Protohistory of West Virginia

2083:"Mystery Walls on Armstrong Mountain", West Virginia Hillbilly, December 7, 1989, West Virginia Division of Culture and History Loup Creek wall, "Trees of all sizes and varieties may be seen growing up through the heaps of loose stones which were once built into the wall. One of these which I particularly noticed was a red oak fully three feet in diameter and not less than four hundred years old. This would indicate that the wall had been abandoned at least that long if not longer. The mystery to be solved is who were the builders of this wall and why was it constructed. William Morris the first permanent settler of the county located in the vicinity of this wall in 1774 and his descendants claim that he was told by the Indians that the wall was there when the latter came into the Valley. It is quite clear to every inquiring mind that the Indians were not its builders but that it was no doubt constructed by the same race that built the mounds and inhabited the territory of the United States for centuries prior to its settlement by the Indians." Quote from George Wesley Atkinson, 1876 (Public Domain), Page 94, "History of Kanawha County: from its organization in 1789 until the present". 359:

actually amalgamations of earlier groups that had been decimated by wars and disease and banded together for mutual safety. Groups were also known by many different names, which also made identifying specific groups difficult. Group names were often recorded before the group met Europeans, and was frequently the name that enemies knew them by and in a different language family from what the group themselves spoke. These names were then transliterated into several European written languages, particularly French, English, Dutch, and Spanish. These European languages often had different phonetic stylings for the foreign languages of the Native Americans, and this translation and transliteration was conducted in an era before many modern writing conventions, resulting in inconsistent spelling, grammar and alphabetic characters.

1601:

they sided the Yuchi during the Yamasee War, whereas the Catawbas of North Carolina backed the Yamasee. They appear to have been mound builders, and so may have been associated with the Monongahela Culture to the northwest, who were the only mound building society surviving in the region by that time. While confusion still remains as to whether they could have been associated with the Iroquois, Algonquians or Siouans, they may have, in fact, been a separate tribe from other known groups who passed through the region during the 17th century. They seem to share little to no cultural traits with their Saponi neighbors. Many make a point that the place has been largely forgotten and rarely explored by Archaeologists, warranting a closer look.

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1883 paper "Tutelo Tribe and Language," Horatio Hale met with the last full-blooded Tutelo living among the Iroquois Confederacy in Canada, Waskiteng/ Nakonha. The man claims that he was 106, remembered times before the American Revolution & claimed that his people's village in New York was referred to as Tutelo, but was made up of a mixture of "Tutelos, Saponis & Botshenins." Although it is assumed that Botshenin may be a nickname for Occaneechi (The three tribes were all Christannas & were a core group who stuck close to one another throughout the 18th century), no one has yet seemed to identify this tribe who they are for certain.

1548:

and archaeologist who began the studies of the Whittlesey Culture (1000 to 1600) and founded the Western Reserve Historical Society of Ohio. Fort Ancient people grew beans at least 1150–1200. Neighboring to the west along Lake Erie's tributaries were the palisaded villages of the Sandusky culture (1400–1500). Late Woodland people were south of the Sandusky people and southwest of the Whittlesey people on the rolling hill watershed of these tributaries in Ohio. A connection of these various Prehistoric people with historic tribes remain unclear for the increasing migrations (Ohio Historical Society).

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Iroquois. A few peculiar artifacts are found in collections from the curious protohistoric period. At Madisonville, intertribal trade ending in the 1610s included Basque kettle parts and Clarksdale bell type associated with the "de Soto entrada" variety of artifacts, and other. Basque kettle parts and brass have been found similar to a few St. Lawrence River early protohistoric fisherman locations. The Algonquian language of Core Central consists of Ojibwe–Potawatomi, Shawnee, Sauk-Fox-Kickapoo, and Miami-Illinois — Eastern Great Lakes languages.

1479: 32: 310: 1491:(Uchi) and Appalachians according to the Narrative of De Soto's expedition in 1540–1541. Calicuas is found on Ortelius's 1570 map and 1642 on the Blaeuw map. The next map by Merian was issued about 1650 now with more correct geography showing the Calicuas along the general area of West Virginia. The Guyandottes appeared in southwestern West Virginia and southern Ohio around this time, pushing out from the Acansea (Ohio) Valley the Calicua and 171:(sixteenth to nineteenth centuries), put these larger groups under severe social stress as they competed for scarcer resources, such as less timber, less fertile farm land and fewer game animals. These groups were already unstable when Europeans arrived during the sixteenth century with superior weapons and diseases to which the native populations had no resistance. Many of these groups are now only known through the archaeological record. 1748: 786: 568: 975: 1619: 1129: 1336: 1257:, made expeditions into the Appalachians in 1669 and 1670 reaching the mouth of the Kanawha River and reported no hostilities on the Kanawha Valley from the early "Cherokee People". He settled in western Maryland and made trips to the head waters of the Potomac area. The Iroquoian stock of the Virginias, Nottoway or Mangoac and allied Meherrin and remnant Susquehanna, calling themselves 508:. Their mobile lifestyle may have been due to being driven from their ancestral homelands by the Iroquois Confederacy. They are usually described as being in a near constant state of war with the Iroquois Confederacy, who were making inroads during the protohistoric period into the Ohio Valley region in a bid to control the fur trade. The Shawnee, under 963:("Child of the Sun"). Like other groups, their adoption of maize agriculture had let them develop a large population. They were the largest native society in the area in the mid-seventeenth century and may have had a population as high as 40,000 with 4,000 to 6,000 warriors. Unlike other groups, they may have also begun to semi-domesticate 1363:, a string of moving water as to a stream, river. "Kényua" is a verb meaning to row a boat or to ferry someone across a stretch of water. The Canawagh (Kanawhas) were last reported as a band in 1774 in the St. Albans area (Hanson Journal) and reportedly joined other Iroquois (Lewis) while some Kanawhan mixed with Shawnee moving to the 379:. The languages are grouped together because they were spoken near each other, not because they are any closer related to one another than to any other Algonquian language. Within the Central Algonquian grouping, the only languages known to be more closely related to each other than to any other Algonquian languages are 592:

colonies (Darlington; Hanna). Batts and Fallams, 1671, briefly mentions an abandoned Mohican village (Mohecan as transcribed journal entry date September 16, 1671, Summers 1929) on the Kanawha-New River area. Beginning in the late 18th century on modern maps, Big and Little Loup creeks are found opposite of

1738:

to and up the Great Kanawha. With some of the hired Indians, George Washington spent the night of November 2, 1770 at the old hunters camp at the 10 Mile Creek before returning to the main camp at the Mouth of the Kanawha. A few days before, he and some of the expedition party hunted through Old Town

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country below the confluence of the Wabash and Ohio area of the Chaouanons, Jolliet and Marquette met a band of Iroquoian origin in 1673, which they identified as either Tuscarora or Cherokee. They were reported as trading with the Spanish to the east and had firearms. The French explorers were above

1600:

Several historic references speak of a separate tribe living in the Shenandoah River Valley along West Virginia's eastern border known as the Senandoa, or Shenandoah, until approximately 1715. It is during this time that they were allegedly destroyed by the Catawba—the most likely scenario being that

1412:

Hudson's Trading Post Inn and canoe landing, a hunter's camp, village, and archaeological mound site, appeared on Madison's 1807 map opposite St. Albans. Colonial maps from this period depict the upper Ohio River as an extension of the Alleghany River along the West Virginia shores. A Delaware Indian

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exploration in 1608. Next, the Susquesahanock came down and presented venison, tobacco pipes, baskets, targets, bows and arrows. A large cache of small and very well made dark flint Levanna, and small excellently proportioned Madison arrow points appear to be from some of these trade or gifts at the

1658:

Documenting early United States history for the Nation's centennial became a popular subject of historians by 1876. Early settlers plowing the fields of Old Town Creek near the Mouth of the Kanawha found more than eighty gun barrels collectively. These settlers also found an anvil, hammers and other

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were encouraged to take control of the Ohio Valley to establish New York trade from the lower half of the Ohio Valley with the French. The first documented Albany Trade began with the Vielle of Albany during the 1692–94 expedition. At this point, Virginians were already trading with native groups in

1404:

in 1717. The Iroquois established a town at Kanaugha opposite the Mouth of the Kanawha before 1748, and the French constructed a fort nearby prior to the French and Indian War. James (Jacob) Le Tort, Sr. moved his Penn permit trading house of the 1720s and 1730s from the Allegheny's Beaver Creek fur

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were encouraged to take control of the Ohio Valley to establish New York trade from the lower half of the Ohio Valley with the French. The first documented Albany Trade began with the Vielle of Albany during the 1692–94 expedition. Virginians were already trading with groups in West Virginia at this

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oratory, there is a story of young Kentucky warriors who mistakenly massacrued "Spiritual or Holy People" in southwest Kentucky. This young gang's trophies were declared not Spanish by the elders upon return to Kentucky counsel. A similar story was told by other Shawnee to the 1770s surveyors at the

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This region was inhabited by members of several different major language families when Europeans first arrived. These groups shared similar cultures, but spoke languages that had diverged from each other over thousands of years. Archaeological cultures such as the Monongahela and Fort Ancient groups

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enemies. The early historic Ohio Valley Siouans were neighbors with the Cat Nation of Erielhoran to the northeast and their trade neighbor on their eastern environs, the Neutral Nation. The prehistoric culture of the Cat Nation region was named for Charles Whittlesey, a nineteenth-century geologist

1430:

on the Kanawha River has been recorded on maps of the area. Similarly to their trading party to the north known as the Rhiierrhonons, the Oniansantkeronons were scattered from northern Ohio prior to the Mohawk invasion. The Hoñniasontke'roñnons laid down river from the Oniasantkeronons and migrated

1591:

It cannot be understated, however, that the Wyandots, or Guyandotte, of West Virginia came to be extremely far from the Ohio Wyandot over time & may have been operating as a separate tribe, also fractured from the Petun. Its possible that they may be the Kentatentonga mentioned on Franquelin's

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in the United States began in the mid-sixteenth century with the arrival of European trade goods. Explorers and colonists brought these goods to the eastern and southern coasts of North America and were brought inland by native trade routes. This was a period characterized by increased intertribal

1604:

It's difficult to say what happened to the remaining Senandoa. They may have merged with the Yuchi. Some may have also gone to live among the Saponi to the east, who appear to have remained neutral in the Yamasee War & were being collectively referred to as the Christannas at the time. In the

1107:

The Mohetans were the earliest Native American tribe reported by Virginians in central West Virginia. They are found during the Batts and Fallams' 1671 Expedition, and this expedition also found evidence that others colonists preceded them into the area. Earlier authors considered Mohetan to be a

591:

who led some Shawnee from Lower Ohio Valley in 1692 to join the Minisink villagers of the Delaware (Hanna 1911:158). Soon, these provided guides followed by the Viele of Albany Expedition. The Shawnee arrived later in the century by 1697 on the Eastern Panhandle with Sauvanoos from the south east

1277:

The Tomahitans developed from either the Yuchi or the Cherokee from eastern Tennessee. Both the Hernando de Soto Expedition in 1542 and the Captain Juan Pardo Expedition in 1568 made contact with the ancient Uchi, who were also referred to as the Chisca. In western North Carolina Hernando Moyano

531:

village originally traded with the Spanish. Kentucky is derived from an Iroquois word, kentáke, meaning "where prairies are." Another Shawnee village known as Eskippakithiki was located on Upper Howard Creek (Kentucky River Basin) was called "kenta aki," meaning the "place of level land," by the

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of the early 1540s, which encountered many Late Mississippian groups. This expedition spent almost four years trekking from Florida up to the eastern Tennessee region, down through Alabama, across Mississippi to Eastern Arkansas, through Northern Louisiana and into Texas, before doubling back to

1698:

Trade between New York and the Ohio Valley region began around 1692–94, though trade between the Ohio Valley area and Fort Henry (Virginia) began at least two decades earlier. Archaeological evidence also indicates that intertribal trade included Europeans began long before this. Under the name

1018:

Linguistic and historical records indicate a possible southern origin of Siouan peoples, with migrations over a thousand years ago from North Carolina and Virginia to Ohio. Some peoples continued down the Ohio River to the Mississippi River and up the Missouri River, and others across Ohio to

945:

by the Hurons, meaning "people whose speech is awry or a little different". They were based in the Hamilton-Niagara district of southwestern Ontario and across the Niagara River in Western New York state but had trading and war alliances with many of the surrounding Iroquoian-speaking peoples

889:

Erie populi is the earliest recognizable tribal grouping documented, including the northerly region "Riviere de la Ronceverte" of the state. The Huron Map of 1642 shows a river in the Allegheny Mountains delineating French territory from Virginian territory. Another map from 1657 by Francesco

358:

In the seventeenth century, Native Americans groups had not yet formed the large political "tribes" known from the historical era during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and many tribal names used in historical literature do not apply in the seventeenth century. Many tribal names were

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as existing roughly in the region of what is now Ohio which was once occupied by the Monongahela. It's possible that this name could be connected to them. Archaeology has also shown odd traits among the people, such as domestication of turkeys & the building of stone walls across certain

1650:

charted a map from 1659 to 1670, which shows the unidentified major branching rivers leading into the Allegheny Mountains. These rivers on the map lead into the eastern valleys of West Virginia to the Greenbrier area divide. His explorer parties evidently did not pass through the gaps of the

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mountain valleys. The uses of the walls are unknown, but they may have been used to control movement through the regions & seem to have also been used as traps to pen in and slaughter Forest Buffalo & other large game, according to a great deal of animal bones found at such sites.

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and the Iroquois Confederacy. During the early seventeenth century the Neutrals had reached a political sophistication previously unknown in this part of the country and may have even been a nascent chiefdom. This chiefdom consisted of ten tribes with a governing council united under a

1639:

the thirty third latitude, in the northern Spanish trade country. John Peter Salley passed through this region describing the Ohio Falls area as a Spanish Manor, beginning on the Kanawha River in 1742. The wild cattle are often assumed to be a smaller subspecies of the Eastern Forest

746:. These Siouan-speaking groups had settled in the Midwest by 1673, establishing what became known as their historical territories. Just as the Siouan peoples were displaced by the Iroquois, they displaced less powerful tribes whom they encountered in the Midwest, such as the 1421:

The Oniasantkeronons are of probably of the Kanawha River area. The hills or mountains south of the Kanawha have been known by several names, including Waseoto, Osioto, Osiata, Oseoto, and Onosiota (La Posta). The ruins of a square fort at the mouth of Bull creek on the

272:. These groups were extinct by the time Europeans colonized West Virginia, either becoming victims of European diseases, which at times had as much as a 90% death rate among Native American populations, or migrating to other areas to avoid intergroup warfare such as the 259:

Countys in West Virginia, which have all produced European metal objects dated after 1550. These objects came from Spanish, French, and English explorers who had begun to explore the eastern seaboard and Gulf Coast of the present United States by the sixteenth century.

504:. This tribe may have been indigenous to the West Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky area and could be descendants of the Fort Ancient or Monangahela cultures. Some protohistoric Shawnee villages have been found at locations that were former Fort Ancient sites, such as 1159:(Cisca) and the late Clover Phase of West Virginia (1550-1650), although the lingua franca or Virginia trade language, Occaneechi, is thought to be their primary language. This acculturated multi-tribe permitted others to live with them as subordinate Siouan 917:) appear on Edward Bland's "Discovery of New Brittaine" map dated August 31, 1650, in the New River-Holston divide watershed region. Coming from beyond the Monetons, the Rickahockans or Ricahecrians entered Piedmont Virginia in 1656. This eastern Virginia 1199:, were the middle men in the regional trade network. Another group known as the Ocanahonon dressed like Europeans and carried curved swords at a village ten days west beyond the mountains by 1607. Ocanahonon archaeological sites excavated between the 195:

during this time. Archaeologists suggest that this means that intergroup strife had increased, with the smaller settlements amalgamating into larger entities for mutual protection. These cultures were very similar and were both influenced by

291:

Archaeology seems to show an influx of Siouan speaking people into the region forcing them to the northernmost reaches of their territory during the 15th & 16th centuries and a possible union with the Fort Ancient culture to the west.

1659:

evidence of blacksmith ware nearly two centuries after they were distributed in the archaeological records. Before formal archaeological records, locals disinterred tomahawks, pewter basins, and other artifacts from area mound formations.

1286:

near the New River watershed during the spring of 1567. Beginning in 1675, the Yamasee were regularly recorded by the Spanish of the missionary provinces of Guale (central Georgia coast) after being pushed to northeastern Florida from the

3006:

Maryland Historical Trust – Maryland Commission on Indian Affairs, Working Group on Native American Human Remains, Minutes of the Seventh Meeting, August 6, 2009, "Maryland State statute was written to reflect the treatment of objects in

1108:

northernmost Mountain Cherokee; today, scholars consider them Eastern Siouan. A "Sepiny" Indian guide of the Sapony River returned to the expeditionary party and reported that he heard a drum and a gunshot towards the north, possibly the

873:, and were bitter enemies of the Iroquois Confederacy for control of the fur trade like their Erie and Huron allies. These tribes ought to have been centered east of the Kanawha River and held little land in what is now West Virginia. 1690:. Exploration information was seldom shared between different European nations. The Andasté (Chiroehaka) found on maps as Calicuas territory impeded the New York Haudenosaunee and the French Canadien trade in this region at the time. 143:

Written accounts of the area begin by the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century with the scattered documentation and journals of early explorers. These accounts frequently portray a sparsely inhabited area, possibly due to the

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Clip of 1656 (3) Le Canada Ou Nouvelle France &C. by Nicolas Sanson. Huronian Confederacy Iroquois dialect Akounake means "people of a strange language" and Attiouandron means "people of a similar language," based on Canadian

548:, and Onondaga. The Treaty of Camp Charlotte, 1774 finalized in 1775 by Captain John Connolly, invited a final local phratry of splinter Shawnee, Chief Cornstalk's sister, Nonhelema clan, to live about the Mouth of the Kanawha. 1006:'s trade network by 1653. The Rickohockans arrived in Virginia soon after this. Although both peoples, the Rickahockans and later Westo, were characterized as very aggressive and warring, they were thought to be expelled from 1555:

friar Daillon in 1626 reported three large deer pens near his village, Ounontisaston. They called themselves Chonnonton, or "people of the deer." Because these ranging trademen were at peace earlier with the League and

2939:#refBritannica|"Britannica" 12:596:2b, Britannica 29:358:1b, Britannica 1:95:3a, Britannica 22:782:Table 60, Britannica 13:344 through 13:352 (ref. "The Appalachian Indian Frontier" by Wilbert R. Jacobs 1967 Bison). 2357:

Leland R. Johnson and Charles E. Parrish, Engineering The Kentucky River: The Commonwealth’s Waterway 1999, Louisville Engineer District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. TC425.K43 J65 1999, 627’.12’097693—dc21. Page

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in the winter of 1661–1662. The Onondaga also attacked the Shawnee village of Ontouagannha on the Ohio River eight years earlier. In April, 1663, the Susquehannock village on the upper Ohio River was attacked by

1502:

This era is sometimes called a fire-side cabin culture, which is associated with eighteenth-century hunters. Historical trader Charles Poke's trading post dates from 1731 with these "Trade Indians", then called

1486:

The Calicua migrated east to the upper Potomac River trade area, but the tribe was later destroyed and absorbed into other tribes. The earliest location of the Calicuas is depicted as a province north of the

1409:, a French Canadian officer with a flotilla of canoes, encountered English traders with canoes nearby on August 12, 1749. Trade artifacts found in this area have dated from at least the seventeenth century. 1166:

From 800 to 900 CE, the latest Woodland hamlet farmers (i.e. Drew Tradition) were experiencing milder weather and the introduction of corn. Around 1250, just prior to the Woodland II period (1350–1607), the

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may have been confederacies whose constituent members did not all speak a common language instead of individual tribes or communities. The major language groups inhabiting the West Virginia region were the

3302:

Wroten, Dr. William H., Jr., Delmarva Heritage Series, Nabb Research Center General Resources – Special Collections & Exhibits, Mapmaker Came To State As Enemy, Enemy Turned Friend, Part I published i

2692:

The Bureau of American Ethnology identifies these Indians with the Cherokee . They have also been identified with the Erie or Rique, who were defeated and expelled from their home on Lake Erie in 1655.

1374:. For several centuries there were no archaeological sites of established Piscataway of the lower Potomac Valley in the Ohio Valley nor West Virginia. The Piscataway moved up to the Conoy Island in the 191:

and its tributaries. Late Fort Ancient (1400 to 1750) and Late Monongahela (1580 to 1635) peoples began consolidating their villages into larger settlements with more defensive measures such as wooden

1370:

Iroquois warned the French in 1669 that they would be threatened by the Andastes if they traveled down the Ohio River. The Maryland Accokeek Creek site (1300–1650 CE) is associated with the historic

2121:

under date of August 31, that Le Caron wrote also "Qu?rimonia Nov? Franci?" (Complaint of New France). Citation: Publication information Written by Odoric M. Jouve. Transcribed by Mario Anello. The

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Scioto village (Thomas Bullitt 1773 with Shawnees at Chillicothe. The now old Chief at the Mouth of the Kanawha explained why they passed beyond the western of the state to build their towns on the

476:, was one of the more mobile of the tribes encountered by early European explorers. They occupied areas Delaware and Pennsylvania to the Ohio Valley region in West Virginia, Kentucky and Ohio, the 1355:) word for canoe was locally "Olagashe". Iroquois (Tuscarora, Mingoe & Canawagh) call the anglicized Kanawha River "Ka(ih)nawáˀkye," meaning "waterway," and "kye" is an augmentive suffix. The 1734:

Iroquois-like George Ck neighbors) and the two Croghan Indians aboard with him from White Mingos Castle. These western Virginia Indians explained the geography of each stream they passed on the

371:

were one of the most populous and widespread North American native language groups, with tribes originally numbering in the hundreds. They were most concentrated in the New England region. The

2092:

Richard L. George, Revisiting the Monongahela Linguistic/Cultural Affiliation Mystery, ABSTRACT, Pennsylvania Archeology Society. Note: where George says "Algonquin," read "Algonquian."

753:

Iroquoian cultural was matrilineal, several families of girls and brothers from the same maternal lineage shared a longhouse. A married man moved into his wife's longhouse. Unlike the

2975:

John Heckewelder (Loskiel): Conoys, Ganawese, etc. explains Charles A. Hanna (Vol II, 1911:96, Ganeiens-gaa, Margry, i., 529; ii., 142–43,) using La Salle's letter of August 22, 1681

1116:

valleys. A Mohetan runner met the Virginian and Siouan group to discover whether they were planning to attack or not, and was given ammunition for his European gun. This was prior to

1207:

in the Ohio Valley have been found with both gun and knife parts. Trade goods found here and in the greater "Riviere de la Ronceverte" were likely the result of intertribal contact.

2127:, Volume IX. Published 1910. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Nihil Obstat, October 1, 1910. Remy Lafort, Censor. Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York Bibliography 3236: 2860:

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (2010, July 22). Extreme archaeology: Divers plumb the mysteries of sacred Maya pools. ScienceDaily. Retrieved September 18, 2010, from

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around 1250. There they found a hunter-gatherer people who did not grow corn. Along with Shattera, these were among the Occane-Uchi Virginia trade through the south of the state.

1794:

in 1632. Leaving French Canadian trade, they arrived and began trade with Captain Henry Fleet on the upper Chesapeake Bay. Messawomeake settled northerly tributaries of the upper

1751:

The Susquesahanock spoke an Iroquois dialect and were fort builders. They were allies with the Huron Confederacy. A Susquesahanock site is located in the Eastern Panhandle at

3138:

Wallis, John, 1714–1793. CREATED/PUBLISHED London, 1783. CALL NUMBER G3700 1783 .W3 Vault, Library of Congress Geography and Map Division Washington, D.C. 20540-4650 USA

1413:

legend of ancient time states that the Allegheny Indians were defeated and allowed to cross the Allegheny River to arrive on the east coast, which became their homeland.

1787:, migration to the upper Potomac area for the sake of being closer to English trade ware appears. This was battling circumstances with the Iroquois Trade middlemen the 967:, as several early reports detail how they kept them in pens to manage them for the lucrative trade in fur and skins. The chiefdom failed in 1646 with the death of the 2464:

Lewis Preston Summers, Abingdon Virginia, 1929, The Expedition of Batts and Fallam: A Journey from Virginia to beyond the Appalachian Mountains, September, 1671. From

1519:

region in 1705 and 1707, which are supported by several contemporary maps. Fort Lyttelton and Fort Shirley were built in 1755–56 by the fur trader and Indian agent

837:

is unknown. The Susquehannock were separated into two groups known as the White Minquas and the Black Minquas. The White Minquas were located in villages along the

200:

to their south and west. Exotic trade items from the Mississippian regions have been found in excavated Fort Ancient and Monongahela villages. These items include

921:

phrase referred to "from beyond the mountains." This groups has been identified in various ways, including as ancient Cherokee, as a Cat Nation division called

1343:

Kanawha canoemen moved trade along the Ohio Valley and its tributaries of the Oniasantkeronons and Siouan, while Messawomeake moved trade from here across the

2966:

Lachler, McElwain, and Burke: Etymology of kényua' -NYU- Verb Root. Grammatical Info Base -nyu-. Stem Class LX. Conjugation Class XX. kényua' "I row boats".

2527:

The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: the Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744.

3093:

Donehoo, George P., State Librarian, 1922:188, The Historical Society of Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania Magazine or History and Biography Vol. XLVI No. 3.

2903:

Davis, R. P. Stephen Jr., The Travels Of James Needham And Gabriel Arthur Through Virginia, North Carolina, And Beyond, 1673–1674 Southern Indian Studies

2507:

The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: the Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744

1682:. From the other direction, kindred Kentaientonga villages were destroyed by Iroquois as they told to the French years afterward. At Le Chine in 1669 at 777:). By the fourteenth century, a distinct St. Lawrence Iroquoian culture had created fortified villages and introduced corn to the St. Lawrence valley. 116: 81: 1666:

formed a league of eight hundred Upper Algonquians in 1653. This league was located southwest of Skenchioe, near a Fox village in the Flat Country of

3501: 3139: 1244: 2543: 971:, and in 1651 the Iroquois Confederacy were able to annihilate their old enemies. By 1671 they are no longer mentioned in the historical records. 3496: 3469: 1392:

White traders began establishing trading houses in the Ohio, Allegheny, and Monongahela valleys in 1717, according to University of Pittsburgh's

240: 1726:

according to his entry on Thursday October 25, 1770. An early Cut Creek Indian town was wiped out on Cut Creek (Fish Creek) by the Six Nations (

140:

strife, rapid population decline, the abandonment of traditional life styles, and the extinction and migrations of many Native American groups.

3506: 2652: 1195:

Many native groups other than the Algonquian, Iroquois, and Sioux also inhabited this area. For example, the Occhenechees, also known as the

484:

is named for them. The tribe consisted of a number of autonomous subdivisions known as "septs" who shared a common language and culture: the

209: 2113:(b. near Paris in 1586; d. in France, March 29, 1632; first missionary to the Hurons) wrote the first dictionary of the Huron language. The 1686:, La Salle was told to expect to find Chaouanon (Algonquian) and Honniasontkeronon (Iroquois) villages on the Ohio above the falls or above 3480: 2253: 1269:

stock. John Lederer's guide was a Susquehanna on his journey to southwest Virginia and North Carolina, home of the Early Cherokee people.

3226:

Kent, Bretton W. 1982. An overlooked Busycon whelk (Melongenidae) from the eastern United States, Nautilus 96(3):99–104. (July 16, 1982).

1299:

settled here. The Carolina Algonquians had lived in southern lower lands for nearly six hundred years. In 1727, a delegation of southern

89: 3240: 2678: 2135:(late-seventeenth-century MS., in the archives of Quebec seminary); Champlain (Euvres, ed. Lavardi?re (6 vols., Quebec, 1870); Sagard, 528: 801:(an Algonquian name meaning "people of the muddy river" adopted by the English of Maryland and Virginia) were known by a variety of 2223: 1817:

established in 1676. It was still closer to Tutelo groups, elemental Swanton's Toteras of interest, and its nearby Monacan east of

1175:

region of Virginia. There they found a hunter-gathering people who did not grow corn. Monacan legend reports that they taught the

164:

groups in Eastern and Southern North America to develop sedentary agriculture based societies, which lead to larger populations.

69: 2912:

Moore, Beck and Rodning, Joara and Fort San Juan: culture contact at the edge of the world, Antiquity Vol 78 No 299 March 2004,

1622:

Perhaps the only contemporary "painting" of the extinct Eastern Forest Buffalo on map from 1687. Notice the horn representation.

702:

tribe. The languages of the tribes that constituted these confederations were very poorly documented. These groups were called

109: 2914: 1406: 1347:

in the Earliest Historic period. Kaháwa means "boat" (canoe) in the local Iroquois dialect. It varies with Iroquois "kahôwö".

3158:(Extrapolation from the 16th-century Spanish, 'Cali' ˈkali a rich agricultural area – geographical sunny climate. also 1536, 2520: 2424: 2324: 2263: 2233: 2206: 2179: 304: 187:

lived in the western part of the state (and in the adjoining states of Pennsylvania, Maryland, Ohio and Kentucky) along the

3459: 2650:

Lori Samples, Transcribed, Part 27, Historical Booklet – Greenbrier County 160th Anniversary – 1778–1938, Published 1938

220:

sites in the Lower Ohio Valley. Such items made their way into this region through long established native trade routes.

205: 2196: 1576:. The Iroquois League in 1651 destroyed this cultural entity. Having been pushed south and pressuring the Siouan, these 2296: 758: 2416:

Christopher Gist's Journals with Historical, Geographical and Ethnological Notes and Biographies of His Contemporaries

1941: 698:

confederations were displaced by war parties from the Iroquois Confederacy. Many of the survivors went on to form the

2029: 1010:

by the Iroquois League leaving an estimated 700 to 900 warriors to arrive in the early Virginia colonial trade area.

102: 1385:. The state does have Algonquian phrases, though these may be from protohistoric Ouabano, ancient Telegwa, or later 1144:

region. Today, there is a growing consensus that Monetons were Eastern Siouan and possibly a westerly branch of the

161: 3008: 2736: 2169: 1560:, in 1615 Champlain called them, "la Nation neutre." They traded deer hides and byproducts to as far south as the 1450:

and noting the Lower Shanaois village at its mouth. Franquelin's map of 1684 shows tribal villages in the central

423:

was regularly at war with its Algonquian neighbours and forced other tribes out of Iroquois-occupied territories.

3167: 850: 52: 431: 387:. However, there is some evidence for a larger subbranch "Eastern Great Lakes" or "Core Central", consisting of 74: 2449: 1813:

of proto-historic West Virginia. A fort built of particular protohistoric interest was the James River Fort of

1723: 1714:

Nearly a century later, local stories were still being told of this period of warring and trade establishment.

334:, on June 2, 1615 (Québec City Tourism: History) It was declared the early French Jesuits did not see the main 3217:

Whittlesey, Charles. "Descriptions of Ancient Works in Ohio." Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge 3 (1850).

833:

or "place of the immersed pole", the name of a Susquehanna village in Pennsylvania), although their Iroquoian

148:

wars to monopolize the European fur trade or the devastating effects of new diseases introduced by Europeans.

710:, and thus are historically grouped with them. After becoming united in the League, the Iroquois invaded the 616: 1775:

offered gifts of bows and arrows, deer and bear flesh, fish, clubs, and bear skins to John Smith during his

1151:, also known as the Manachee. However, this theory is moderated when looking at the archaeology of Eastern 894:, shows the same river of the French Canadien domain adjoining the Virginia domain below the mountain line. 1783:

In the early seventeenth century, a situation of Messawomeake, from beyond the western slopes of the upper

1584:, some Tionontatacaga joined the Shawnee and other Wyandot were known as Little Mingoe (Gist 1750–51). The 597: 372: 344: 256: 248: 85: 3129:

A letter written to the Lord of Trade, New York, dated April 13, 1699. documented by E.B. O'Callaghan M.D.

1643:, which is now extinct. The last buffalo seen and killed in West Virginia killed in Boone county in 1826. 2976: 2021: 1652: 1254: 854: 846: 601: 252: 236: 58: 17: 3182:. Also today, 'Calicuas', supporting cylinder or enclosing ring, or moveable prop as in holding a strut) 2551: 2171:

The Wilderness Trail: Or, the Ventures and Adventures of the Pennsylvania Traders On the Allegheny Path

2074:

louis, franquelin, jean baptiste. "Franquelin's map of Louisiana.". LOC.gov. Retrieved August 17, 2017.

2009: 1731: 1551:

Chief Tsouharissen included a council which united some ten tribes within the Neutralia empire. French

1423: 1308: 583:, like the others westerly of the state, who traded with the Spanish before the French arrival. It was 208:

similar to those produced in the Central Mississippi Valley by the peoples of the Middle Mississippian

3237:"The Shenandoah Valley of Virginia . . . its Secret Native American History | People of One Fire" 1752: 1427: 1216: 862: 1261:

according to James Mooney. In the north, this linguistic grouping was called Mingo or Mengwe by the

1371: 277: 232: 42: 21: 2656: 1897: 687:) speak Iroquoian languages that are distinctly different from those of other Iroquoian speakers. 639:

have a common historical and cultural origin, which later diverged to create different languages.

3450: 2861: 2580: 1719: 1704: 1508: 1378:

region in 1699 after a long Siouan occupation. Later researchers declared that "Kanawha" was not

933:

The Chonnonton ("people of the deer", or "the people who tend or manage deer") were known as the

841:

and its tributaries from Pennsylvania to southern New York. The Black Minqua were located in the

770: 396: 1630:

LaSalle sailed to France in November 1683 accompanied by Franquelin who created the map in 1684.

627:. Of these and colonial assimilation, there are still some descendants living in West Virginia 1626: 1524: 1462: 1063: 1040: 881: 2620: 2288: 1539:

Tionontatacaga (Tobacco Indians, Iroquois) trade mixing from easterly regional tributaries of

1171:, or Algonquian called "Mandoag", were driven by enemies from the northwest into the Piedmont 757:

of upstate New York, West Virginia saw no large centralized sovereign national governments of

3511: 3438:

First Biennial Report of the Department of Archives and History of the State of West Virginia

2512: 2414: 2123: 1806: 718:

to seek additional hunting grounds. One theory is that the Iroquois had pushed tribes of the

620: 197: 3262: 3067:

Publisher: University of Nebraska Press. Lincoln, NE. Publication Year: 1967. c.1954 c.1967.

2711: 2046: 1838: 1788: 1687: 1379: 1224: 1141: 1117: 918: 754: 593: 420: 331: 157: 734:

by around 1200 CE, however Iroquoian tribes no longer held this land by the 17th century.

8: 2486: 1784: 1768: 1764: 1512: 1344: 1279: 1180: 938: 774: 644: 636: 392: 380: 348: 228: 184: 1678:

Neighbored the Upper Algonquians to the east and scattered around the southern shore of

2574: 2281: 1756: 1266: 1184: 790: 412: 368: 327: 3171: 2487:"Chief Bull, King of the Delawares, Many Descendants Living in the Monongahela Valley" 2315:

Sharp, William E. (1996). "Chapter 6:Fort Ancient Farmers". In Lewis, R. Barry (ed.).

2117:

of Jean de S. Antoine, II (Madrid, 1732), 243, says on the evidence of Arturus in his

1798:. It appears a period of general peace followed with the Algonquian down the Potomac. 941:

because they were then at peace with the Iroquois Confederacy and the Hurons) and the

742:

among the Ohio Valley peoples defeated by the Iroquois in the early 1670s, during the

3162:, linking Cali, important for higher population agriculture and cattle raising & 2672: 2516: 2505: 2420: 2320: 2292: 2259: 2229: 2202: 2175: 2025: 1818: 1772: 1715: 1232: 955: 838: 731: 711: 664: 505: 224: 1918: 2918: 2800: 2772: 2446:

Hesson, Craig, Fort Randolph Committee, Krodel Park, Point Pleasant, West Virginia

1810: 1647: 1585: 1304: 1109: 1080: 1024: 672: 652: 536: 477: 404: 352: 323: 264: 2805: 2777: 1592:

map, with a whopping 19 villages in northwest Pennsylvania having been destroyed.

1454:

region of eastern Sioux, including the Mosopelea. On August 5, 1684, the New York

3463: 2453: 2110: 2014: 1826: 1802: 1683: 1544: 1478: 1436: 1432: 1348: 1168: 1148: 1100: 1044: 1036: 1032: 964: 735: 648: 612: 584: 388: 384: 376: 31: 309: 3456: 1814: 1776: 1663: 1640: 1577: 1565: 1557: 1520: 1288: 1236: 1228: 1220: 1204: 1003: 991: 979: 934: 810: 707: 699: 691: 656: 640: 481: 322:. Earlier scholars find the latter phrase near the "Riviere de la Ronceverte" ( 269: 168: 3453:

Photos and descriptions of artifacts from protohistoric sites in West Virginia

1984: 1871: 223:

European items were deposited into the archaeological record at sites such as

3490: 3065:'The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755.' 2740: 1958: 1943:

Points in time: Assessing a Fort Ancient triangular projectile point typology

1795: 1727: 1364: 1283: 1240: 1137: 866: 842: 798: 684: 680: 668: 604:

of Armstrong Creek with local ancient stone wall legends occasionally heard.

545: 541: 408: 135: 3170:. 'Cali', city, metropolis, urban center. Pearson Education 2006. "Calica", 3475: 2477:

DRAPER, the Simon Kenton materials, Draper's Mss microfilm, WVa University.

1830: 1675: 1580:

mix again disseminated. Like the decades earlier of some northerly environ

1496: 1443: 1401: 1396:. Pennsylvania fur trader Michael Bezallion made a record of his trip from 1352: 1262: 1250: 1176: 1113: 1028: 747: 676: 660: 624: 557: 493: 400: 263:

One such expedition that left objects in the archaeological record was the

213: 201: 180: 131: 2548:

Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture

319: 3159: 1834: 1791: 1516: 1200: 1172: 898: 870: 743: 608: 513: 497: 283:

The Franquelin map of Ohio also shows an unidentified tribe labelled the

244: 217: 2447: 1907:. Vol. 1. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 504–509. 160:(900–1200 CE), the introduction of the bow and arrow and maize led many 1747: 1735: 1569: 1451: 1076: 1052: 785: 719: 695: 647:

and surrounding regions from at least 1000 CE. These languages include

335: 188: 1120:, the Virginian farmers uprising against their locale tribes in 1676. 825:

name for their traditional enemy, which meant "treacherous"), and the

3179: 1679: 1667: 1635: 1618: 1540: 1492: 1327: 1316: 1152: 1072: 1007: 999: 739: 552: 524: 516:

and were removed to the west of the Mississippi River after the war.

3175: 2222:

Corlew, Robert E.; Folmsbee, Stanley J.; Mitchell, Enoch L. (1990).

1531:

Cherokee with him on the Big Sandy Expedition to this area in 1756.

3163: 1842: 1822: 1708: 1671: 1573: 1561: 1552: 1528: 1504: 1455: 1397: 1375: 1335: 1300: 1231:, directly to the Atlantic Ocean and the Ohio Valley thence to the 1196: 1145: 1083: 1048: 995: 858: 802: 715: 576: 567: 509: 273: 192: 145: 1825:

following Wood's 1674 contact. Monecaga were a westerly subset of

974: 1833:, The Monacan had been driven by enemies from the northwest into 1700: 1386: 1382: 1312: 1296: 1245:

Kingsport–Bristol (TN)–Bristol (VA) Metropolitan Statistical Area

1071:

Franquelin's map of 1684 shows tribal villages of eastern Siouan

1023:. Ohio Valley Siouan (Southeastern Siouan) is a group of related 834: 588: 501: 485: 444: 2763:

Strurtevant, William C. (1958), "Siouan Languages in the East",

1095: 375:

are a subgroup of the Algonquian family, itself a member of the

216:, and pottery with motifs and decoration methods connected with 1488: 822: 727: 723: 580: 489: 315: 3076:

J. R. Weldon & Co., Pittsburgh, 1892. Part 1, Pages 5–83.

2862:

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/07/100722102041.htm

2791:

Swanton, John R. (1943), "Siouan Tribes and the Ohio Valley",

2593:

Pendergast, James F (Journal of Canadian Studies, Winter 1998.

1311:

referred to the Tomahitans as old enemies of their allies the

1128: 986:

These early Iroquois or proto-Iroquoians were from an earlier

330:

word meaning "where the river narrows", at a narrowing of the

1581: 1499:) peoples according to the progressing of contemporary maps. 1292: 1156: 1020: 951: 947: 520: 1470:

The Sussquahana and Sinaicus destroyed the Black Mincquaas.

564:. This policy also applied to game taking in West Virginia. 2367:

Drooker Table 8.4; 1996, 1997a:333–335; cf. Sempowski 1994.

561: 1699:

Chaskepe in 1683, some Cisca seem to have joined with the

1227:

chain heads a number of rivers that drain directly to the

769:

cultural and language in West Virginia was similar to the

268:

Arkansas and down the Mississippi to Mexico by way of the

3275:

Hale, Horatio "Tutelo Tribe & Language" (1883), p. 10

2493:, Vol. III, Is. 12 (reprinted in HCPD Journal- pg. 283–4) 3451:

Mason County, West Virginia – An Archaeological Treasure

326:). The first Récollet missionaries arrived at Kébec, an 3476:

West Virginia Archeological Society Annual Meeting 2008

3393:

Library of Congress, Jackson & Twohig 1976:293,294.

2915:"Antiquity, Project Gallery: Moore, Beck & Rodning" 480:

region of Central Tennessee, and in Georgia, where the

2376:

Senior Linguist Ives Goddard, Smithsonian Institution.

2279:

Rice, Otis K.; Brown, Stephen W. (September 4, 1994).

2221: 2141:

Premier Etablissment de la Foi dans la Nouvelle France

1278:

attacked and burned the Chisca village of Maniatique (

1253:, on behalf of the colonial governor of Virginia, Sir 1075:

group, which had been destroyed on the central region

2412: 1339:

Monongahela drainage system, Cheat River highlighted.

667:, among others. Members of the Iroquois Confederacy ( 619:, dates from 1754 through 1772. They migrated to the 600:

about three miles. It is about two miles upstream of

3174:

place name called rock pit, a port an hour south of

2817: 2815: 1179:

how to crop farm. The Doeg's language is similar to

817:, meaning "people of the blackened ridge pole,) the 643:

evidence shows that Iroquois ancestors lived in the

2988:

Paula W. Wallace, Susquesahanocks: Wallace 1961:13.

2157:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 1. 2133:

Mortuologe des Récollets de la province de St-Denis

982:, located within the upper Tennessee drainage basin 2504: 2319:. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 170–176. 2280: 2258:. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 814–815. 2013: 706:meaning 'they who understand the language' by the 3080:. Also: Wisconsin Historical Collections, XVIII. 2812: 2070: 2068: 1865: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1857: 3488: 3036:Draper & Belue 1998:202; Pritchard 2002:274. 2615: 2613: 2611: 3166:'s coffee is produced in the adjacent uplands. 3149:Augustin Herrman map, dated 1670, printed 1673. 2874:'Monacan Archaeology of the Virginia Interior' 1019:Illinois, Wisconsin and Minnesota, home of the 730:, out of the region in a migration west of the 174: 167:The harsh droughts and cold winters during the 2406: 2065: 1854: 885:1710 French map showing location of Cat Nation 3199:September 1973, Pp.30, "Valley Falls of Old", 2608: 2228:. University of Tennessee Press. p. 18. 2139:, ed. Tross (4 vols. Paris, 1866); Leclercq, 2053:. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 1405:trade area to near the Letart Falls by 1740. 829:by the English of Pennsylvania (adapted from 110: 3457:Images from Moorefield Village Site 46 Hy 89 2829: 2827: 2621:"Susquehannock Indians of the Eastern Shore" 2129:Histoire chronol. de la province de St-Denis 937:by the Europeans (first named so in 1615 by 925:, and as "Riquehronnons" or "Rigueronnons". 869:as a border. They may have been part of the 3339:Relation of 1656 (vol. xlii., p. 197). 3293:Wonderful West Virginia, Brooks 1976:26,27. 2979:mentioning "Ohio tribes" for extrapolation. 2762: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2413:William M. Darlington (November 15, 2007). 1905:Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change 1730:) according to the hired Crawford Indians ( 1613: 1507:, stemming from this earlier period called 1055:in what is now Virginia and West Virginia. 415:. At the time of the European arrival, the 3045:Jacobs 1953; Adair, Atkins Report of 1755. 2933: 2051:North Carolina History: A Digital Textbook 1711:and lived among the French trade (Hanna). 821:by the Dutch and Swedes (adapted from the 151: 117: 103: 3263:"First Settlers of the Shenandoah Valley" 2824: 2804: 2776: 2278: 2247: 2245: 3502:Native American history of West Virginia 3082:Céloron's Expedition Down the Ohio, 1749 2696: 2502: 2287:. University Press of Kentucky. p. 1746: 1625: 1617: 1477: 1461: 1334: 1326: 1190: 1127: 1123: 1094: 1062: 973: 880: 784: 566: 430: 308: 30: 3402:LOC, Jackson & Twohig 1976:307,308. 3357:The nation, Vol 56, No. 1456, 1893:384, 2790: 2466:Annals of Southwest Virginia, 1769–1800 2272: 1939: 1239:. The west slope of the divide has the 607:Delaware Chief Bull's old town, son of 3497:Pre-statehood history of West Virginia 3489: 2677:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2537: 2535: 2251: 2242: 2194: 2008: 1921:. NASA Scientific Visualization Studio 3507:Archaeological sites in West Virginia 3102:Hoñniasontke'roñnon, D.B. Ricky 1998. 2579:. New York: Putnam Brothers. p. 2572: 2314: 2167: 2152: 2016:Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun 1982: 1946:, Southeastern Archaeology, p. 2 1067:Franquelin 1684 map showing Mosopelea 1039:. The Tutelo language was a group of 305:European colonization of the Americas 3120:Jes. Rel. 1647–48, xxxiii, 63, 1898. 2195:Fernow, Berthold (August 16, 2010). 2168:Hanna, Charles A. (March 16, 2010). 1895: 1739:Creek area near the Old Shawnatown. 1446:in 1783, recording the river as the 1442:Cartographer John Wallis mapped the 1002:. The Iroquois League destroyed the 690:In 1649 the tribes constituting the 512:, sided with the British during the 435:1715 Nicolas de Fer map showing the 362: 3330:Jes. Rel. 1647–48, xxxiii, 63, 1898 2532: 2044: 1956: 1869: 1511:. The Calicua were reported on the 1416: 1136:Monetons traded with Tomahitans of 630: 442:This tribe, known variously as the 156:During the climatic warming of the 13: 3470:Videos of West Virginia archeology 1919:"The Sun's chilly impact on Earth" 1771:. In the 1999 Interim Report, the 1219:watershed region in north-western 1132:Susquesahanock and Monacan in 1707 892:Novae Franciae accurata delineatio 298: 14: 3523: 3472:, Division of Culture and History 3444: 2709: 2541: 1742: 1693: 1534: 3466:Photos from a Susquehannock site 3432: 3423: 3414: 3405: 3396: 3387: 2419:. Heritage Books. pp. 27–. 2252:Kleber, John E. (May 18, 1992). 2198:The Ohio Valley in colonial days 2174:. Nabu Press. pp. 119–131. 2115:Bibliotheca Universa Franciscana 1400:country up the Ohio en route to 1051:and Nahyssan confederacies, and 1013: 809:by the French (adapted from the 780: 3378: 3369: 3360: 3351: 3342: 3333: 3324: 3315: 3306: 3296: 3287: 3278: 3269: 3255: 3229: 3220: 3211: 3202: 3185: 3168:Britannica Concise Encyclopedia 3152: 3143: 3132: 3123: 3114: 3105: 3096: 3087: 3070: 3057: 3048: 3039: 3030: 3021: 3012: 3000: 2991: 2982: 2969: 2960: 2951: 2942: 2906: 2897: 2888: 2879: 2866: 2854: 2845: 2836: 2784: 2756: 2747: 2729: 2686: 2644: 2635: 2596: 2587: 2566: 2496: 2480: 2471: 2458: 2440: 2397: 2388: 2379: 2370: 2361: 2351: 2342: 2333: 2308: 2215: 2188: 2161: 2146: 2104: 2095: 2086: 2077: 1780:Jamestown archaeological site. 1646:Above the neck of the Potomac, 1243:. This area is now part of the 3321:Legislative Assembly 1908:449. 2038: 2002: 1989:The West Virginia Encyclopedia 1976: 1963:The West Virginia Encyclopedia 1950: 1940:Carmean, Kelli (Winter 2009), 1933: 1911: 1889: 1876:The West Virginia Encyclopedia 1718:was about fifteen miles below 1272: 1041:mutually intelligible dialects 318:writings before 1650 from the 1: 2806:10.1525/aa.1943.45.1.02a00050 2778:10.1525/aa.1958.60.4.02a00120 2339:Johnson & Parrish 1999:3. 1595: 1215:The Canaragay lived near the 1099:James River watershed of the 3481:Archaeology Videos by region 2511:. New York: Norton. p. 1959:"Buffalo Archeological Site" 1527:had roughly estimated sixty 1331:Kanawha-New River watershed. 1210: 1058: 615:Wildlife Management Area in 373:Central Algonquian languages 175:Fort Ancient and Monongahela 35:Section of a 1671 French map 7: 2977:Fort Saint Louis (Illinois) 2155:The Miami-Illinois Language 2022:University of Georgia Press 1985:"Clover Archeological Site" 1653:Monongahela National Forest 1588:was named in their memory. 1568:for the prized Snow Whelk ( 1543:were generally traditional 1473: 1426:, thirty miles upstream of 1140:Valley and adjoining lower 1090: 990:trade network south of the 959:warrior-priest-chief named 928: 18:Prehistory of West Virginia 10: 3528: 3375:Mooney 1894, Wallace 1961. 3078:Journal of Captain Celeron 2712:"The Neutral Connfederacy" 2573:Hanna, Charles A. (1911). 2503:Jennings, Francis (1984). 2452:December 24, 2010, at the 2225:Tennessee: A Short History 2201:. Nabu Press. p. 40. 2119:Martyrologium Franciscanum 1732:William Crawford (soldier) 1322: 1309:Charleston, South Carolina 789:The Susquesahanock on the 750:, who moved further west. 623:, eighteen miles from the 523:territory) in neighboring 426: 302: 204:from Eastern Tennessee, a 15: 3483:, The Archaeology Channel 3027:Albert S. Gatschet, 1885. 2957:(Green 1992, p. 26n) 2716:The Canadian Encyclopedia 2403:JR: 48:7–79, NYCD 12:431. 2255:The Kentucky encyclopedia 2047:"Disease and catastrophe" 1896:Mann, Michael E. (2002). 1753:Moorefield, West Virginia 1482:Clip from 1671 French map 1435:sometime after 1699 near 1303:, close neighbors of the 1217:New River (Kanawha River) 1079:. On August 5, 1684, the 535:The Shawnee attacked the 3420:Mallios and Strube, 2000 3348:Sultzman, First Nations. 3208:Nicolas de Fer 1715 map. 3197:Wonderfull West Virginia 3195:articles "Allegeny" and 2491:Now & Long Ago Times 2283:West Virginia: A History 2153:Costa, David J. (2003). 1848: 1634:In the northern part of 1614:Spanish and French trade 1608: 954:, Kakwa, Erie, Andasté, 233:Greenup County, Kentucky 43:History of West Virginia 22:History of West Virginia 3384:Broshar, 1920 page 232. 3193:Wonderful West Virginia 2793:American Anthropologist 2765:American Anthropologist 2604:Indians in Pennsylvania 2143:(2 vols., Paris, 1691). 876: 865:) areas that share the 771:St. Lawrence Iroquoians 437:River of the Chaouanons 152:Archaeological cultures 134:period of the state of 3462:June 17, 2011, at the 3084:, Céloron, to page 58. 1872:"Fort Ancient Culture" 1760: 1631: 1623: 1483: 1467: 1367:near the trade posts. 1340: 1332: 1235:, which drains to the 1133: 1104: 1103:leads to West Virginia 1068: 1043:spoken by the Tutelo, 983: 886: 794: 575:Ouabano was a band of 572: 527:, this area's Shawnee 439: 339: 198:Mississippian cultures 36: 26:Protohistorical period 3284:Kellogg 1917:251,252. 2997:Kavanagh et al. 2009. 2623:. Eastern Shore Guide 2131:(Bibl. Nat., Paris); 2124:Catholic Encyclopedia 1750: 1629: 1621: 1481: 1465: 1407:Céloron de Blainville 1338: 1330: 1265:trade or New England 1191:Other historic groups 1131: 1124:Monetons and Monecans 1098: 1066: 1027:, which included the 977: 884: 788: 570: 434: 377:Algic language family 338:during these decades. 312: 303:Further information: 34: 16:Further information: 2641:Derek Hayes 2006:58. 2576:The Wilderness Trail 2317:Kentucky Archaeology 2303:buck garden culture. 1839:Blue Ridge Mountains 1809:and traded with the 1688:Louisville, Kentucky 1525:Colonel Andrew Lewis 1431:easterly toward the 1225:Appalachian Mountain 1223:area. This southern 1142:Blue Ridge Mountains 755:Iroquois Confederacy 722:valley, such as the 462:Shaawanowi lenaweeki 421:Iroquois Confederacy 332:Saint Lawrence River 294:See also Shenandoah. 276:wars to control the 185:Monongahela cultures 162:Late Woodland period 158:Medieval Warm Period 3178:. Sp. root: "Cal", 3111:Erie Jes. Rel. 1635 3063:Jacobs, Wilber R., 2948:(Outlaw 1990:85–91. 2737:"The Wampum Keeper" 1983:Maslowski, Robert. 1785:Allegheny Mountains 1769:Jamestown, Virginia 1765:Allegheny Mountains 1513:Tygart Valley River 1466:French Map Ca. 1710 1394:Historic Pittsburgh 1345:Allegheny Mountains 1280:Saltville, Virginia 939:Samuel de Champlain 905:(also known as the 775:Laurentian language 637:Iroquoian languages 3191:Walter Balderson, 2851:Rankin 2009, WVAS. 2821:Broshar, 1920:232. 2710:Noble, William C. 2554:on January 2, 2011 2137:Histoire du Canada 2010:Hudson, Charles M. 1957:Spencer, Darla S. 1870:Spencer, Darla S. 1821:area and Kanawhan 1801:In the 1640s, the 1767:region began with 1761: 1757:Captain John Smith 1632: 1624: 1484: 1468: 1372:Piscataway Indians 1341: 1333: 1134: 1105: 1069: 984: 887: 795: 791:Captain John Smith 573: 571:Upper Gauley River 440: 369:Algonquian peoples 353:Ohio Valley Siouan 345:Central Algonquian 340: 37: 3312:Atkinson 1876:19. 3054:Atkinson 1876:21. 2743:on July 18, 2012. 2683:.(March 28, 2011) 2659:on March 31, 2012 2522:978-0-393-01719-9 2426:978-0-7884-2277-5 2326:978-0-8131-1907-6 2265:978-0-8131-1772-0 2235:978-0-87049-647-9 2208:978-1-177-24298-1 2181:978-1-147-40081-6 1716:George Washington 1233:Mississippi River 1118:Bacon's Rebellion 890:Bressani, titled 839:Susquehanna River 732:Mississippi River 712:Ohio River Valley 596:bottom below the 506:Lower Shawneetown 401:Fox-Sauk-Kickapoo 363:Algonquian groups 225:Lower Shawneetown 127: 126: 82:African-Americans 3519: 3439: 3436: 3430: 3427: 3421: 3418: 3412: 3409: 3403: 3400: 3394: 3391: 3385: 3382: 3376: 3373: 3367: 3364: 3358: 3355: 3349: 3346: 3340: 3337: 3331: 3328: 3322: 3319: 3313: 3310: 3304: 3300: 3294: 3291: 3285: 3282: 3276: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3259: 3253: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3243:on March 1, 2019 3239:. Archived from 3233: 3227: 3224: 3218: 3215: 3209: 3206: 3200: 3189: 3183: 3156: 3150: 3147: 3141: 3136: 3130: 3127: 3121: 3118: 3112: 3109: 3103: 3100: 3094: 3091: 3085: 3074: 3068: 3061: 3055: 3052: 3046: 3043: 3037: 3034: 3028: 3025: 3019: 3016: 3010: 3004: 2998: 2995: 2989: 2986: 2980: 2973: 2967: 2964: 2958: 2955: 2949: 2946: 2940: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2921:on July 24, 2011 2917:. Archived from 2910: 2904: 2901: 2895: 2892: 2886: 2885:Mooney 1894:7–8. 2883: 2877: 2870: 2864: 2858: 2852: 2849: 2843: 2840: 2834: 2831: 2822: 2819: 2810: 2809: 2808: 2788: 2782: 2781: 2780: 2760: 2754: 2751: 2745: 2744: 2739:. Archived from 2733: 2727: 2726: 2724: 2722: 2707: 2694: 2690: 2684: 2682: 2676: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2655:. Archived from 2648: 2642: 2639: 2633: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2617: 2606: 2600: 2594: 2591: 2585: 2584: 2570: 2564: 2563: 2561: 2559: 2550:. Archived from 2542:Burns, Louis F. 2539: 2530: 2529: 2510: 2500: 2494: 2484: 2478: 2475: 2469: 2462: 2456: 2444: 2438: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2410: 2404: 2401: 2395: 2392: 2386: 2383: 2377: 2374: 2368: 2365: 2359: 2355: 2349: 2346: 2340: 2337: 2331: 2330: 2312: 2306: 2305: 2286: 2276: 2270: 2269: 2249: 2240: 2239: 2219: 2213: 2212: 2192: 2186: 2185: 2165: 2159: 2158: 2150: 2144: 2108: 2102: 2099: 2093: 2090: 2084: 2081: 2075: 2072: 2063: 2062: 2060: 2058: 2045:Walbert, David. 2042: 2036: 2035: 2019: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1980: 1974: 1973: 1971: 1969: 1954: 1948: 1947: 1937: 1931: 1930: 1928: 1926: 1915: 1909: 1908: 1902: 1898:"Little Ice Age" 1893: 1887: 1886: 1884: 1882: 1867: 1703:who relocate to 1648:Augustin Herrman 1586:Guyandotte River 1417:Oniasantkeronons 1305:Muscogee (Creek) 1255:William Berkeley 1025:Siouan languages 998:region south of 761:. The extent of 759:Native Americans 726:(Akansea) & 631:Iroquoian groups 519:Like the Cisca ( 478:Cumberland River 407:, and excluding 324:Greenbrier River 119: 112: 105: 61:(before 17th c.) 39: 38: 3527: 3526: 3522: 3521: 3520: 3518: 3517: 3516: 3487: 3486: 3464:Wayback Machine 3447: 3442: 3437: 3433: 3429:Barbour, I:231. 3428: 3424: 3419: 3415: 3410: 3406: 3401: 3397: 3392: 3388: 3383: 3379: 3374: 3370: 3366:Hanna 1911:158. 3365: 3361: 3356: 3352: 3347: 3343: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3307: 3301: 3297: 3292: 3288: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3270: 3261: 3260: 3256: 3246: 3244: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3225: 3221: 3216: 3212: 3207: 3203: 3190: 3186: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3137: 3133: 3128: 3124: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3106: 3101: 3097: 3092: 3088: 3075: 3071: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3022: 3017: 3013: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2992: 2987: 2983: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2961: 2956: 2952: 2947: 2943: 2938: 2934: 2924: 2922: 2913: 2911: 2907: 2902: 2898: 2894:Mooney 1894:32. 2893: 2889: 2884: 2880: 2872:Hantman in his 2871: 2867: 2859: 2855: 2850: 2846: 2842:Mooney 1894:28. 2841: 2837: 2832: 2825: 2820: 2813: 2789: 2785: 2761: 2757: 2752: 2748: 2735: 2734: 2730: 2720: 2718: 2708: 2697: 2691: 2687: 2670: 2669: 2662: 2660: 2653:"Archived copy" 2651: 2649: 2645: 2640: 2636: 2626: 2624: 2619: 2618: 2609: 2601: 2597: 2592: 2588: 2571: 2567: 2557: 2555: 2540: 2533: 2523: 2501: 2497: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2472: 2463: 2459: 2454:Wayback Machine 2445: 2441: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2411: 2407: 2402: 2398: 2394:JR: 47:145–147. 2393: 2389: 2384: 2380: 2375: 2371: 2366: 2362: 2356: 2352: 2347: 2343: 2338: 2334: 2327: 2313: 2309: 2299: 2277: 2273: 2266: 2250: 2243: 2236: 2220: 2216: 2209: 2193: 2189: 2182: 2166: 2162: 2151: 2147: 2111:Joseph Le Caron 2109: 2105: 2100: 2096: 2091: 2087: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2066: 2056: 2054: 2043: 2039: 2032: 2007: 2003: 1993: 1991: 1981: 1977: 1967: 1965: 1955: 1951: 1938: 1934: 1924: 1922: 1917: 1916: 1912: 1900: 1894: 1890: 1880: 1878: 1868: 1855: 1851: 1829:. According to 1803:Virginia Colony 1763:Trade from the 1745: 1724:Marshall County 1696: 1684:Montreal Island 1616: 1611: 1598: 1545:Iroquois League 1537: 1476: 1459:West Virginia. 1437:Salem, Virginia 1419: 1349:Chief Cornstalk 1325: 1282:) on the upper 1275: 1213: 1193: 1126: 1093: 1061: 1037:Tutelo language 1033:Biloxi language 1016: 965:white tail deer 931: 879: 863:Allegany County 815:Andastoerrhonon 783: 736:Robert La Salle 714:in present-day 633: 613:Burnsville Lake 429: 409:Cree-Montagnais 365: 307: 301: 299:Historic groups 265:de Soto Entrada 177: 154: 123: 27: 24: 12: 11: 5: 3525: 3515: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3499: 3485: 3484: 3478: 3473: 3467: 3454: 3446: 3445:External links 3443: 3441: 3440: 3431: 3422: 3413: 3404: 3395: 3386: 3377: 3368: 3359: 3350: 3341: 3332: 3323: 3314: 3305: 3295: 3286: 3277: 3268: 3254: 3228: 3219: 3210: 3201: 3184: 3151: 3142: 3131: 3122: 3113: 3104: 3095: 3086: 3069: 3056: 3047: 3038: 3029: 3020: 3018:Eugene Scheel. 3011: 2999: 2990: 2981: 2968: 2959: 2950: 2941: 2932: 2905: 2896: 2887: 2878: 2865: 2853: 2844: 2835: 2823: 2811: 2783: 2771:(4): 738–742, 2755: 2746: 2728: 2695: 2685: 2643: 2634: 2607: 2595: 2586: 2565: 2531: 2521: 2495: 2479: 2470: 2457: 2439: 2425: 2405: 2396: 2387: 2378: 2369: 2360: 2350: 2348:Cuoq Lex Iroq. 2341: 2332: 2325: 2307: 2298:978-0813118543 2297: 2271: 2264: 2241: 2234: 2214: 2207: 2187: 2180: 2160: 2145: 2103: 2094: 2085: 2076: 2064: 2037: 2030: 2001: 1975: 1949: 1932: 1910: 1888: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1815:William Byrd I 1811:eastern Siouan 1796:Potomac Valley 1777:Chesapeake Bay 1744: 1743:Virginia trade 1741: 1705:Fort St. Louis 1695: 1694:New York trade 1692: 1664:Neutral Nation 1615: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1597: 1594: 1566:Chesapeake Bay 1536: 1535:Tionontatacaga 1533: 1521:George Croghan 1509:Cherokee Falls 1475: 1472: 1418: 1415: 1324: 1321: 1295:. The ancient 1289:Savannah River 1274: 1271: 1237:Gulf of Mexico 1229:Gulf of Mexico 1221:North Carolina 1212: 1209: 1205:Gulf of Mexico 1192: 1189: 1125: 1122: 1092: 1089: 1060: 1057: 1015: 1012: 1004:Neutral Nation 980:drainage basin 946:including the 935:Neutral Nation 930: 927: 907:Nation de Chat 878: 875: 857:counties) and 782: 779: 763:proto-Iroquoia 641:Archaeological 632: 629: 617:Braxton County 482:Savannah River 428: 425: 397:Miami-Illinois 364: 361: 300: 297: 270:Gulf of Mexico 229:Hardin Village 179:Groups of the 176: 173: 169:Little Ice Age 153: 150: 125: 124: 122: 121: 114: 107: 99: 96: 95: 94: 93: 77: 72: 70:U.S. Civil War 67: 62: 56: 46: 45: 25: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3524: 3513: 3510: 3508: 3505: 3503: 3500: 3498: 3495: 3494: 3492: 3482: 3479: 3477: 3474: 3471: 3468: 3465: 3461: 3458: 3455: 3452: 3449: 3448: 3435: 3426: 3417: 3408: 3399: 3390: 3381: 3372: 3363: 3354: 3345: 3336: 3327: 3318: 3309: 3299: 3290: 3281: 3272: 3264: 3258: 3242: 3238: 3232: 3223: 3214: 3205: 3198: 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Shawnese ( 1350: 1346: 1337: 1329: 1320: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1285: 1284:Holston River 1281: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1241:Holston River 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1208: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1138:Holston River 1130: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1102: 1097: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1065: 1056: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1014:Siouan groups 1011: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 981: 976: 972: 970: 966: 962: 957: 953: 949: 944: 943:Attiwandaronk 940: 936: 926: 924: 920: 916: 915:Rechahecrians 912: 908: 904: 900: 895: 893: 883: 874: 872: 868: 867:Potomac River 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 843:West Virginia 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 799:Susquehannock 792: 787: 781:Susquehannock 778: 776: 772: 768: 767:proto-Shanwan 764: 760: 756: 751: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 688: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 653:Huron-Wyandot 650: 646: 642: 638: 628: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 605: 603: 599: 598:Kanawha Falls 595: 590: 586: 582: 578: 569: 565: 563: 559: 558:Scioto valley 554: 549: 547: 543: 538: 533: 530: 526: 522: 517: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 446: 438: 433: 424: 422: 418: 417:Haudenosaunee 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 360: 356: 354: 350: 346: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 311: 306: 296: 295: 289: 286: 281: 279: 275: 271: 266: 261: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 221: 219: 215: 214:Nodena phases 211: 207: 203: 202:shell gorgets 199: 194: 190: 186: 182: 172: 170: 165: 163: 159: 149: 147: 141: 138: 137: 136:West Virginia 133: 132:protohistoric 120: 115: 113: 108: 106: 101: 100: 98: 97: 92: 91: 87: 83: 78: 76: 73: 71: 68: 66: 63: 60: 57: 55: 54: 50: 49: 48: 47: 44: 41: 40: 33: 29: 23: 19: 3512:Protohistory 3434: 3425: 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