2304:, kept livestock such dogs, pigs, and chickens, and thrived mostly in estuarine rather than coastal environments. At 4,500 B.P., this "Neolithic package" suddenly arrived in Indochina from the Lingnan area without cereal grains and displaced the earlier pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer cultures, with grain husks found in northern Indochina by 4,100 B.P. and in southern Indochina by 3,800 B.P. However, Sidwell found that iron is not reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic, since each Austroasiatic branch has different terms for iron that had been borrowed relatively lately from Tai, Chinese, Tibetan, Malay, and other languages. During the
2339:(2018) suggests that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies (such as boats, waterways, river fauna, and fish capture techniques) can be reconstructed for Proto-Austroasiatic. Blench (2018) finds widespread Austroasiatic roots for 'river, valley', 'boat', 'fish', 'catfish sp.', 'eel', 'prawn', 'shrimp' (Central Austroasiatic), 'crab', 'tortoise', 'turtle', 'otter', 'crocodile', 'heron, fishing bird', and '
2351:, whose speakers had a distinct non-riverine culture. In addition to living an aquatic-based lifestyle, early Austroasiatic speakers would have also had access to livestock, crops, and newer types of watercraft. As early Austroasiatic speakers dispersed rapidly via waterways, they would have encountered speakers of older language families who were already settled in the area, such as Sino-Tibetan.
2347:(northern Vietnam, Laos, and other nearby areas) dates back to only about 4,000 years B.P. (2,000 B.C.), with agriculture ultimately being introduced from further up to the north in the Yangtze valley where it has been dated to 6,000 B.P. Hence, this points to a relatively late riverine dispersal of Austroasiatic as compared to
2333:
into an early and late stratum. The early stratum consists of basic lexicon including body parts, animal names, natural features, and pronouns, while the names of cultural items (agriculture terms and words for cultural artifacts, which are reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic) form part of the later stratum.
2332:
Paul
Sidwell (2018) considers the Austroasiatic language family to have rapidly diversified around 4,000 years B.P. during the arrival of rice agriculture in Indochina, but notes that the origin of Proto-Austroasiatic itself is older than that date. The lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic can be divided
1317:
or minor syllable prefixes). Blench (2012) does not make any definitive conclusions about how these similarities could have arisen, but suggests that this typological diffusion might have come about as a result of intensive contact in an area between northern
Vietnam, Laos, and northeast Myanmar.
2328:
branch (dating to about 3,000 B.P.) underwent more extensive internal diversification. By the Iron Age, all of the
Austroasiatic branches were more or less in their present-day locations, with most of the diversification within Austroasiatic taking place during the Iron Age.
2224:
as likely homeland of proto-Austroasiatic before they migrated to other parts of central and southern China and then into
Southeast Asia. He further suggests that the family must be as old as proto-Austronesian and proto-Sino-Tibetan or even older.
2358:
area about 4,000-4,500 years before present. Austroasiatic dispersed coastal maritime routes and also upstream through river valleys. Khmuic, Palaungic, and Khasic resulted from a westward dispersal that ultimately came from the
2276:, with the subsequent Mekong riverine dispersal taking place after the initial arrival of Neolithic farmers from southern China. He tentatively suggests that Austroasiatic may have begun to split up 5,000 years B.P. during the
2263:
Integrating computational phylogenetic linguistics with recent archaeological findings, Paul
Sidwell (2015) further expanded his Mekong riverine hypothesis by proposing that Austroasiatic had ultimately expanded into
2239:
people from Taiwan replaced the original
Austroasiatic language but the effect on the people was only minor. Local Austroasiatic speakers adopted Kra-Dai languages and partially their culture.
2216:(2011) criticized Sidwell's 2009 riverine dispersal hypothesis heavily and claimed many contradictions. He showed with his analysis that the homeland of Austroasiatic is somewhere near the
967:
Sidwell & Rau (2015) reconstructs 8 Proto-Austroasiatic vowels, for which there is vowel length contrast. A long vowel will be appended with triangular colon (ː) instead of doubling.
2769:
2641:
2300:. Both the reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic and the archaeological record clearly show that early Austroasiatic speakers around 4,000 B.P. cultivated rice and
2363:
valley. Based on their current distributions, about half of all
Austroasiatic branches (including Nicobaric and Munda) can be traced to coastal maritime dispersals.
2186:
2072:
2284:, with all the major branches of Austroasiatic formed by 4,000 B.P. Austroasiatic would have had two possible dispersal routes from the western periphery of the
1162:
Common word structures in Proto-Austroasiatic include *CV(C) and *CCV(C) roots. *CVC roots can also be affixed either via prefixes or infixes, as in *C-CVC or *C
2941:
Y-chromosome diversity suggests southern origin and
Paleolithic backwave migration of Austro- Asiatic speakers from eastern Asia to the Indian subcontinent OPEN
2545:
2094:
3513:
2523:
Sidwell, Paul and Felix Rau (2015). "Austroasiatic
Comparative-Historical Reconstruction: An Overview." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015).
1791:
Proto-Austroasiatic personal pronouns determiners, and particles are as follows, with reconstructions from
Sidwell & Rau (2015) and Shorto (2006).
2938:
Zhang, Xiaoming; Liao, Shiyu; Qi, Xuebin; Liu, Jiewei; Kampuansai, Jatupol; Zhang, Hui; Yang, Zhaohui; Serey, Bun; Tuot, Sovannary (20 October 2015).
3116:
1313:(2012) notes that Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan share many similarities regarding word structure, particularly nominal affixes (otherwise known as
3638:
2766:
204:, which are not well documented, and have been restructured through external language contact, have not been included in the reconstructions.
200:. However, Mon–Khmer as a taxon has been abandoned in recent classifications, making Proto-Mon–Khmer synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic; the
3085:
3006:
2638:
712:
Sidwell & Rau (2015) reconstruct 21-22 Proto-Austroasiatic consonants (the reconstruction of *ʄ is uncertain). Sidwell (2024) adds *ɕ.
3071:
3054:
2235:
is the likely homeland of the Austroasiatic languages and people. He further suggested, based on genetic studies, that the migration of
3518:
2420:
Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society: Papers from the 30th Conference of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (2021)
730:
All of the Proto-Austroasiatic unvoiced stops and voiced stops, as well as *m-, *N-, *r-, *l-, and *s-, can occur as presyllables or
3530:
2958:. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, held May 17–19, 2018 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
2256:
Genetic and linguistic research in 2015 about ancient people in East Asia suggest an origin and homeland of Austroasiatic in today
2973:
2864:
1354:
3109:
1377:
Below are some Proto-Austroasiatic words relating to animals, plants, agriculture, and material culture from Sidwell (2024).
2731:
2231:(2011) proposed that the homeland of Austroasiatic is somewhere in southern China. He suggested that the region around the
685:
Also possible are more complex forms with prefixes and infixes, as well as presyllable "coda-copying" from main syllables.
2611:
Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia
2164:
2127:
2116:
2083:
2068:
2057:
3038:
2980:, 174-193. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society Special Publication No. 3. University of Hawaiʻi Press.
2871:, 101-131. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society Special Publication No. 3. University of Hawaiʻi Press.
1200:#kil- 'bird, flying animal' (nominal class for birds and flying animals; cf. Old Mon <kil'āk>, <kil'ek>)
4947:
3102:
2542:
2639:
The origins of nominal affixes in Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan: convergence, contact and some African parallels
3014:
JSEALS Special Publication No. 8: Papers from the 30th Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (2021)
2652:
workshop, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany, 29 November - 1 December 2012. (
1187:
Hiroz (2024) proposes disyllabic forms for some Proto-Austroasiatic etyma. A few tentative reconstructions are:
3892:
3211:
2653:
2552:. Presentation at the Graduate Institute of Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, May 22, 2018.
2382:"Re-evaluating Shorto's Austroasiatic Reconstructions ("Will the Real Austroasiatic Etyma Please Stand Up?")"
1047:
Sidwell (2023) proposes a nine-vowel system for Proto-Austroasiatic, with short and long vowels as follows.
4522:
4483:
3525:
3368:
3047:. 2008. "Issues in the morphological reconstruction of Proto-Mon–Khmer." In Bowern, Claire, et al. (eds).
2805:
Essai de phonétique historique du khmer (Du milieu du premier millénaire de notre ère à l'époque actuelle)
2665:
Jenny, Mathias. 2015. Syntactic diversity and change in Austroasiatic languages. In Viti, Carlotta (ed.).
953:
929:
917:
908:
892:
887:
882:
877:
860:
854:
849:
835:
830:
825:
820:
808:
803:
798:
793:
788:
638:
631:
623:
616:
599:
592:
584:
577:
569:
562:
547:
540:
530:
523:
451:
443:
420:
416:
397:
389:
374:
368:
362:
356:
322:
316:
310:
304:
291:
285:
279:
273:
267:
1349:(2018) suggests that Proto-Austroasiatic may have in fact been verb-initial, with SVO order occurring in
1331:
2568:. ICAAL 11 (11th International Conference on Austroasiatic Linguistics, Chiang Mai 26-27 October 2023).
4308:
2852:
Proto-Aslian: towards an understanding of its historical linguistic systems, principles and processes
189:
108:
2991:
2292:, which would have been either a coastal route down the coast of Vietnam, or downstream through the
4952:
4874:
3807:
1339:
1335:
84:
3082:
2149:
4098:
3125:
2281:
1166:
VC (Shorto 2006). Sidwell (2008) gives the following phonological shapes for two types of stems.
197:
193:
112:
37:
2042:
115:. Proto-Mon–Khmer (i.e., all Austroasiatic branches except for Munda) has been reconstructed in
4881:
4815:
3828:
3802:
2649:
2348:
2138:
2134:
79:
2506:
2209:
region, and that the family is not as old as frequently assumed, dating to perhaps 2,000 BCE.
4924:
4888:
4820:
2821:
2236:
2175:
1240:
The following Proto-Mon–Khmer affixes, which are still tentative, have been reconstructed by
924:
74:
3537:
2804:
2415:
1217:
Sidwell (2008) considers the two most morphologically conservative Mon–Khmer branches to be
4895:
4450:
4045:
2828:. Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University. pp. 428-478.
2277:
2182:
1366:
8:
4697:
3964:
3508:
3343:
3333:
3076:
2285:
2232:
2064:
1597:
1590:
1552:
1226:
901:
844:
716:
433:
331:
142:
2613:, 22–23 June 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
1357:. Various modern-day Austroasiatic languages display verb-initial word order, including
4683:
4576:
4111:
4083:
3865:
3542:
3171:
3138:
2924:. (2011). Rice and the Austroasiatic and Hmong-Mien homelands. In N. J. Enfield (Ed.),
2854:. Ph.D. thesis, Institut Alam Dan Tamadun Melayu Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi.
2325:
2123:
761:
666:
and Felix Rau (2015) propose the following syllable structure for Proto-Austroasiatic.
239:
2894:
2625:
Proto-Austroasiatic disyllables: Reconstructing vowel qualities in non-final syllables
2160:
704:
The Proto-Austroasiatic word template was later revised as follows by Sidwell (2023).
4825:
4781:
4771:
4692:
4616:
4491:
4423:
4017:
3929:
3731:
3726:
3430:
3034:
2939:
2478:
2435:
2090:
776:
766:
298:
261:
254:
244:
4641:
4116:
4724:
4702:
4673:
4626:
4562:
4550:
4527:
4501:
4496:
4473:
4303:
4287:
4277:
4267:
4167:
4035:
3995:
3934:
3904:
3759:
3666:
3617:
3490:
3391:
3302:
3297:
3257:
3237:
2921:
2736:
2627:. SEALS 33 (33rd Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistic Society). Taipei.
2582:. SEALS 33 (33rd Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistic Society). Taipei.
2427:
2389:
2360:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2228:
2171:
2145:
2112:
2101:
2079:
2049:
1702:
1230:
1222:
1218:
946:
756:
408:
234:
94:
123:, while a new Proto-Austroasiatic reconstruction is currently being undertaken by
4758:
4657:
4652:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4468:
4339:
4257:
4252:
4194:
4121:
4088:
3844:
3812:
3736:
3700:
3607:
3467:
3328:
3262:
3247:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3166:
3161:
3089:
2773:
2645:
2549:
2355:
2202:
2156:
2038:
1664:
771:
249:
208:
201:
150:
149:
valley. Sidwell (2022) proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was in the
116:
3206:
2992:
Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic
2974:
Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic
2393:
4918:
4855:
4810:
4794:
4789:
4707:
4647:
4635:
4586:
4581:
4571:
4407:
4402:
4386:
4381:
4371:
4355:
4242:
4219:
4142:
4137:
4068:
4060:
4000:
3979:
3919:
3633:
3446:
3348:
3338:
3318:
3242:
3216:
3181:
3176:
2880:
2321:
2308:
about 2,500 B.P., relatively young Austroasiatic branches in Indochina such as
2273:
2246:
2242:
1531:
1469:
1314:
815:
783:
731:
720:
3019:
4941:
4832:
4376:
4282:
4272:
4247:
4162:
4073:
3924:
3860:
3777:
3716:
3684:
3643:
3591:
3576:
3568:
3558:
3462:
3323:
3292:
3272:
3232:
2978:
Papers from the Seventh International Conference on Austroasiatic Linguistics
2869:
Papers from the Seventh International Conference on Austroasiatic Linguistics
2841:(Monic Language Studies 1). Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Printing House.
2482:
2439:
2221:
2105:
1358:
1327:
1234:
984:
503:
3029:
Shorto, Harry L. Sidwell, Paul, Doug Cooper and Christian Bauer, eds. 2006.
2767:
The Katuic Languages: classification, reconstruction and comparative lexicon
4766:
4517:
4106:
4040:
3950:
3721:
3612:
3586:
3581:
3414:
3409:
3252:
3156:
3044:
2740:
2607:
Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic
2431:
2336:
2293:
2206:
2198:
2053:
1545:
1346:
1310:
1241:
663:
168:
146:
124:
3094:
1044:
Proto-Austroasiatic diphthongs are *iə and *uə, and possibly *ie and *uo.
4262:
4078:
4050:
4025:
3267:
2354:
Sidwell (2021) proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was in the
2257:
2213:
1362:
996:
979:
515:
498:
89:
2791:
2717:
2700:
2683:
4611:
4030:
2343:'. Archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture in northern
1521:
1462:
1027:
989:
872:
606:
508:
350:
1177:: <R> is one of the optional medial consonants /r, l, j, w, h/.)
2466:
2344:
2340:
2265:
1709:
1350:
1011:
647:
554:
383:
220:
212:
2826:
Southeast Asian Linguistic Studies Presented to Andre-G. Haudricourt
2414:
Sidwell, Paul (28 January 2022). Alves, Mark; Sidwell, Paul (eds.).
2386:
10th International Conference on Austroasiatic Linguistics (ICAAL10)
2381:
2249:(2013) supported the theory of an origin of Austroasiatic along the
2305:
1630:
1604:
1261:
Nominalizing iterative (expressive of repetitiveness/numerousness)
1237:
and has lost many morphological features found in Proto-Mon–Khmer.
3033:. Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics.
2956:
Austroasiatic deep chronology and the problem of cultural lexicon
2289:
2269:
2250:
2217:
1477:
2926:
Dynamics of Human Diversity: The Case of Mainland Southeast Asia
2650:
Mainland Southeast Asian Languages: The State of the Art in 2012
3066:
2301:
2297:
1611:
2895:"Some thoughts on the problem of the Austro-Asiatic homeland"
1616:
1559:
1538:
460:
216:
1671:
1394:
1334:, or verb-medial, order. Proto-Mon–Khmer also makes use of
3049:
Morphology and language history: in honour of Harold Koch
1978:
Sidwell (2024) revises the personal pronouns as follows.
1452:
3007:"Austroasiatic Dispersal: the AA "Water-World" Extended"
2416:"Austroasiatic Dispersal: the AA "Water-World" Extended"
2407:
2477:(1). Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press: i–xxxiii.
715:
All of the Proto-Austroasiatic consonants except for
16:
Reconstructed ancestor of the Austroasiatic languages
2137:: Sidwell & Rau (2015), based on Ferlus (1992) (
2033:
Austroasiatic branch-level reconstructions include:
2471:Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society
130:Scholars generally date the ancestral language to
2566:How to reconstruct the Proto-Austroasiatic Vowels
219:, which can be lengthened and glottalized, and 3
4939:
2519:
2517:
2515:
167:500 Proto-Austroasiatic etyma were published by
2881:Family Diversity and the Austroasiatic Homeland
2543:Austroasiatic Studies: state of the art in 2018
2324:were formed, while the more internally diverse
2937:
1695:*raːm, *rɨːm 'clearing (for swidden) (n., v.)'
3110:
2968:
2966:
2964:
2928:(pp. 361-390). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
2822:Proto-Pearic and the classification of Pearic
2732:A preliminary reconstruction of Proto-Pakanic
2601:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2560:
2558:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2512:
2507:The Austroasiatic Central Riverine Hypothesis
2501:
2499:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2844:
2467:"500 Proto Austroasiatic Etyma: Version 1.0"
2379:
2148:: Sidwell & Rau (2015); Headley (1985) (
1252:(instrumental in Kammu, resultative in Khmu)
745:) are *-w -, *-r -, *-l -, *-j -, and *-h-.
3124:
2998:
2839:The Dvaravati-Old Mon Language and Nyah Kur
2814:
969:
658:
488:
3117:
3103:
2983:
2961:
2586:
2555:
2530:
2496:
2453:
1229:morphology is far more similar to that of
2380:Alves, Mark; Sidwell, Paul James (2022).
2028:
47:Southern China or northern Southeast Asia
3072:Mon–Khmer.com: Lectures by Paul Sidwell
3055:Mon–Khmer.com: Lectures by Paul Sidwell
3004:
2580:Proto-Austroasiatic fricative onset *ɕ-
2577:
2525:The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages
2464:
2413:
2193:
1369:also displays verb-initial word order.
1355:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area
4940:
3083:Classifications of Mon–Khmer languages
2995:. Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.
2892:
2824:." In Suriya Ratanakult et al (eds.),
4853:
4746:
4548:
4448:
4192:
3890:
3757:
3664:
3488:
3389:
3136:
3098:
2669:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 317–340.
2622:
2697:Preliminary Notes on Proto Palaungic
207:Proto-Mon–Khmer as reconstructed by
196:, a purported primary branch of the
4854:
3891:
2753:Lexique de racines Proto Viet-Muong
1715:*ɟ<mp>iər 'blow, winnow (v.)'
13:
4923:Languages between parentheses are
3514:Northern, Thanh Hóa, Huế, Southern
3031:A Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary
2609:. Paper presented at the workshop
14:
4964:
4821:Western Khmer (Chanthaburi Khmer)
3060:
2667:Perspectives on historical syntax
2201:(2009) suggested that the likely
1786:
1692:*ɟ<m>ɔːlˀ 'plant seed (v.)'
1157:
2902:Journal of Language Relationship
1741:*Cdaŋ 'walling/fencing material'
179:
121:Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary
3051:. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
2948:
2931:
2915:
2886:
2874:
2857:
2831:
2797:
2792:Mon-Khmer Etymological Database
2780:
2758:
2745:
2723:
2718:Mon-Khmer Etymological Database
2706:
2701:Mon-Khmer Etymological Database
2689:
2684:Mon-Khmer Etymological Database
2672:
2659:
2631:
2616:
749:Proto-Austroasiatic consonants
723:can occur as syllable finals (C
225:
4927:of the language on their left.
4449:
3067:Mon–Khmer languages at SEAlang
3016:. University of Hawai’i Press.
2571:
2509:. Keynote address, SEALS, XIX.
2373:
1:
2366:
1961:'used up, finished, lacking'
1502:*racˀ, *rəcˀ 'sparrow, swift'
1212:
198:Austroasiatic language family
154:
131:
55:
4816:Northern Khmer (Surin Khmer)
3137:
2041:: Sidwell & Rau (2015) (
1732:*ɗuːŋ 'home, clan territory'
1427:*mɔːs; *(s/c)macˀ 'mosquito'
1025:
1009:
994:
944:
922:
899:
870:
842:
813:
781:
604:
552:
513:
431:
406:
381:
348:
329:
296:
259:
174:
7:
2850:Phillips, Timothy C. 2012.
2394:10.13140/RG.2.2.22170.72645
1735:*ɟraŋ, *ɟrɔŋ 'post, pillar'
1698:*kacˀ 'pluck, harvest (v.)'
1583:*(k)ɗiŋ 'bamboo tube/joint'
1574:*ɟɕɨːˀ, *ɟɕeːˀ 'tree, wood'
971:Proto-Austroasiatic vowels
459:Proto-Mon–Khmer is rich in
227:Proto-Mon–Khmer consonants
69:Lower-order reconstructions
10:
4969:
4747:
4549:
3758:
3665:
3489:
3390:
2865:Proto-Nicobarese phonology
2820:Headley, Robert K. 1985. "
1888:Interrogative (inanimate)
1433:*plɨːm 'leech (land type)'
1372:
1353:due to convergence in the
1271:Nominalizing instrumental
4909:
4862:
4849:
4803:
4780:
4757:
4753:
4742:
4716:
4682:
4666:
4625:
4561:
4557:
4544:
4510:
4482:
4461:
4457:
4444:
4416:
4395:
4364:
4348:
4332:
4325:
4296:
4235:
4228:
4212:
4205:
4201:
4193:
4188:
4155:
4130:
4097:
4059:
4016:
4009:
3988:
3972:
3963:
3943:
3912:
3903:
3899:
3886:
3853:
3837:
3821:
3795:
3786:
3770:
3766:
3753:
3709:
3693:
3677:
3673:
3660:
3626:
3600:
3567:
3551:
3501:
3497:
3484:
3455:
3439:
3423:
3402:
3398:
3385:
3361:
3311:
3288:
3281:
3225:
3149:
3145:
3132:
2883:, Paul Sidwell (abstract)
2755:. Unpublished manuscript.
2648:. Paper presented at the
2644:21 September 2018 at the
2623:Hiroz, Nathaniel (2024).
2203:homeland of Austroasiatic
1340:serial verb constructions
1330:, Proto-Mon–Khmer has an
1321:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1003:
1000:
995:
988:
983:
978:
975:
961:
959:
957:
952:
950:
941:
939:
936:
933:
928:
916:
914:
912:
907:
905:
896:
891:
886:
881:
876:
867:
865:
858:
853:
848:
839:
834:
829:
824:
819:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
627:
612:
610:
605:
588:
573:
558:
553:
536:
534:
519:
514:
507:
502:
497:
494:
449:
447:
441:
439:
437:
428:
426:
424:
414:
412:
403:
401:
395:
393:
387:
378:
372:
366:
360:
354:
345:
343:
341:
338:
335:
326:
320:
314:
308:
302:
289:
283:
277:
271:
265:
253:
248:
243:
238:
233:
211:(2006) has a total of 21
145:in southern China or the
68:
51:
43:
33:
28:
23:
3088:18 December 2018 at the
2837:Diffloth, Gérard. 1984.
2777:. Munich: Lincom Europa.
2067:: Sidwell (2010, 2015) (
1877:Interrogative (animate)
1718:*pɨkˀ 'winnow, fan (v.)'
1680:*ɟ<nr>eːˀ 'pestle'
1403:*klɔʔ 'shellfish, snail'
1244:(Sidwell 2008:257-263).
1206:#kil-láːŋ 'bird of prey'
659:Sidwell & Rau (2015)
186:Proto-Mon–Khmer language
4948:Austroasiatic languages
3845:Somray (Northern Chong)
3126:Austroasiatic languages
2772:4 December 2020 at the
2282:mainland Southeast Asia
2260:or even further north.
1689:*tɨːl 'plant, sow (v.)'
1686:*kʦaɕ, *kcah 'charcoal'
490:Proto-Mon–Khmer vowels
113:Austroasiatic languages
38:Austroasiatic languages
3005:Sidwell, Paul (2022).
2803:Ferlus, Michel. 1992.
2751:Ferlus, Michel. 2007.
2741:10.5281/zenodo.1127812
2578:Sidwell, Paul (2024).
2505:Sidwell, Paul (2009).
2465:Sidwell, Paul (2024).
2432:10.5281/zenodo.5773247
2029:Branch reconstructions
1639:*ɟmɨːˀ 'creeper, vine'
1511:*rwaːjˀ 'tiger spirit'
1255:Nominalizing agentive
34:Reconstruction of
2989:Blench, Roger. 2017.
2972:Blench, Roger. 2018.
2954:Sidwell, Paul. 2018.
2893:Peiros, Ilia (2011).
2863:Sidwell, Paul. 2018.
2786:Sidwell, Paul. 2011.
2764:Sidwell, Paul. 2005.
2712:Sidwell, Paul. 2013.
2695:Sidwell, Paul. 2010.
2678:Sidwell, Paul. 2012.
2637:Blench, Roger. 2012.
2605:Sidwell, Paul. 2015.
2564:Sidwell, Paul. 2023.
2541:Sidwell, Paul. 2018.
1747:*ksɛːʔ 'string, cord'
1738:*puːŋ, *poaŋ 'window'
1657:*rŋkoːˀ 'husked rice'
1651:*srɔ(ː)ʔ 'paddy rice'
1580:*tɓaŋ 'bamboo shoots'
1577:*Clɔːŋ 'tree (trunk)'
1436:*tɟuːˀ, *tɟoːˀ 'worm'
1409:*s<m>uːcˀ 'ant'
1225:. On the other hand,
2729:Hsiu, Andrew. 2016.
2278:Neolithic transition
2194:Origin and dispersal
1956:Proto-Austroasiatic
1909:Proto-Austroasiatic
1894:*məh/*m(o)ʔ; *m(o)h
1806:Proto-Austroasiatic
1660:*skaːmˀ 'bran, husk'
1654:*ɓa(ː)ʔ 'paddy rice'
1496:*klaːŋ 'eagle, hawk'
1421:*ʔɔːŋ 'wasp, hornet'
1390:*ʔmrəɲˀ 'body louse'
741:Medial consonants (C
476:*i, *-iʔ, *ii, *-iiʔ
4868:Proto-Austroasiatic
4523:Southern Nicobarese
3913:Khasi-Pnar-Lyngngam
3077:Mon–Khmer languages
3020:Video presentation)
2253:in southern China.
2233:Pearl River (China)
2174:: Phillips (2012) (
1949:
1902:
1796:
1517:*kneːˀ 'rat, mouse'
1487:*ʔrɔkˀ 'frog, toad'
1406:*kʔiːpˀ 'centipede'
1197:#kujáːl 'wind, air'
1100:
1052:
972:
750:
491:
228:
194:Mon–Khmer languages
105:Proto-Austroasiatic
24:Proto-Austroasiatic
2548:3 May 2019 at the
2220:. He suggests the
2185:: Sidwell (2018) (
2126:: Sidwell (2011) (
2115:: Sidwell (2005) (
2082:: Sidwell (2013) (
1947:
1930:'this (proximal)'
1900:
1794:
1744:*taːɲ 'weave (v.)'
1558:*car; *cɔŋ, *cəŋ '
1527:*prɔːkˀ 'squirrel'
1412:*ksuːˀ 'red (ant)'
1098:
1050:
970:
902:Unvoiced Fricative
748:
489:
463:. The vowels are:
226:
4935:
4934:
4919:extinct languages
4905:
4904:
4845:
4844:
4841:
4840:
4738:
4737:
4734:
4733:
4540:
4539:
4536:
4535:
4440:
4439:
4436:
4435:
4432:
4431:
4321:
4320:
4317:
4316:
4184:
4183:
4180:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4151:
4150:
3959:
3958:
3882:
3881:
3878:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3749:
3748:
3745:
3744:
3656:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3480:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3381:
3380:
3377:
3376:
3357:
3356:
2922:van Driem, George
2809:Mon-Khmer Studies
2026:
2025:
1976:
1975:
1964:*ʔət; *ʔəːt; *it
1945:
1944:
1898:
1897:
1764:1. *muəjˀ, *moːjˀ
1753:*ʔaːkˀ 'bow (n.)'
1626:*ptiːɕ 'mushroom'
1586:*(kn)ɓatˀ 'grass'
1505:*mraːkˀ 'peacock'
1430:*Criːtˀ 'cricket'
1415:*ʔŋruːɲ 'termite'
1387:*ciʔ 'head louse'
1164:⟨C⟩
1155:
1154:
1096:
1095:
1042:
1041:
965:
964:
644:
643:
457:
456:
102:
101:
4960:
4851:
4850:
4755:
4754:
4744:
4743:
4559:
4558:
4546:
4545:
4459:
4458:
4446:
4445:
4330:
4329:
4233:
4232:
4210:
4209:
4203:
4202:
4190:
4189:
4014:
4013:
3970:
3969:
3910:
3909:
3901:
3900:
3888:
3887:
3793:
3792:
3768:
3767:
3755:
3754:
3675:
3674:
3662:
3661:
3522:
3499:
3498:
3486:
3485:
3400:
3399:
3387:
3386:
3286:
3285:
3147:
3146:
3134:
3133:
3119:
3112:
3105:
3096:
3095:
3022:
3017:
3011:
3002:
2996:
2987:
2981:
2970:
2959:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2935:
2929:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2899:
2890:
2884:
2878:
2872:
2861:
2855:
2848:
2842:
2835:
2829:
2818:
2812:
2801:
2795:
2784:
2778:
2762:
2756:
2749:
2743:
2727:
2721:
2710:
2704:
2693:
2687:
2676:
2670:
2663:
2657:
2635:
2629:
2628:
2620:
2614:
2603:
2584:
2583:
2575:
2569:
2562:
2553:
2539:
2528:
2527:. Leiden: Brill.
2521:
2510:
2503:
2494:
2493:
2491:
2489:
2462:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2377:
2229:George van Driem
1981:
1980:
1950:
1946:
1922:'that (medial)'
1914:'that (distal)'
1903:
1899:
1797:
1793:
1760:are as follows:
1724:Material culture
1703:winnowing basket
1683:*rŋa(ː)ʔ 'coals'
1623:*kiəl 'cucumber'
1596:*spuːˀ, *spɔːˀ '
1551:*ɟkəːɕ, *ɟkɨːɕ '
1534:, mountain goat'
1508:*kla(ː)ʔ 'tiger'
1448:*kaʔ 'fish (n.)'
1424:*roaj 'fly (n.)'
1336:noun classifiers
1203:#kil-ʔáːk 'crow'
1165:
1101:
1097:
1053:
1049:
973:
955:
931:
919:
910:
894:
889:
884:
879:
862:
856:
851:
837:
832:
827:
822:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
751:
747:
708:*(Cv(C)).ˈCVC(ˀ)
640:
633:
625:
618:
601:
594:
586:
579:
571:
564:
549:
542:
532:
525:
492:
453:
445:
422:
418:
399:
391:
376:
370:
364:
358:
324:
318:
312:
306:
293:
287:
281:
275:
269:
229:
192:ancestor of the
163:
159:
156:
140:
136:
133:
111:ancestor of the
64:
60:
57:
21:
20:
4968:
4967:
4963:
4962:
4961:
4959:
4958:
4957:
4953:Proto-languages
4938:
4937:
4936:
4931:
4930:
4901:
4875:Proto-Palaungic
4858:
4856:Proto-languages
4837:
4799:
4776:
4749:
4730:
4712:
4678:
4662:
4621:
4553:
4532:
4506:
4478:
4453:
4428:
4412:
4391:
4360:
4344:
4313:
4292:
4224:
4197:
4172:
4147:
4126:
4093:
4055:
4005:
3984:
3955:
3939:
3895:
3893:Khasi–Palaungic
3870:
3849:
3833:
3817:
3788:
3782:
3762:
3741:
3705:
3689:
3669:
3648:
3622:
3596:
3563:
3547:
3516:
3493:
3472:
3451:
3435:
3419:
3394:
3373:
3353:
3307:
3277:
3221:
3141:
3128:
3123:
3090:Wayback Machine
3063:
3026:
3025:
3009:
3003:
2999:
2988:
2984:
2971:
2962:
2953:
2949:
2936:
2932:
2920:
2916:
2906:
2904:
2897:
2891:
2887:
2879:
2875:
2862:
2858:
2849:
2845:
2836:
2832:
2819:
2815:
2802:
2798:
2785:
2781:
2774:Wayback Machine
2763:
2759:
2750:
2746:
2728:
2724:
2711:
2707:
2694:
2690:
2677:
2673:
2664:
2660:
2646:Wayback Machine
2636:
2632:
2621:
2617:
2604:
2587:
2576:
2572:
2563:
2556:
2550:Wayback Machine
2540:
2531:
2522:
2513:
2504:
2497:
2487:
2485:
2463:
2454:
2444:
2442:
2412:
2408:
2398:
2396:
2378:
2374:
2369:
2356:Red River Delta
2196:
2093:: Hsiu (2016) (
2031:
1869:'third person'
1789:
1776:6. *truʔ, *pruʔ
1721:
1708:*guːmˀ; *ʔuːm '
1642:
1591:thatching grass
1565:
1493:*ʔiər 'chicken'
1439:
1375:
1342:(Shorto 2006).
1324:
1315:sesquisyllables
1215:
1194:#kuláːʔ 'tiger'
1163:
1160:
744:
737:
732:sesquisyllables
726:
700:
696:
692:
681:
677:
673:
661:
209:Harry L. Shorto
202:Munda languages
182:
177:
162: 2000 BCE
161:
158: 2500 BCE
157:
151:Red River Delta
139: 2000 BCE
138:
135: 3000 BCE
134:
117:Harry L. Shorto
85:Proto-Palaungic
63: 2000 BCE
62:
59: 3000 BCE
58:
29:Proto-Mon–Khmer
17:
12:
11:
5:
4966:
4956:
4955:
4950:
4933:
4932:
4929:
4928:
4921:
4911:
4910:
4907:
4906:
4903:
4902:
4900:
4899:
4892:
4885:
4878:
4871:
4863:
4860:
4859:
4847:
4846:
4843:
4842:
4839:
4838:
4836:
4835:
4830:
4829:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4807:
4805:
4801:
4800:
4798:
4797:
4792:
4786:
4784:
4778:
4777:
4775:
4774:
4769:
4763:
4761:
4751:
4750:
4740:
4739:
4736:
4735:
4732:
4731:
4729:
4728:
4720:
4718:
4714:
4713:
4711:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4689:
4687:
4680:
4679:
4677:
4676:
4670:
4668:
4664:
4663:
4661:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4638:
4632:
4630:
4623:
4622:
4620:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4568:
4566:
4555:
4554:
4542:
4541:
4538:
4537:
4534:
4533:
4531:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4514:
4512:
4508:
4507:
4505:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4488:
4486:
4480:
4479:
4477:
4476:
4471:
4465:
4463:
4455:
4454:
4442:
4441:
4438:
4437:
4434:
4433:
4430:
4429:
4427:
4426:
4420:
4418:
4414:
4413:
4411:
4410:
4405:
4399:
4397:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4368:
4366:
4362:
4361:
4359:
4358:
4352:
4350:
4346:
4345:
4343:
4342:
4336:
4334:
4327:
4323:
4322:
4319:
4318:
4315:
4314:
4312:
4311:
4306:
4300:
4298:
4294:
4293:
4291:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4239:
4237:
4230:
4226:
4225:
4223:
4222:
4216:
4214:
4207:
4199:
4198:
4186:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4178:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4170:
4165:
4159:
4157:
4153:
4152:
4149:
4148:
4146:
4145:
4140:
4134:
4132:
4128:
4127:
4125:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4103:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4065:
4063:
4057:
4056:
4054:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4022:
4020:
4011:
4010:East Palaungic
4007:
4006:
4004:
4003:
3998:
3992:
3990:
3989:West Palaungic
3986:
3985:
3983:
3982:
3976:
3974:
3967:
3961:
3960:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3953:
3947:
3945:
3941:
3940:
3938:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3916:
3914:
3907:
3897:
3896:
3884:
3883:
3880:
3879:
3876:
3875:
3872:
3871:
3869:
3868:
3863:
3857:
3855:
3851:
3850:
3848:
3847:
3841:
3839:
3835:
3834:
3832:
3831:
3825:
3823:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3799:
3797:
3790:
3787:Western Pearic
3784:
3783:
3781:
3780:
3774:
3772:
3764:
3763:
3751:
3750:
3747:
3746:
3743:
3742:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3713:
3711:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3703:
3697:
3695:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3687:
3681:
3679:
3671:
3670:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3630:
3628:
3624:
3623:
3621:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3604:
3602:
3598:
3597:
3595:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3573:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3561:
3555:
3553:
3549:
3548:
3546:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3534:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3505:
3503:
3495:
3494:
3482:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3470:
3465:
3459:
3457:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3449:
3443:
3441:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3433:
3427:
3425:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3417:
3412:
3406:
3404:
3396:
3395:
3383:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3371:
3365:
3363:
3359:
3358:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3315:
3313:
3309:
3308:
3306:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3289:
3283:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3229:
3227:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3153:
3151:
3143:
3142:
3130:
3129:
3122:
3121:
3114:
3107:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3080:
3074:
3069:
3062:
3061:External links
3059:
3058:
3057:
3052:
3042:
3024:
3023:
2997:
2982:
2960:
2947:
2944:. Vol. 5.
2930:
2914:
2885:
2873:
2856:
2843:
2830:
2813:
2796:
2788:Proto Bahnaric
2779:
2757:
2744:
2722:
2705:
2688:
2671:
2658:
2630:
2615:
2585:
2570:
2554:
2529:
2511:
2495:
2452:
2406:
2371:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2274:southern China
2258:southern China
2247:Peter Bellwood
2243:Laurent Sagart
2195:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2179:
2168:
2153:
2142:
2131:
2120:
2109:
2098:
2087:
2076:
2061:
2046:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2006:
2002:
2001:
2000:*hiːˀ ~ *hɛːˀ
1998:
1995:
1991:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1974:
1973:
1970:
1966:
1965:
1962:
1958:
1957:
1954:
1953:English gloss
1943:
1942:
1939:
1935:
1934:
1931:
1927:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1910:
1907:
1906:English gloss
1896:
1895:
1892:
1889:
1885:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1851:
1850:*miːʔ/*mi(ː)ʔ
1848:
1845:
1841:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1830:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1807:
1804:
1803:English gloss
1801:
1788:
1787:Function words
1785:
1784:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1755:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1726:
1725:
1720:
1719:
1716:
1713:
1706:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1668:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1608:
1601:
1594:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1563:
1556:
1549:
1544:*poːɕ, *puəɕ '
1542:
1535:
1528:
1525:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1499:*kʔaːkˀ 'crow'
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1484:*kapˀ 'turtle'
1482:
1473:
1470:monitor lizard
1466:
1459:
1456:
1449:
1445:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1391:
1388:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1374:
1371:
1365:(Jenny 2015).
1323:
1320:
1308:
1307:
1296:
1286:
1275:
1269:
1259:
1253:
1214:
1211:
1210:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1204:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1185:
1184:
1181:Sesquisyllabic
1178:
1159:
1158:Word structure
1156:
1153:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1112:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1094:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1064:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1040:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1024:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1008:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
993:
992:
987:
982:
977:
963:
962:
960:
958:
956:
951:
949:
943:
942:
940:
938:
935:
932:
927:
921:
920:
915:
913:
911:
906:
904:
898:
897:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
869:
868:
866:
864:
857:
852:
847:
841:
840:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
812:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
786:
780:
779:
774:
769:
764:
759:
754:
742:
735:
724:
710:
709:
702:
701:
698:
694:
690:
683:
682:
679:
675:
671:
660:
657:
656:
655:
642:
641:
626:
611:
609:
603:
602:
587:
572:
557:
551:
550:
535:
533:
518:
512:
511:
506:
501:
496:
487:
486:
485:*u, *uu, *-uuʔ
483:
480:
477:
474:
471:
468:
455:
454:
448:
446:
440:
438:
436:
430:
429:
427:
425:
423:
413:
411:
405:
404:
402:
400:
394:
392:
386:
380:
379:
377:
371:
365:
359:
353:
347:
346:
344:
342:
340:
337:
334:
332:Implosive stop
328:
327:
325:
319:
313:
307:
301:
295:
294:
288:
282:
276:
270:
264:
258:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
181:
178:
176:
173:
100:
99:
98:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
70:
66:
65:
53:
49:
48:
45:
41:
40:
35:
31:
30:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4965:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4945:
4943:
4926:
4922:
4920:
4916:
4913:
4912:
4908:
4898:
4897:
4893:
4891:
4890:
4886:
4884:
4883:
4882:Proto-Khmeric
4879:
4877:
4876:
4872:
4870:
4869:
4865:
4864:
4861:
4857:
4852:
4848:
4834:
4831:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4813:
4812:
4809:
4808:
4806:
4802:
4796:
4795:Bugan (Pakan)
4793:
4791:
4788:
4787:
4785:
4783:
4779:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4764:
4762:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4745:
4741:
4727:
4726:
4722:
4721:
4719:
4715:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4681:
4675:
4672:
4671:
4669:
4665:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4643:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4624:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4547:
4543:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4509:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4489:
4487:
4485:
4481:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4464:
4462:Chaura-Teresa
4460:
4456:
4452:
4447:
4443:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4415:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4394:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4369:
4367:
4363:
4357:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4347:
4341:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4331:
4328:
4324:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4301:
4299:
4295:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4240:
4238:
4234:
4231:
4227:
4221:
4218:
4217:
4215:
4211:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4191:
4187:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4158:
4154:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4135:
4133:
4129:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4104:
4102:
4100:
4096:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4066:
4064:
4062:
4058:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4015:
4012:
4008:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3993:
3991:
3987:
3981:
3978:
3977:
3975:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3962:
3952:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3942:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3917:
3915:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3889:
3885:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3852:
3846:
3843:
3842:
3840:
3836:
3830:
3829:Western Chong
3827:
3826:
3824:
3820:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3803:Central Chong
3801:
3800:
3798:
3794:
3791:
3785:
3779:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3756:
3752:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3708:
3702:
3699:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3686:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3663:
3659:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3625:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3605:
3603:
3599:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3570:
3566:
3560:
3557:
3556:
3554:
3550:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3520:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3487:
3483:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3454:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3422:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3407:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3388:
3384:
3370:
3367:
3366:
3364:
3360:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3316:
3314:
3310:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3280:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3224:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3120:
3115:
3113:
3108:
3106:
3101:
3100:
3097:
3091:
3087:
3084:
3081:
3079:at Ethnologue
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3064:
3056:
3053:
3050:
3046:
3045:Sidwell, Paul
3043:
3040:
3039:0-85883-570-3
3036:
3032:
3028:
3027:
3021:
3015:
3008:
3001:
2994:
2993:
2986:
2979:
2975:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2957:
2951:
2943:
2942:
2934:
2927:
2923:
2918:
2903:
2896:
2889:
2882:
2877:
2870:
2866:
2860:
2853:
2847:
2840:
2834:
2827:
2823:
2817:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2793:
2789:
2783:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2768:
2761:
2754:
2748:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2733:
2726:
2719:
2715:
2709:
2702:
2698:
2692:
2685:
2681:
2675:
2668:
2662:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2634:
2626:
2619:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2581:
2574:
2567:
2561:
2559:
2551:
2547:
2544:
2538:
2536:
2534:
2526:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2508:
2502:
2500:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2461:
2459:
2457:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2426:(3): 95–111.
2425:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2376:
2372:
2364:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2288:watershed of
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2261:
2259:
2254:
2252:
2251:Yangtze river
2248:
2244:
2240:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2223:
2222:Sichuan Basin
2219:
2215:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2008:*miːʔ ~ *meːʔ
2007:
2004:
2003:
1999:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1982:
1979:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1929:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1904:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1879:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1836:'we (excl.)'
1835:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1825:'we (incl.)'
1824:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1792:
1781:
1779:7. *pɔh, *pəɕ
1778:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1729:*ɲaːˀ 'house'
1728:
1727:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1707:
1704:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1644:
1643:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1592:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1543:
1540:
1536:
1533:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1474:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1458:*bsaɲ 'snake'
1457:
1454:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1441:
1440:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1400:*ktaːm 'crab'
1399:
1396:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1385:
1381:Invertebrates
1380:
1379:
1378:
1370:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1343:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1328:Tai languages
1319:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1284:
1281:(allomorphs:
1280:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1251:
1248:Nominalizing
1247:
1246:
1245:
1243:
1238:
1236:
1235:Tai languages
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1191:#suláː 'leaf'
1190:
1189:
1188:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:: C(R)V(V)C (
1172:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1102:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1051:Short vowels
1048:
1045:
1029:
1013:
998:
991:
986:
981:
974:
968:
948:
945:
926:
923:
903:
900:
874:
871:
846:
843:
817:
814:
785:
784:Unvoiced Stop
782:
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
752:
746:
739:
733:
728:
722:
718:
713:
707:
706:
705:
688:
687:
686:
669:
668:
667:
665:
654:*iə, *uə, *ai
653:
652:
651:
649:
637:
630:
622:
615:
608:
598:
591:
583:
576:
568:
561:
556:
546:
539:
529:
522:
517:
510:
505:
500:
493:
484:
481:
478:
475:
472:
469:
466:
465:
464:
462:
435:
432:
410:
407:
385:
382:
352:
349:
333:
330:
300:
297:
263:
262:Unvoiced stop
260:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
230:
224:
222:
218:
215:, 7 distinct
214:
210:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
190:reconstructed
187:
180:Shorto (2006)
172:
170:
165:
152:
148:
144:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
109:reconstructed
106:
96:
93:
91:
88:
86:
83:
81:
80:Proto-Khmeric
78:
76:
73:
72:
71:
67:
54:
50:
46:
42:
39:
36:
32:
27:
22:
19:
4914:
4894:
4889:Proto-Aslian
4887:
4880:
4873:
4867:
4866:
4723:
4717:unclassified
4640:
3737:Phong-Kniang
3048:
3030:
3013:
3000:
2990:
2985:
2977:
2955:
2950:
2940:
2933:
2925:
2917:
2905:. Retrieved
2901:
2888:
2876:
2868:
2859:
2851:
2846:
2838:
2833:
2825:
2816:
2808:
2799:
2787:
2782:
2765:
2760:
2752:
2747:
2730:
2725:
2714:Proto Khmuic
2713:
2708:
2696:
2691:
2680:Proto Khasic
2679:
2674:
2666:
2661:
2633:
2624:
2618:
2610:
2606:
2579:
2573:
2565:
2524:
2486:. Retrieved
2474:
2470:
2443:. Retrieved
2423:
2419:
2409:
2397:. Retrieved
2385:
2375:
2353:
2349:Sino-Tibetan
2337:Roger Blench
2335:
2331:
2294:Mekong River
2262:
2255:
2241:
2227:
2211:
2207:Mekong River
2199:Paul Sidwell
2197:
2032:
1977:
1901:Determiners
1858:'you (pl.)'
1847:'you (sg.)'
1833:1p. (excl.)
1822:1p. (incl.)
1790:
1757:
1756:
1750:*kam 'arrow'
1677:*ɓaːj 'bean'
1636:*ʦuːɲ 'fern'
1615:
1598:thatch grass
1546:barking deer
1490:*ciːm 'bird'
1476:
1418:*suːtˀ 'bee'
1376:
1347:Paul Sidwell
1344:
1325:
1311:Roger Blench
1309:
1303:
1299:
1293:
1289:
1283:p-, pn-, -m-
1282:
1278:
1272:
1266:
1262:
1256:
1249:
1242:Paul Sidwell
1239:
1216:
1186:
1180:
1174:
1171:Monosyllabic
1170:
1161:
1099:Long vowels
1046:
1043:
966:
740:
729:
721:voiced stops
714:
711:
703:
684:
664:Paul Sidwell
662:
645:
635:
628:
620:
613:
596:
589:
581:
574:
566:
559:
544:
537:
527:
520:
458:
206:
185:
183:
169:Paul Sidwell
166:
153:area around
147:Mekong River
129:
125:Paul Sidwell
120:
104:
103:
95:Proto-Vietic
75:Proto-Aslian
18:
4896:Proto-Munda
4046:Muak Sa-aak
3517: [
3403:West Katuic
2445:14 February
2286:Pearl River
2245:(2011) and
2214:Ilia Peiros
2016:3rd person
2005:2nd person
1994:1st person
1645:Agriculture
1442:Vertebrates
1393:*tŋke(ː)ʔ '
1288:Reciprocal
925:Approximant
816:Voiced Stop
299:Voiced stop
90:Proto-Munda
4942:Categories
4698:Semaq Beri
4686:(Southern)
4565:(Northern)
4451:Nicobarese
4396:Gutob-Remo
4365:Sora-Gorum
4229:Kherwarian
3627:Phong–Liha
3509:Vietnamese
3502:Viet-Muong
3344:Mel-Khaonh
2811:21: 57–89.
2399:6 February
2367:References
2205:is in the
2183:Nicobarese
1948:Particles
1933:*niʔ/*neʔ
1782:8. *tNɕaːm
1629:*ʔrmiːtˀ '
1603:*lwa(ː)ʔ '
1522:bamboo rat
1514:*cɔʔ 'dog'
1468:*trkɔːtˀ '
1367:Nicobarese
1277:Causative
1227:Vietnamese
1213:Morphology
717:implosives
648:diphthongs
221:diphthongs
213:consonants
160: – c.
137: – c.
61: – c.
4925:varieties
4917:indicate
4826:Khmer Khe
4629:(Central)
4577:Cheq Wong
4112:Quang Lam
4099:Bit-Khang
4084:Meung Yum
3965:Palaungic
3710:Phay-Pram
2483:1836-6821
2440:1836-6821
2361:Red River
2345:Indochina
2341:fish trap
2268:from the
2266:Indochina
2212:However,
2065:Palaungic
1795:Pronouns
1773:4. *puənˀ
1553:porcupine
1351:Indochina
1345:However,
1326:Like the
1183:: CCV(V)C
845:Implosive
693:(n/r/l))C
434:Fricative
384:Semivowel
175:Phonology
171:in 2024.
4772:Nyah Kur
4693:Mah Meri
4684:Semelaic
4511:Southern
4492:Nancowry
4297:Santalic
4236:Mundaric
3930:Lyngngam
3854:Southern
3838:Northern
3727:Ksingmul
3526:in China
3424:Ta'oihic
3139:Bahnaric
3086:Archived
2907:4 August
2770:Archived
2642:Archived
2546:Archived
2326:Bahnaric
2306:Iron Age
2272:area of
2163:(1984) (
2161:Diffloth
2124:Bahnaric
2056:(2012) (
1986:singular
1941:*nɔ(ː)ʔ
1872:*gi(ː)ʔ
1866:3s./3p.
1800:Pronoun
1770:3. *peːˀ
1767:2. *ɓaːr
1758:Numerals
1701:*kɗoːŋ '
1663:*skɔːj '
1631:turmeric
1610:*ɟriːˀ '
1605:fig tree
1475:*Ckuəj '
1451:*ʔnduŋ '
1298:Stative
1233:and the
762:Alveolar
240:Alveolar
143:homeland
4915:Italics
4782:Pakanic
4725:Kenaboi
4703:Semelai
4674:Jah Hut
4667:Jah Hut
4612:Ten'edn
4528:Shompen
4502:Katchal
4497:Camorta
4484:Central
4474:Teressa
4304:Santali
4288:Agariya
4278:Majhwar
4268:Mundari
4168:Tai Loi
4036:Man Met
4018:Angkuic
3996:Palaung
3935:Maharam
3822:Western
3796:Central
3789:(Chong)
3618:Thavưng
3303:Tampuan
3298:Tariang
3282:Central
3258:Nyaheun
2488:15 June
2290:Lingnan
2280:era of
2270:Lingnan
2237:Kra–Dai
2218:Yangtze
2135:Khmeric
2091:Pakanic
2054:Sidwell
1989:plural
1938:'here'
1891:'what'
1839:*ʔjeːʔ
1670:*sroʔ '
1589:*plaŋ '
1537:*bɕeʔ '
1530:*kiəɕ '
1520:*tkan '
1481:lizard'
1478:Calotes
1461:*tlan '
1373:Lexicon
1231:Chinese
985:Central
976:Height
777:Glottal
767:Palatal
504:Central
495:Height
482:*ɔ, *ɔɔ
479:*o, *oo
473:*ə, *əə
470:*e, *ee
467:*a, *aa
255:Glottal
245:Palatal
188:is the
141:with a
107:is the
4804:Others
4748:Others
4658:Temiar
4653:Semnam
4627:Senoic
4607:Mintil
4602:Minriq
4597:Kintaq
4592:Kensiu
4563:Jahaic
4551:Aslian
4469:Chaura
4340:Kharia
4333:Kharia
4258:Birhor
4253:Birjia
4156:Others
4122:Bumang
4089:Savaiq
3905:Khasic
3866:Sa'och
3813:Kasong
3760:Pearic
3701:Mlabri
3694:Mlabri
3667:Khmuic
3608:Maleng
3491:Vietic
3468:Phuong
3392:Katuic
3334:Ra’ong
3329:Stieng
3263:Sapuan
3202:Rengao
3197:Bahnar
3192:Sedang
3187:Todrah
3167:Kayong
3162:Halang
3037:
2654:slides
2481:
2438:
2320:, and
2318:Pearic
2314:Katuic
2310:Vietic
2302:millet
2298:Yunnan
2181:Proto-
2172:Aslian
2170:Proto-
2155:Proto-
2146:Pearic
2144:Proto-
2133:Proto-
2122:Proto-
2113:Katuic
2111:Proto-
2108:(2007)
2106:Ferlus
2102:Vietic
2100:Proto-
2089:Proto-
2080:Khmuic
2078:Proto-
2073:list 2
2069:list 1
2063:Proto-
2050:Khasic
2048:Proto-
2037:Proto-
2022:*giːʔ
2011:*pɛːʔ
1969:'not'
1917:*tiːʔ
1880:'who'
1828:*ʔiːʔ
1710:winnow
1665:millet
1612:banyan
1568:Plants
1463:python
1322:Syntax
1279:*p(V)-
1223:Aslian
1219:Khmuic
947:Rhotic
757:Labial
461:vowels
409:Liquid
235:Labial
217:vowels
44:Region
4811:Khmer
4790:Bolyu
4759:Monic
4708:Temoq
4648:Semai
4642:Sabüm
4636:Lanoh
4617:Wila'
4587:Jedek
4582:Jahai
4572:Batek
4408:Gutob
4403:Bonda
4387:Lodhi
4382:Juray
4372:Gorum
4356:Juang
4349:Juang
4326:South
4243:Korwa
4220:Korku
4213:Korku
4206:North
4195:Munda
4143:Kiorr
4138:Lamet
4131:Lamet
4117:Kháng
4069:Blang
4001:Riang
3980:Danau
3973:Danau
3920:Khasi
3808:Samre
3634:Phong
3543:Nguồn
3538:Mường
3531:in US
3521:]
3447:Pacoh
3440:Pacoh
3431:Ta'Oi
3349:Thmon
3339:Mnong
3319:Chrau
3312:South
3243:Laven
3217:Katua
3182:Monom
3177:Takua
3172:Kaco’
3150:North
3010:(PDF)
2976:. In
2898:(PDF)
2867:. In
2322:Khmer
2157:Monic
2039:Munda
1972:*ʔam
1925:*tɔʔ
1883:*mVh
1861:*piʔ
1817:*ʔaɲ
1712:(v.)'
1617:Ficus
1560:civet
1539:otter
1532:serow
1294:t(N)-
1141:(oa)
997:Close
980:Front
873:Nasal
772:Velar
650:are:
516:Close
499:Front
351:Nasal
250:Velar
4833:Mang
4424:Gta’
4417:Gta’
4377:Sora
4283:Turi
4273:Koda
4248:Asur
4163:Kuan
4074:Lawa
4061:Waic
3925:Pnar
3861:Suoi
3778:Pear
3771:Pear
3732:O’du
3717:Prai
3685:Khmu
3678:Khmu
3644:Liha
3639:Tuom
3592:Sach
3577:Arem
3569:Chứt
3559:Cuoi
3552:Cuoi
3463:Katu
3456:Katu
3362:East
3324:Koho
3293:Alak
3273:Brao
3238:Jru'
3233:Lavi
3226:West
3212:Duan
3035:ISBN
2909:2019
2490:2024
2479:ISSN
2447:2022
2436:ISSN
2401:2023
2296:via
2187:list
2176:list
2165:list
2150:list
2139:list
2128:list
2117:list
2095:list
2084:list
2058:list
2043:list
2019:*ʔan
1855:2p.
1844:2s.
1814:'I'
1811:1s.
1672:taro
1395:tick
1361:and
1359:Pnar
1338:and
1304:*hN-
1290:*tr-
1273:*-p-
1267:*-r-
1263:*-l-
1257:*-m-
1250:*-n-
1221:and
1175:Note
1126:(ɛː)
1028:Open
990:Back
719:and
646:The
639:/ɔː/
624:/aː/
607:Open
600:/oː/
585:/əː/
570:/eː/
548:/uː/
531:/iː/
509:Back
419:, l
184:The
4767:Mon
4518:Car
4309:Kol
4107:Bit
4041:Mok
3951:War
3944:War
3722:Mal
3613:Kri
3601:Kri
3587:Ruc
3582:May
3415:Bru
3410:Kuy
3369:Cua
3253:Juk
3248:Su'
3207:Hrê
3157:Jeh
2737:doi
2428:doi
2390:doi
1453:eel
1332:SVO
1306:(?)
1300:*h-
1151:uə
1131:ɔː
1121:oː
1110:uː
1012:Mid
738:).
727:).
689:*(C
678:)VC
632:/ɔ/
617:/a/
593:/o/
578:/ə/
563:/e/
555:Mid
541:/u/
524:/i/
452:/h/
444:/ç/
421:/l/
417:/r/
398:/j/
390:/w/
375:/ŋ/
369:/ɲ/
363:/n/
357:/m/
323:/ɡ/
317:/ɟ/
311:/d/
305:/b/
292:/ʔ/
286:/k/
280:/c/
274:/t/
268:/p/
119:'s
52:Era
4944::
4263:Ho
4079:Wa
4051:Va
4026:Hu
3519:vi
3268:Oi
3012:.
2963:^
2900:.
2807:.
2790:.
2735:.
2716:.
2699:.
2682:.
2588:^
2557:^
2532:^
2514:^
2498:^
2475:17
2473:.
2469:.
2455:^
2434:.
2424:15
2422:.
2418:.
2388:.
2384:.
2316:,
2312:,
2159::
2104::
2071:,
2052::
1614:,
1363:Wa
1292:/*
1146:iə
1138:aː
1118:əː
1115:eː
1107:ɨː
1104:iː
1083:ɔ
1073:o
1062:u
1038:ɔ
1035:a
1032:ɛ
1022:o
1019:ə
1016:e
1006:u
1001:i
937:j
934:l
863:)
734:(C
697:VC
674:(C
670:*C
636:ɔɔ
634:,
621:aa
619:,
597:oo
595:,
582:əə
580:,
567:ee
565:,
545:uu
543:,
528:ii
526:,
450:h
442:s
415:r
396:y
388:w
373:ŋ
367:ɲ
361:n
355:m
339:ɗ
336:ɓ
321:g
315:j
309:d
303:b
290:ʔ
284:k
278:c
272:t
266:p
223:.
164:.
155:c.
132:c.
127:.
56:c.
4031:U
3118:e
3111:t
3104:v
3041:.
3018:(
2911:.
2794:.
2739::
2720:.
2703:.
2686:.
2656:)
2492:.
2449:.
2430::
2403:.
2392::
2189:)
2178:)
2167:)
2152:)
2141:)
2130:)
2119:)
2097:)
2086:)
2075:)
2060:)
2045:)
1997:–
1705:'
1674:'
1667:'
1633:'
1619:'
1607:'
1600:'
1593:'
1562:'
1555:'
1548:'
1541:'
1524:'
1472:'
1465:'
1455:'
1397:'
1302:/
1285:)
1265:/
1090:a
1078:ɛ
1070:ə
1067:e
1059:ɨ
1056:i
954:r
930:w
918:h
909:s
893:ŋ
888:ɲ
883:n
878:m
861:ʄ
859:(
855:ɗ
850:ɓ
836:ɡ
831:ɟ
826:d
821:b
809:ʔ
804:k
799:c
794:t
789:p
743:m
736:p
725:f
699:f
695:i
691:p
680:f
676:m
672:i
629:ɔ
614:a
590:o
575:ə
560:e
538:u
521:i
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