33:
761:(which share a common legal heritage) recognize private property ownership to the mean low tide line—but allow public access to the seashore between the low and high tide lines for "fishing, fowling and navigation," traditional rights going back to the Colonial Ordinance of 1647. Maine's Supreme Court in 2011 expanded the public trust doctrine by concluding fishing, fowling and navigation are not an exclusive list; the court allowed the general public to cross private shoreline for scuba diving.
462:
360:
319:
712:. A subsequent legislature sought to revoke the grant, claiming that original grant should not have been permitted in the first place. The court held that common law public trust doctrine prevented the government from alienating the public right to the lands under navigable waters (except in the case of very small portions of land which would have no effect on free access or navigation).
779:
affirmed the state's public trust doctrine, and the right of the public to have access to the seashore virtually everywhere between the low and high tide marks. In
California the situation is more complicated: private landowners often try to block traditional public beach access, which can result
621:
In general, the right to sail and fish on the sea could not be infringed, though the sale of private seaside property might involve the voluntary contractual surrender of the right to fish in waters off the coast. The seashore, defined by the reach of the highest winter tide, was held in common and
617:
rather than common, meaning that it had to kept accessible for public use and might be regulated and maintained by the state, while the riverbanks and even the riverbed could be privately owned, as long as ownership did not impede the public's use of the river. Disputes over questionable diversions
768:, a traditional right codified in case law and statutes in Massachusetts, Maine, and New Hampshire. The state is said to own the land below the low water mark under great ponds (ponds over ten acres), and the public retains in effect an access
715:
The public trust applies to both waters influenced by the tides and waters that are navigable in fact. The public trust also applies to the natural resources (mineral or animal) contained in the soil and water over those public trust lands.
746:
The doctrine is most often invoked in connection with access to the seashore. In the United States, the law differs among the fifty states but in general limits the rights of ocean-front property owners to exclude the public below the mean
609:. Breathable air could not be owned, but "air" was distinguished from "sky": aerial space over private property could not be obstructed by someone else in a way that interfered with the owner's use. "Flowing water" was held in common by all
821:
In some countries, the public trust doctrine has been applied to provide environmental protection to natural resources in order to uphold human rights. A recent study also demonstrated that public trust doctrines are transnationalizing.
803:
in those areas where land beneath tidally influenced waters has been filled. In some cases, the uses of that land have been limited (to transportation, for instance) and in others, there has been provision for public access across them.
589:
are the common property of all" as air, flowing water, the sea, and the seashore. Things common to all human beings could not be privately owned, but they also were not seen as owned collectively by the state as
690:
791:
that there is no right of access such as the public trust doctrine. The only public right over the foreshore is to pass over it, on water in a boat, for the purposes of fishing.
1086:
Velozo de Melo Bento, Lucas (November 14, 2009). "Searching for
Intergenerational Green Solutions: The Relevance of the Public Trust Doctrine to Environmental Preservation".
994:"Fish Out of Water: The Public Trust Doctrine in a Constitutional Democracy " Issues in Legal Scholarship, Joseph Sax and the Public Trust (2003): Article 6.
977:
818:
In most states in the United States, lakes and navigable-in-fact streams are maintained for drinking and recreation purposes under a public-trust doctrine.
1377:
Maine
Supreme Judicial Court affirmed ... that the public has a right to walk across inter-tidal lands to reach the ocean for purposes of scuba diving.
1088:
667:
All fish-weirs are in future to be entirely removed from the Thames and the Medway, and throughout the whole of
England, except on the sea-coast.
783:
In
England and Wales, there is no general public right to access the foreshore. Most land between the high and low water marks is owned by the
472:
129:
1590:
149:
298:
868:
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in protracted litigation. Freshwater use rights have also been subject to litigation in
California, under the public trust doctrine.
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973:"Application of the Public-Trust Doctrine and Principles of Natural Resource Management to Electromagnetic Spectrum"
144:
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The doctrine has been employed to assert public interest in oil resources discovered on tidally influenced lands (
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999:
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47:
905:
381:
262:
139:
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894:
1547:"Towards global public trust doctrines: an analysis of the transnationalisation of state stewardship duties"
613:, but the water itself was distinguished from the use of the river as a whole. A navigable river was public
32:
626:, but anyone was free to walk on the beach, and if such a structure was destroyed the builder had no more
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of commonly held water from public waterways for private use could lead to lawsuits over water rights.
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These rights were further strengthened by later laws in
England and subsequently became part of the
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and includes human constructs such as marketplaces, harbors, and theatres as well as public lands.
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such as shoreline between the high and low tide lines, regardless of private property ownership.
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815:) and has also been used to prevent the private ownership of fish stocks and crustacean beds.
1614:
1270:
Andreas Wacke, "Freedom of
Contract and Restraint of Trade Clauses in Roman and Modern Law,"
217:
1001:
Restoring The Trust: Water
Resources & The Public Trust Doctrine, A Manual For Advocates
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701:
62:
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The doctrine has also been used to provide public access across and provide for continued
8:
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1105:
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928:"Towards Environmental Entrepreneurship: Restoring the Public Trust Doctrine in New York"
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Yale, D. E. C. (November 1967). "Public Rights in the
Foreshore and Adjacent Waters".
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over unimproved private property for uses such as fishing, cutting ice, and hunting.
227:
57:
24:
1032:"The Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resource Law: Effective Judicial Intervention"
787:, who permit access for recreation, but the courts confirmed in 1821 in the case of
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579:(things held in common by all) as not subject to ownership. The juristic
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Minors Oposa v Factoran G.R. No. 101083 (224 SCRA 792), Philippines
1442:"Dispute heats up over blocked access to Northern California beach"
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638:
This principle became the law in England as well. Centuries later,
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237:
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further strengthened public rights. At the insistence of English
598:, private property. Ownership by the Roman people is expressed by
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could not be owned. Private structures could be built within the
190:
1591:"Mary Wood's Crusade to Reinvigorate the Public Trust Doctrine"
1466:
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660:
471:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
1164:(American Philological Society, 1953, 1991), p. 677 on
748:
724:
This doctrine has been primarily significant in two areas:
652:
1392:
A Treatise on the American Law of Easements and Servitudes
1110:
Nature's Trust: Environmental Law for a New Ecological Age
1012:
605:
Practical distinctions were made within the categories of
1066:
764:
The public trust doctrine also finds expression in the
545:
that the sovereign holds in trust for public use some
1131:
National Working Waterfront Network (July 22, 2015).
978:
Michigan Telecommunications and Technology Law Review
902:(Right to cross on foot, horseback, cycle or rowboat)
1085:
1359:"Maine's Public Trust Doctrine Continues to Evolve"
1044:(3). The Michigan Law Review Association: 471–566.
384:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1467:"Mono Lake Committee – protect, restore, educate!"
1606:
1244:(Cambridge University Press, 1939), p. 108.
1007:. Center for Progressive Reform. September 2009.
694:in 1842, confirming it several decades later in
700:, 146 U.S. 387 (1892). In the latter case the
469:The examples and perspective in this article
292:
1382:
735:
688:first accepted the public trust doctrine in
1329:Marine and Coastal Law: Cases and Materials
347:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1483:Blundell v. Catterall (5 B. & Ald. 268
869:National Audubon Society v. Superior Court
299:
285:
1562:
1319:
848:Illinois Central Railroad Co. v. Illinois
525:Learn how and when to remove this message
507:Learn how and when to remove this message
444:Learn how and when to remove this message
1544:
1388:
568:Res extra commercium § Ancient Rome
1585:
1413:
1356:
704:had granted an enormous portion of the
1607:
1439:
1414:Randall, William (November 24, 2001).
908:Public highways, railways, canals etc.
130:International environmental agreements
1545:Orangias, Joseph (December 1, 2021).
1416:"Great Ponds Act – BDN Maine archive"
1325:
1158:res cuius (quarum) commercium non est
1064:
936:University of Pennsylvania Law Review
697:Illinois Central Railroad v. Illinois
594:, public property as the opposite of
1492:
1326:Nixon, Dennis W. (January 1, 1994).
1293:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law
1274:11:1 (1993), pp. 17–18, citing
1255:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law
1225:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law
1208:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law
1179:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law
1162:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law
1104:
970:
925:
794:
455:
382:adding citations to reliable sources
353:
312:
150:Supranational environmental agencies
1068:The Public Trust Doctrine in Motion
1026:
630:to rebuild there than anyone else.
13:
1020:
564:Res publica § Public property
14:
1641:
1357:Parrott, Evan (October 1, 2011).
919:
328:This article has multiple issues.
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1257:, pp. 378, 677; p. 474 on
369:needs additional citations for
336:or discuss these issues on the
48:Environmental impact assessment
1630:Legal doctrines and principles
1440:Romney, Lee (March 12, 2013).
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906:Right of way (property access)
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263:Right to a healthy environment
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1564:10.1080/20414005.2021.2006030
1314:A Manual of Roman Private Law
1242:A Manual of Roman Private Law
895:Right of way (disambiguation)
135:Environmental laws by country
557:
7:
1420:Archive.bangordailynews.com
926:Benn, Michael Seth (2006).
825:
585:specified things which "by
483:, discuss the issue on the
10:
1646:
1551:Transnational Legal Theory
1334:Greenwood Publishing Group
739:
691:Martin v. Waddell’s Lessee
633:
561:
552:
1507:10.1017/S0008197300087663
1495:The Cambridge Law Journal
1210:, p. 677; p. 378 on
971:Ryan, Patrick S. (2004).
862:M. C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath
736:Access to ocean and ponds
710:Illinois Central Railroad
268:War and environmental law
176:Climate change litigation
68:Environmental cleanup law
1389:Washburn, Emory (1873).
1117:
1065:Slade, David C. (2008).
855:Juliana v. United States
659:were to be removed from
213:Environmental personhood
145:Environmental ministries
1156:Adolf Berger, entry on
1133:"Public Trust Doctrine"
837:Equal Protection Clause
393:"Public trust doctrine"
1272:Law and History Review
900:Right of way (transit)
669:
655:which obstructed free
140:Environmental lawsuits
125:Environmental journals
1589:(February 12, 2014).
1013:"Mono Lake Committee"
832:Prescriptive easement
665:
562:Further information:
539:public trust doctrine
253:Public trust doctrine
218:Environmental justice
76:Natural resources law
40:Pollution control law
1240:W. W Buckland,
1106:Wood, Mary Christina
966:on February 3, 2011.
789:Blundell v Catterall
730:natural resource law
702:Illinois Legislature
489:create a new article
481:improve this article
378:improve this article
63:Waste management law
1183:res communes omnium
1166:res communes omnium
1037:Michigan Law Review
742:Navigable servitude
726:land access and use
577:res communes omnium
201:Environmental crime
181:Earth jurisprudence
117:Reference materials
89:Water resources law
19:Part of a series on
775:In Oregon, a 1967
166:Administrative law
84:Species protection
1620:Environmental law
1366:Nsglc.olemiss.edu
1343:978-0-275-93763-8
1336:. pp. 105–.
1299:(sea); p. 567 on
1181:, p. 677 on
1137:Wateraccessus.com
1089:Common Law Review
1078:978-0-615-24111-1
795:Natural resources
573:Ancient Roman law
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99:Forestry law
1399:. pp.
1303:(seashore).
1301:litus maris
1229:res publica
880:Public good
809:Mississippi
720:Application
641:Magna Carta
587:natural law
1625:Public law
1609:Categories
1595:Resilience
1451:August 12,
1425:August 12,
1312:Buckland,
1282:8.4.13 pr.
813:California
740:See also:
678:common law
657:navigation
615:(publicum)
611:(communis)
575:set aside
404:newspapers
333:improve it
196:Energy law
94:Mining law
1573:244864136
1523:144855981
1316:, p. 107.
1197:50.16.15.
1193:, citing
749:high tide
558:Roman law
547:resources
543:principle
485:talk page
339:talk page
186:Earth law
1446:LA Times
1371:July 22,
1291:Berger,
1253:Berger,
1223:Berger,
1206:Berger,
1177:Berger,
1142:July 22,
1108:(2014).
1030:(1970).
957:40041305
826:See also
770:easement
600:publicum
479:You may
273:Wild law
238:Land use
233:Land law
206:poaching
109:Game law
1515:4505161
1098:1709104
1058:1287556
706:Chicago
680:of the
650:fishing
634:England
553:Origins
541:is the
418:scholar
191:Ecocide
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1280:Digest
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1195:Digest
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728:, and
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661:rivers
646:nobles
582:Digest
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1569:S2CID
1519:S2CID
1511:JSTOR
1362:(PDF)
1118:Notes
1054:JSTOR
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964:(PDF)
953:JSTOR
931:(PDF)
759:Maine
653:weirs
628:title
487:, or
425:JSTOR
411:books
1453:2015
1427:2015
1373:2015
1338:ISBN
1297:mare
1189:and
1144:2015
1094:SSRN
1073:ISBN
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537:The
397:news
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