 3747: 3745: 3741: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3721: 3719: 3714: 3712: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3691: 3686: 3682: 3676: 3672: 3666: 3656: 3652: 3650: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3626: 3620: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3596: 3594: 3590: 3589:Howard Winant 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3510: 3500: 3498: 3494: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3476: 3474: 3473: 3467: 3464: 3459: 3455: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3429: 3424: 3423: 3417: 3413: 3411: 3405: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3381: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3365: 3360: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3330: 3325: 3322: 3321:Goran Štrkalj 3314: 3311: 3308: 3305: 3304: 3303: 3300: 3294: 3291: 3288: 3285: 3284: 3283: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3263: 3258: 3256: 3251: 3249: 3244: 3237:United States 3234: 3230: 3226: 3224: 3219: 3214: 3209: 3207: 3192: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3177: 3176:Latin America 3173: 3169: 3165: 3160: 3158: 3153: 3150: 3146: 3145: 3144:blood quantum 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3118: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3095:United States 3090: 3086: 3080: 3073:United States 3070: 3068: 3062: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3028: 3024: 3022: 3016: 3006: 3003: 2998: 2995: 2984: 2981: 2978: 2975: 2972: 2971: 2967: 2964: 2961: 2958: 2955: 2954: 2950: 2947: 2944: 2941: 2938: 2937: 2932: 2924: 2921: 2918: 2915: 2914: 2910: 2907: 2904: 2901: 2900: 2896: 2893: 2890: 2887: 2886: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2873: 2872: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2827: 2825: 2824: 2819: 2818:socioeconomic 2815: 2811: 2800: 2797: 2794: 2791: 2790: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2776: 2772: 2769: 2766: 2763: 2762: 2758: 2755: 2752: 2749: 2748: 2744: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2734: 2730: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2720: 2716: 2713: 2710: 2707: 2706: 2702: 2699: 2696: 2694:African only 2693: 2692: 2688: 2685: 2682: 2679: 2678: 2675: 2672: 2670: 2667: 2665: 2662: 2659: 2658: 2651: 2648: 2646: 2642: 2641:one-drop rule 2638: 2634: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2622:Marvin Harris 2619: 2610: 2605: 2595: 2593: 2589: 2588: 2582: 2578: 2576: 2571: 2567: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2547: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2523: 2513: 2510: 2507: 2503: 2501: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2468: 2466: 2465:Tony Frudakis 2462: 2458: 2454: 2453:Joseph Graves 2450: 2445: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2407: 2399: 2396: 2385: 2383: 2378: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2356: 2352: 2341: 2336: 2334: 2330: 2324: 2322: 2307: 2296: 2287: 2284: 2279: 2277: 2271: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2259:genetic drift 2256: 2252: 2242: 2239: 2234: 2231: 2227: 2221: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2189: 2187: 2182: 2181:Sewall Wright 2177: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2157: 2152: 2150: 2138: 2134: 2129: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2106: 2101: 2099: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2085:Nazi eugenics 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2064: 2060: 2059:Phylogenetics 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2034: 2032: 2031:Multiregional 2028: 2027:Out of Africa 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2007:archaic human 2004: 2000: 1996: 1995: 1989: 1988: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1969: 1964: 1963: 1958: 1954: 1953: 1948: 1947: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1924: 1920: 1905: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1890:Louis Agassiz 1887: 1883: 1880:. In the US, 1879: 1875: 1871: 1870:Georg Forster 1867: 1863: 1859: 1858:Charles White 1855: 1851: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1830:United States 1827: 1823: 1822:Petrus Camper 1819: 1814: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1798: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1780: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1733: 1728: 1727:Carl Linnaeus 1724: 1720: 1716: 1706: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1639:natural kinds 1636: 1626: 1622: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1566: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1499: 1496: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1475: 1474: 1471: 1470: 1464: 1459: 1455: 1445: 1442: 1438: 1433: 1431: 1427: 1421: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1394: 1391:uses race to 1390: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1323: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1297:one-drop rule 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1262: 1258: 1255: 1251: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1239: 1238: 1235: 1231: 1228: 1221:Defining race 1218: 1216: 1212: 1211: 1206: 1205: 1204:ethnic groups 1200: 1198: 1193: 1192: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1174: 1172: 1171: 1166: 1162: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1143: 1141: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1093: 1088: 1086: 1081: 1079: 1074: 1073: 1071: 1070: 1063: 1062:Organizations 1060: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1034: 1028: 1027: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1009:Structuralism 1007: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 984:Functionalism 982: 980: 977: 975: 972: 970: 967: 965: 962: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 940: 937: 936: 930: 929: 922: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 883: 880: 876: 875:sociocultural 873: 872: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 852: 846: 845: 838: 837:Emic and etic 835: 833: 832:Ethnocentrism 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 800: 798: 795: 791: 788: 787: 786: 783: 781: 780:Anthropometry 778: 777: 774: 769: 768: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 745:Ethnopoetical 743: 741: 738: 736: 733: 731: 728: 727: 724: 719: 718: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 700:Transpersonal 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 680:Psychological 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 640:Institutional 638: 636: 633: 631: 628: 626: 623: 621: 616: 614: 611: 609: 608:Environmental 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 570: 564: 561: 559: 556: 555: 551: 550: 543: 540: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 499: 496: 491: 490: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 447:Environmental 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 419: 416: 411: 410: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 379: 373: 372: 366: 363: 361: 358: 357: 355: 354: 350: 346: 345: 342: 339: 338: 334: 330: 329: 319: 314: 312: 307: 305: 300: 299: 297: 296: 291: 288: 286: 283: 282: 281: 280: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 246: 245: 244: 240: 239: 234: 233:United States 231: 229: 228:Latin America 226: 224: 221: 219: 216: 214: 211: 210: 209: 208: 204: 203: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 172: 168: 165: 163: 160: 157: 156:United States 153: 150: 148: 145: 142: 141:United States 138: 134: 131: 130: 129: 128: 124: 123: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 102: 98: 95: 93: 92:Racialization 90: 88: 85: 83: 80: 79: 78: 77: 73: 72: 67: 64: 62: 59: 58: 57: 56: 52: 51: 48: 45: 44: 41: 37: 33: 19: 16645:Anthropology 16593:Xenocentrism 16543:Ethnic slurs 16533:Ethnic party 16496:Ideology and 16416:Ethnic media 16358:White ethnic 16351:Neotribalism 16306:Nation state 16246:Ethnofiction 16177:ethnogenesis 16148: 16141: 16122: 16091:Central Asia 16083: 16036: 16029: 16012: 15985:Ethnoscience 15975:Ethnopoetics 15923:Ethnohistory 15861:Ethnogeology 15849:Ethnozoology 15839:Ethnoecology 15829:Ethnobiology 15814:Anthropology 15780: 15766:Panethnicity 15682:Ethnic group 15576:Ethnogenesis 15557: 15549: 15544:(Coon, 1939) 15541: 15533: 15525: 15517: 15509: 15501: 15493: 15485: 15477: 15469: 15461: 15453: 15445: 15435: 15428:Publications 15279:Karl Pearson 15169:John Grattan 15064:Halfdan Bryn 14929:in Singapore 14896:Sociological 14653:the original 14637: 14632:the original 14623: 14612:the original 14603: 14588:PhysAnth.org 14587: 14563: 14546: 14525: 14513: 14507: 14495: 14475:the original 14468: 14446: 14433: 14407: 14399: 14350: 14344: 14310: 14275: 14271: 14244: 14231: 14165: 14161: 14127: 14121: 14093: 14069: 14047:(1): 16–26. 14044: 14038: 13998: 13992: 13968:(1): 26–35. 13965: 13961: 13940: 13936: 13912: 13884: 13867: 13861: 13852: 13843: 13816: 13810: 13791: 13754: 13748: 13718:(1): 27–36. 13715: 13709: 13674: 13668: 13656:. 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O. Wilson 2102: 2083:. After the 2066: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2003:Homo sapiens 2002: 1992: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1966: 1960: 1952:Homo erectus 1950: 1946:Homo habilis 1944: 1940: 1933:Homo sapiens 1932: 1926: 1847: 1810: 1806:Malayan race 1795: 1781: 1776: 1772: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732:Homo sapiens 1730: 1722: 1715:Graeco-Roman 1712: 1683:folk beliefs 1675: 1647:colonization 1632: 1623: 1606: 1603: 1569: 1554:Central Asia 1498:spring green 1467: 1434: 1422: 1410:sociological 1386: 1374:institutions 1359: 1336: 1324: 1319: 1313: 1309:biologically 1294: 1232: 1224: 1208: 1202: 1195: 1189: 1175: 1168: 1155: 1151:essentialism 1144: 1119:phenotypical 1102: 1101: 1047:Bibliography 989:Interpretive 964:Diffusionism 933:Key theories 919: / 901: 849:Key concepts 760:Sociological 740:Ethnological 527:Neurological 512:Evolutionary 457:Experiential 341:Anthropology 259:Ethnic group 177:Neuroscience 167:Intelligence 162:Horror films 46: 40: 16528:Ethnic joke 16336:Tribal name 16321:Origin myth 16296:Mythomoteur 16221:Ethnic flag 16206:Development 15891:Netnography 15866:Ethnography 15856:Ethnocinema 15834:Ethnobotany 15761:Nationality 15616:Pre-Adamite 15606:Multiracial 15209:Robert Knox 15019:John Beddoe 14966:Master race 14922:in Colombia 14810:East Baltic 14330:Lay summary 14249:Pluto Press 13933:Mayr, Ernst 13907:Mayr, Ernst 13561:: 221–240. 12637:Serre, D.; 11775:Long, J. C. 11319:: 401–412. 10739:Lay summary 10119:. pp. 9839:www.pbs.org 9438:Graves 2011 9329:30 December 9173:(3): 1–42. 8675:Witzig 1996 8662:Bloche 2004 8632:Brace 2000a 8265:12 November 8020:Nobles 2000 7987:, p. . 7892:, Cited in 7736:29 December 7647:(1): 1–11. 7439:. pp. 7352:Harris 1980 7252:Palmié 2007 7204:Gordon 1964 7107:: 173–184. 6777:. pp. 6519:Molnar 1992 6427:, p. . 6248:Wright 1978 6210:Zack, Naomi 5999:Angier 2000 5777:Graves 2001 5754:Graves 2001 5628:Banton 1977 5617:Takaki 1993 5506:Bindon 2005 5491:Palmié 2007 5480:Gordon 1964 5389:Brace 2000a 5308:Appiah 1992 5304:Morgan 1975 5263:Conley 2007 5238:Morgan 1975 5199:Morgan 1975 5194:Nobles 2000 4790:Graves 2001 4737:24 December 4608:13 December 4546:: S28–S33. 4319:: 564–565. 4185:: 872–878. 4101:Smithsonian 4004:Supremacism 3954:Pre-Adamite 3943:Nationalism 3938:Multiracial 3796:Similarly, 3706:2001 Census 3613:Biomedicine 3585:Michael Omi 3564:colonialism 3329:Ann Morning 3266:An earlier 3149:hypodescent 3139:Amerindians 3043:Haney López 2925:62,316,064 2835:Amerindians 2581:Imani Perry 2186:typological 2055:Systematics 1994:H. ergaster 1959:agree that 1927:Today, all 1886:Josiah Nott 1854:Edward Long 1761:melancholic 1629:Colonialism 1619:populations 1576:, shown in 1526:olive green 1316:David Reich 1210:communities 1191:populations 917:Colonialism 860:Development 817:Reflexivity 785:Ethnography 735:Descriptive 593:Development 532:Nutritional 507:Biocultural 432:Battlefield 249:Colonialism 205:By location 197:Video games 125:Race and... 16634:Categories 16603:Xenophobia 16598:Xenophilia 16573:Indigenism 16508:Allophilia 16441:Ethnocracy 16331:Statistext 16261:Historical 16154:Indigenous 16106:South Asia 16042:Indigenous 15776:Population 15611:Polygenism 15601:Monogenism 15319:Otto Reche 15224:Fritz Lenz 15054:Paul Broca 15044:Franz Boas 15014:Erwin Baur 15009:John Baker 14903:By region 14760:Australoid 14247:. London: 13658:22 January 13063:. Boston: 12838:21 January 12495:(6): e70. 12196:TechTrends 12101:26 January 11444:(7): 404. 11037:(1): e14. 10650:11 October 10037:AAAnet.org 10023:4 February 9912:25 October 9845:9 November 9057:. Online. 8745:(2): 119. 8647:Gill 2000a 8620:Gill 2000a 8282:, p. 8155:Sauer 1992 7931:16 October 7520:SUNY Press 7206:, p. 7084:15 January 6889:Brace 2005 6485:Marks 2002 6474:Weiss 2005 6437:Brace 2000 6324:Marks 2008 6312:Marks 2008 6046:Marks 2002 5766:Marks 1995 5725:Brace 2005 5644:Lewis 1990 5501:Segal 1991 5482:, p. 5455:Marks 2008 5394:Gill 2000a 5338:Miles 2000 5270:: "It was 5173:Smaje 1997 5048:. Boston: 4792:, p. 4646:Cell Press 4041:References 3669:See also: 3623:See also: 3568:capitalism 3538:eugenicist 3507:See also: 3394:biologists 3162:The term " 3109:have some 3083:See also: 3013:See also: 2919:75,704,927 2911:8,744,365 2905:26,171,778 2897:4,188,737 2814:stratified 2637:phenotypic 2538:and other 2532:historians 2528:population 2426:Neil Risch 2198:cladistics 2173:subspecies 2156:subspecies 2151:in biology 2142:Subspecies 2108:Franz Boas 2098:biologists 2077:linguistic 2063:Cladistics 2051:Subspecies 1987:sensu lato 1981:H. erectus 1917:See also: 1850:polygenism 1804:, and the 1769:phlegmatic 1745:americanus 1691:behavioral 1651:traditions 1594:Hungarians 1574:White race 1538:North Asia 1518:Dravidians 1452:See also: 1414:subjective 1326:instance, 1165:subspecies 897:Prehistory 750:Historical 723:Linguistic 635:Historical 603:Ecological 495:Biological 397:Linguistic 387:Biological 16563:Ethnocide 16436:Ethnoburb 16341:Tribalism 16124:Australia 16116:West Asia 16096:East Asia 16067:Caribbean 16052:Greenland 15933:Ethnology 15806:Ethnology 15744:Influence 15663:Ethnicity 14988:Négritude 14917:in Brazil 14862:Mongoloid 14770:Caucasoid 14315:MIT Press 14221:. 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