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be reflected on the surface that is ahead during the motion (front surface) than on the back surface. The backwardacting force of pressure exerted on the front surface is thus larger than the force of pressure acting on the back. Hence, as the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that counteracts the motion of the plate and that increases with the velocity of the plate. We will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in brief."
2458:
6048:
5412:
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2300:
1225:) that are at the lower end of the energies that are capable of causing electronic excitation within molecules, which leads to changes in the bonding or chemistry of the molecule. At the lower end of the visible light spectrum, EMR becomes invisible to humans (infrared) because its photons no longer have enough individual energy to cause a lasting molecular change (a change in conformation) in the visual molecule
1141:
2160:, in which he studied the properties of light. Euclid postulated that light travelled in straight lines and he described the laws of reflection and studied them mathematically. He questioned that sight is the result of a beam from the eye, for he asks how one sees the stars immediately, if one closes one's eyes, then opens them at night. If the beam from the eye travels infinitely fast this is not a problem.
4496:
1419:, also in Cambridge. However, the popular description of light being "stopped" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrary later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time it had "stopped", it had ceased to be light.
2697:
As in the case for radio waves and the X-rays involved in
Compton scattering, physicists have noted that electromagnetic radiation tends to behave more like a classical wave at lower frequencies, but more like a classical particle at higher frequencies, but never completely loses all qualities of one
2523:
added to
Fresnel's mathematical work to produce a convincing argument in favor of the wave theory, helping to overturn Newton's corpuscular theory. By the year 1821, Fresnel was able to show via mathematical methods that polarization could be explained by the wave theory of light if and only if light
2280:
of light that assumed, incorrectly, that light travelled faster in a denser medium than in a less dense medium. Descartes arrived at this conclusion by analogy with the behaviour of sound waves. Although
Descartes was incorrect about the relative speeds, he was correct in assuming that light behaved
2148:
made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see during the night just as well as during the day, so
Empedocles postulated an interaction between rays from the eyes and rays from
2115:
in 1909 predicted the existence of "radiation friction" which would oppose the movement of matter. He wrote, "radiation will exert pressure on both sides of the plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at rest. However, if it is in motion, more radiation will
1259:
of the human eye cannot detect the very short (below 360 nm) ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses (such as insects and shrimp) are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, in much the same
2693:
a particle nor a wave (which actually are macroscopic phenomena, such as baseballs or ocean waves). Instead, under some approximations light can be described sometimes with mathematics appropriate to one type of macroscopic metaphor (particles) and sometimes another macroscopic metaphor (waves).
2603:
to study electromagnetic radiation and light. Maxwell discovered that self-propagating electromagnetic waves would travel through space at a constant speed, which happened to be equal to the previously measured speed of light. From this, Maxwell concluded that light was a form of electromagnetic
1995:
in the human eye are of three types which respond differently across the visible spectrum and the cumulative response peaks at a wavelength of around 555 nm. Therefore, two sources of light which produce the same intensity (W/m) of visible light do not necessarily appear equally bright. The
3494:
The foveal sensitivity to several near-infrared laser wavelengths was measured. It was found that the eye could respond to radiation at wavelengths at least as far as 1,064 nm. A continuous 1,064 nm laser source appeared red, but a 1,060 nm pulsed laser source appeared green, which suggests the
1777:
wavelength, for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one and finally a blue-white colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet. These
1358:
was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin. Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the
1336:. Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, he calculated that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse the diameter of Earth's orbit. However, its size was not known at that time. If RĂžmer had known the diameter of the Earth's orbit, he would have calculated a speed of
1263:
Various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420â680 nm to as broadly as 380â800 nm. Under ideal laboratory conditions, people can see infrared up to at least 1,050 nm; children and young adults may perceive ultraviolet wavelengths down to about 310â313 nm.
2328:(particles of matter) which were emitted in all directions from a source. One of Newton's arguments against the wave nature of light was that waves were known to bend around obstacles, while light travelled only in straight lines. He did, however, explain the phenomenon of the
4141:
Antognozzi, M.; Bermingham, C. R.; Harniman, R. L.; Simpson, S.; Senior, J.; Hayward, R.; Hoerber, H.; Dennis, M. R.; Bekshaev, A. Y. (August 2016). "Direct measurements of the extraordinary optical momentum and transverse spin-dependent force using a nano-cantilever".
2527:
The weakness of the wave theory was that light waves, like sound waves, would need a medium for transmission. The existence of the hypothetical substance luminiferous aether proposed by
Huygens in 1678 was cast into strong doubt in the late nineteenth century by the
2596:. In 1846 he speculated that light might be some form of disturbance propagating along magnetic field lines. Faraday proposed in 1847 that light was a high-frequency electromagnetic vibration, which could propagate even in the absence of a medium such as the ether.
2284:
Descartes is not the first to use the mechanical analogies but because he clearly asserts that light is only a mechanical property of the luminous body and the transmitting medium, Descartes's theory of light is regarded as the start of modern physical optics.
1213:
The behavior of EMR depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths. When EMR interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries.
2080:(NEMS), the effect of light pressure is more significant and exploiting light pressure to drive NEMS mechanisms and to flip nanometre-scale physical switches in integrated circuits is an active area of research. At larger scales, light pressure can cause
1305:(approx. 186,282 miles per second). The fixed value of the speed of light in SI units results from the fact that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. All forms of electromagnetic radiation move at exactly this same speed in vacuum.
2377:. Laplace withdrew his suggestion later, after a wave theory of light became firmly established as the model for light (as has been explained, neither a particle or wave theory is fully correct). A translation of Newton's essay on light appears in
2622:
confirmed
Maxwell's theory experimentally by generating and detecting radio waves in the laboratory and demonstrating that these waves behaved exactly like visible light, exhibiting properties such as reflection, refraction, diffraction and
2240:
in the seventh century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy.
175:
2809:
et al. demonstrated a single atom emitting one photon at a time, further compelling evidence that light consists of photons. Previously unknown quantum states of light with characteristics unlike classical states, such as
2171:, wrote that "The light & heat of the sun; these are composed of minute atoms which, when they are shoved off, lose no time in shooting right across the interspace of air in the direction imparted by the shove." (from
245:
1669:
When a beam of light crosses the boundary between a vacuum and another medium, or between two different media, the wavelength of the light changes, but the frequency remains constant. If the beam of light is not
4125:
Einstein, A. (1989) . "Ăber die
Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen ĂŒber das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" [On the development of our views concerning the nature and constitution of radiation].
1380:
conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931. He refined
Foucault's methods in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip from
1618:
1240:, in which tiny packets of cellular water are raised in temperature by the infrared radiation. EMR in this range causes molecular vibration and heating effects, which is how these animals detect it.
3659:
2103:
was originally attributed to light pressure, this interpretation is incorrect; the characteristic
Crookes rotation is the result of a partial vacuum. This should not be confused with the
931:
2698:
or the other. Visible light, which occupies a middle ground in frequency, can easily be shown in experiments to be describable using either a wave or particle model, or sometimes both.
2634:
of the waves described in the classical theory of
Maxwell. The quantum theory was needed to explain effects even with visual light that Maxwell's classical theory could not (such as
3011:
2654:, suggested that although light was a wave, these waves could gain or lose energy only in finite amounts related to their frequency. Planck called these "lumps" of light energy "
2038:, but can be more easily explained by the particle nature of light: photons strike and transfer their momentum. Light pressure is equal to the power of the light beam divided by
2705:
showed that light followed different statistics from that of classical particles. With Einstein, they generalized this result for a whole set of integer spin particles called
1996:
photometry units are designed to take this into account and therefore are a better representation of how "bright" a light appears to be than raw intensity. They relate to raw
4103:
4285:
2535:
Newton's corpuscular theory implied that light would travel faster in a denser medium, while the wave theory of Huygens and others implied the opposite. At that time, the
2833:) were found, and mechanical forces of light on matter were studied. The latter led to levitating and positioning clouds of atoms or even small biological samples in an
1790:'s torch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals emitting a wavelength band around 425 nm and is not seen in stars or pure thermal radiation).
2004:
and are used for purposes like determining how to best achieve sufficient illumination for various tasks in indoor and outdoor settings. The illumination measured by a
1766:, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in
2404:
in 1812 showed that this theory explained all known phenomena of light polarization. At that time the polarization was considered as the proof of the particle theory.
2627:. Maxwell's theory and Hertz's experiments led directly to the development of modern radio, radar, television, electromagnetic imaging and wireless communications.
73:
1984:
measures light with wavelength weighted with respect to a standardized model of human brightness perception. Photometry is useful, for example, to quantify
2543:, in 1850. His result supported the wave theory and the classical particle theory was finally abandoned, only to partly re-emerge in the twentieth century.
2211:, from around the early centuries AD developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements (
5664:
3996:
3629:
1674:(or rather normal) to the boundary, the change in wavelength results in a change in the direction of the beam. This change of direction is known as
3966:
3458:
Sliney, David H.; Wangemann, Robert T.; Franks, James K.; Wolbarsht, Myron L. (1976). "Visual sensitivity of the eye to infrared laser radiation".
3290:
3936:
3579:
Normally the human eye responds to light rays from 390 to 760 nm. This can be extended to a range of 310 to 1,050 nm under artificial conditions.
1416:
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3597:
1991:
The photometry units are different from most systems of physical units in that they take into account how the human eye responds to light. The
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180:
2785:
applied quantum theory to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to gain a more detailed understanding of photodetection and the
3118:
The human eye has the ability to respond to all the wavelengths of light from 400â700 nm. This is called the visible part of the spectrum.
4926:
4393:
3566:
3524:
3105:
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1860:
radiation are all examples of this. Particles moving through a medium faster than the speed of light in that medium can produce visible
1535:
Refraction is the bending of light rays when passing through a surface between one transparent material and another. It is described by
3190:
1316:
attempted to measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century. An early experiment to measure the speed of light was conducted by
1243:
Above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360
2539:
could not be measured accurately enough to decide which theory was correct. The first to make a sufficiently accurate measurement was
3460:
2008:
sensor does not necessarily correspond to what is perceived by the human eye and without filters which may be costly, photocells and
1545:
1513:
objects allow light to transmit through, but translucent objects also scatter certain wavelength of light via internal scatterance.
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2373:
to argue that a body could be so massive that light could not escape from it. In other words, it would become what is now called a
965:
4073:
1944:
When the concept of light is intended to include very-high-energy photons (gamma rays), additional generation mechanisms include:
4296:
2610:
2196:
1042:, the term "light" may refer more broadly to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not. In this sense,
2829:
techniquesâopened the way to the study of what became known as ultrafast processes. Applications for solid state research (e.g.
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of light and explained colour vision in terms of three-coloured receptors in the eye. Another supporter of the wave theory was
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provides virtually all the energy used by living things. Some species of animals generate their own light, a process called
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17:
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when plotted in wavelength units, and roughly 44% of the radiation that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is
1531:
Due to refraction, the straw dipped in water appears bent and the ruler scale compressed when viewed from a shallow angle.
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4554:
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of nature. Like all types of electromagnetic radiation, visible light propagates by massless elementary particles called
6077:
4870:
4212:
2580:
discovered that the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light is rotated when the light rays travel along the
2420:(1635â1703) developed a "pulse theory" and compared the spreading of light to that of waves in water in his 1665 work
1359:
mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as
4351:
2732:
generalized this process to treat many-body systems as excitations of quantum fields, a process with the misnomer of
2476:
The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other like sound waves (as noted around 1800 by
3711:
Michelson, A.A. (January 1927). "Measurements of the velocity of light between Mount Wilson and Mount San Antonio".
5826:
4936:
3161:
Light is a special class of radiant energy embracing wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm (or mÎŒ), or 4000 to 7000 Ă
.
2219:
of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous. The
2930:
2614:, which contained a full mathematical description of the behavior of electric and magnetic fields, still known as
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1399:
Two independent teams of physicists were said to bring light to a "complete standstill" by passing it through a
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produce light by this means and boats moving through water can disturb plankton which produce a glowing wake.
5002:
2312:(1592â1655), an atomist, proposed a particle theory of light which was published posthumously in the 1660s.
2077:
1660:
1412:
1232:
There exist animals that are sensitive to various types of infrared, but not by means of quantum-absorption.
4257:
Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics with Introduction and Commentary
2658:" (from a Latin word for "how much"). In 1905, Albert Einstein used the idea of light quanta to explain the
2444:. As waves are not affected by gravity, it was assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium.
5689:
5349:
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2281:
like a wave and in concluding that refraction could be explained by the speed of light in different media.
1879:
Certain substances produce light when they are illuminated by more energetic radiation, a process known as
1770:, but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared and only a fraction in the visible spectrum.
1714:
1400:
958:
57:
a beam of white light. The longer wavelengths (red) and the shorter wavelengths (green-blue) are separated.
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2440:
in 1690. He proposed that light was emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the
5123:
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1376:
carried out an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain a value of 298 000 000 m/s in 1862.
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showed that the wavelength shift seen when low intensity X-rays scattered from electrons (so called
2175:). Despite being similar to later particle theories, Lucretius's views were not generally accepted.
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1883:. Some substances emit light slowly after excitation by more energetic radiation. This is known as
1759:
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1396:, is less than in vacuum. For example, the speed of light in water is about 3/4 of that in vacuum.
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There are many sources of light. A body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of
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Lenses and Waves: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematical Science of Optics in the 17th Century
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that light behaved as waves. He also proposed that different colours were caused by different
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Later, Fresnel independently worked out his own wave theory of light and presented it to the
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studied Gassendi's work at an early age and preferred his view to Descartes's theory of the
2034:
Light exerts physical pressure on objects in its path, a phenomenon which can be deduced by
1887:. Phosphorescent materials can also be excited by bombarding them with subatomic particles.
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Limits of the eye's overall range of sensitivity extends from about 310 to 1,050 nanometers
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an idea that the polarization of light can be explained by the wave theory if light were a
2434:(1629â1695) worked out a mathematical wave theory of light in 1678 and published it in his
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1802:
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highlighted. The bottom graph (Visible spectrum) is wavelength in units of nanometres (nm).
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443:
428:
418:
170:{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle }
2801:, etc. as it became understood that light cannot be fully described just referring to the
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with laser pointers, but doing so would require about 30 billion 1-mW laser pointers.
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8:
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in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away. A rotating
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Usually light momentum is aligned with its direction of motion. However, for example in
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is frequently used to manipulate light in order to change the apparent size of images.
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The effective velocity of light in various transparent substances containing ordinary
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2670:) could be explained by a particle-theory of X-rays, but not a wave theory. In 1926
2396:
was for the first time qualitatively explained by Newton using the particle theory.
2249:
1713:"Lightsource" redirects here. For the solar energy developer named Lightsource, see
1501:
of the reflecting surfaces, and internal scatterance is caused by the difference of
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as a concept which addressed variations between laser light, thermal light, exotic
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Another more accurate measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by
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in California. The precise measurements yielded a speed of 299 796 000 m/s.
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Plant growth is also affected by the colour spectrum of light, a process known as
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colours can be seen when metal is heated to "red hot" or "white hot". Blue-white
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4130:. Vol. 2. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 391.
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2872:, a subject which partly emerged from quantum optics, partly from theoretical
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is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the second medium and n
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4046:
4018:
3846:
3691:
3132:
2916:
2749:
2729:
2635:
2427:
2426:("Observation IX"). In 1672 Hooke suggested that light's vibrations could be
2369:
to hold sway during the eighteenth century. The particle theory of light led
2221:
2061:
2057:
1810:
1794:
1682:
1671:
1470:
1121:
868:
833:
793:
758:
738:
733:
728:
723:
703:
648:
583:
3646:
1782:
is not often seen, except in stars (the commonly seen pure-blue colour in a
743:
5898:
5761:
5717:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5439:
5392:
5361:
5294:
5138:
4880:
4840:
4705:
3481:
3017:
2892:
2834:
2422:
2417:
2313:
1949:
1880:
1739:
1694:
883:
708:
683:
658:
613:
608:
545:
525:
4375:
3489:
2359:
pull was greater. Newton published the final version of his theory in his
2126:
1433:
1317:
5756:
5579:
5483:
5327:
5232:
5190:
5185:
5128:
5094:
4622:
2826:
2822:
2631:
2557:
2497:
2469:
2336:) by allowing that a light particle could create a localised wave in the
2329:
2237:
2208:
2017:
1783:
1773:
The peak of the black-body spectrum is in the deep infrared, at about 10
1510:
1183:
1026:
873:
843:
813:
618:
375:
4507:
3700:. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 624.
3595:[The visibility of the ultraviolet to the wave length of 3130].
2472:. Young's experiments supported the theory that light consists of waves.
1829:
in a gas flame emits characteristic yellow light). Emission can also be
5908:
5751:
5471:
5227:
5168:
4670:
4617:
3000:
2986:
2717:
2689:
a particle and a wave, and (in another sense) as a phenomenon which is
2647:
2585:
2485:
2374:
2348:
2277:
2180:
2137:
2111:
directly caused by light pressure. As a consequence of light pressure,
2096:
that would accelerate spaceships in space is also under investigation.
2093:
1977:
1971:
1793:
Atoms emit and absorb light at characteristic energies. This produces "
1774:
1755:
1698:
1675:
1522:
1490:
1482:
1167:
1116:. Historically, another important source of light for humans has been
1055:
1029:(with shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies), called collectively
1006:
753:
663:
603:
520:
370:
307:
277:
267:
240:{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }}
4173:
2944:
2662:
and suggested that these light quanta had a "real" existence. In 1923
2351:
by incorrectly assuming that light accelerated upon entering a denser
2233:
2084:
to spin faster, acting on their irregular shapes as on the vanes of a
5768:
5741:
5736:
5245:
4957:
4830:
4665:
4612:
4602:
4563:
3242:
The Natural Laws of the Universe: Understanding Fundamental Constants
2912:
2565:
electromagnetic wave traveling along the z-axis, with E denoting the
2164:
2145:
2073:
2005:
1992:
1909:
1818:
1814:
1485:
the light it receives. Most objects do not reflect or transmit light
1355:
1333:
1321:
1309:
1252:
1244:
1195:
1191:
1171:
1051:
1043:
1014:
1010:
998:
818:
550:
4022:
3593:"Sur la visibilité de l'ultraviolet jusqu'à la longueur d'onde 3130"
3513:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 231.
2524:
was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever.
2457:
1229:
in the human retina, which change triggers the sensation of vision.
6023:
5746:
5354:
4607:
4592:
4156:
4140:
4098:
3872:
Tang, Hong (1 October 2009). "May The Force of Light Be With You".
3732:
3359:
Astronomy Methods: A Physical Approach to Astronomical Observations
3076:
is: "Any radiation capable of causing a visual sensation directly."
2884:
2229:
2085:
2081:
2013:
1913:
1845:
1825:, etc.) and flames (light from the hot gas itselfâso, for example,
1735:
1404:
1248:
1175:
1063:
1022:
653:
390:
282:
5411:
2052:, the effect of light pressure is negligible for everyday objects.
1980:
consists of measurements of light power at all wavelengths, while
5795:
5077:
4885:
4521:
3012:
Luminescence: The Journal of Biological and Chemical Luminescence
2655:
2361:
2356:
2299:
2257:
2216:
2204:
2176:
2168:
1873:
1751:
1690:
1455:
1325:
1312:
have attempted to measure the speed of light throughout history.
1226:
1218:
1094:
1039:
380:
5012:
4477:
2400:
in 1810 created a mathematical particle theory of polarization.
6018:
5621:
5611:
4495:
3777:. Fred W. Billmeyer, Max Saltzman (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ:
2900:
2896:
2888:
2675:
2413:
2261:
2153:
1826:
1787:
1747:
1652:
1446:
1441:
1428:
1393:
1298:
1256:
1222:
1102:
1090:
360:
355:
3748:"Harvard Gazette: Researchers now able to stop, restart light"
3630:"Scientific Method, Statistical Method and the Speed of Light"
3457:
2849:, was the crucial technology needed to achieve the celebrated
1613:{\displaystyle n_{1}\sin \theta _{1}=n_{2}\sin \theta _{2}\ .}
1140:
5646:
5641:
5631:
5601:
5043:
4710:
2706:
2200:
1838:
1834:
1187:
1135:
1047:
345:
3685:
1477:
object does not allow light to transmit through and instead
5636:
5616:
5596:
5466:
5383:
3959:"Solar Sails Could Send Spacecraft 'Sailing' Through Space"
1976:
Light is measured with two main alternative sets of units:
1767:
1289:
Beam of sun light inside the cavity of Rocca ill'Abissu at
1117:
395:
350:
2740:
was developed using quantum fields based on the works of
1717:. For a particle accelerator used to generate X-rays, see
1247:
and the internal lens below 400 nm. Furthermore, the
5712:
5606:
5371:
4254:
2500:
could more easily be explained by a wave theory. In 1816
1743:
1113:
3908:
nano-opto-mechanical systems research at Yale University
3094:(1st ed.). Chennai: Orient Blackswan. p. 387.
2805:
describing the waves in the classical picture. In 1977,
2592:. This was the first evidence that light was related to
2256:
property of the luminous body, rejecting the "forms" of
2064:
on the object being illuminated; thus, one could lift a
1132:, electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight.
1025:(with longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) and the
4376:
David Cassidy; Gerald Holton; James Rutherford (2002).
3989:"NASA team successfully deploys two solar sail systems"
3775:
Billmeyer and Saltzman's Principles of Color Technology
2989:â in particular about light beams visible from the side
2144:; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that goddess
2127:
Historical theories about light, in chronological order
1758:). Solar radiation peaks in the visible region of the
1097:
of electromagnetic field, and can be analyzed as both
4364:
André-Marie AmpÚre: Enlightenment and Electrodynamics
4227:
3507:
Lynch, David K.; Livingston, William Charles (2001).
3495:
presence of second harmonic generation in the retina.
3383:
3172:
1548:
183:
76:
2926:
2167:, a Roman who carried on the ideas of earlier Greek
2123:
momentum is transverse to direction of propagation.
1844:
Deceleration of a free charged particle, such as an
1440:
The study of light and the interaction of light and
1058:
are also light. The primary properties of light are
37:"Visible light" redirects here. For other uses, see
4230:"Light through the ages: Ancient Greece to Maxwell"
3847:"Reference Solar Spectral Irradiance: Air Mass 1.5"
3745:
3500:
2225:refers to sunlight as "the seven rays of the sun".
5665:Linguistic relativity and the colour naming debate
4562:
3549:Dash, Madhab Chandra; Dash, Satya Prakash (2009).
3417:
3389:
3131:
2604:radiation: he first stated this result in 1862 in
1612:
239:
169:
4413:
4411:
4023:"Untersuchungen ĂŒber die DruckkrĂ€fte des Lichtes"
2131:
1864:. Certain chemicals produce visible radiation by
1415:in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the other at the
1112:The main source of natural light on Earth is the
1062:, propagation direction, frequency or wavelength
6064:
3310:Introduction to Optics and Lasers in Engineering
3811:"Spectrum and the Color Sensitivity of the Eye"
3506:
2736:. And at the end of the 1940s a full theory of
1260:chemical way that humans detect visible light.
4408:
3423:
3211:
3123:
2215:) out of which emerge the gross elements. The
5028:
4548:
4319:
4317:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4228:O'Connor, J J; Robertson, E F (August 2002).
3627:
2343:Newton's theory could be used to predict the
1627:is the angle between the ray and the surface
1509:inside the object. Like transparent objects,
959:
4124:
3390:Ohannesian, Lena; Streeter, Anthony (2001).
3289:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2024 (
3238:
2713:. The photon is a massless boson of spin 1.
1919:Certain other mechanisms can produce light:
1462:offer many clues as to the nature of light.
1217:EMR in the visible light region consists of
164:
113:
4366:, Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 222.
4324:Theories of light, from Descartes to Newton
4071:
3584:
3555:. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 213.
3253:: 2020-06-14 AbdzexK uban. pp. 43â44.
3129:
2630:In the quantum theory, photons are seen as
2584:direction in the presence of a transparent
2140:postulated that everything was composed of
1868:. In living things, this process is called
1417:HarvardâSmithsonian Center for Astrophysics
6047:
5035:
5021:
4555:
4541:
4314:
4273:
3451:
3362:. Cambridge University Press. p. 26.
1891:is one example. This mechanism is used in
1301:is defined to be exactly 299 792 458
1136:Electromagnetic spectrum and visible light
966:
952:
4155:
4097:
3710:
3679:
3677:
3645:
3598:Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences
3461:Journal of the Optical Society of America
3176:Camera lenses: from box camera to digital
3130:Buser, Pierre A.; Imbert, Michel (1992).
2879:
2685:came to picture light as (in some sense)
2546:
5816:International Commission on Illumination
3548:
3542:
3424:Ahluwalia, V.K.; Goyal, Madhuri (2000).
3349:
2556:
2456:
2446:
2298:
1904:
1526:
1284:
1166:(EMR) is classified by wavelength into
1139:
1021:. The visible band sits adjacent to the
45:
27:Electromagnetic radiation humans can see
4440:
4417:
4286:"Shastra Pratibha 2015 Seniors Booklet"
4128:The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein
4017:
3746:Harvard News Office (24 January 2001).
3683:
3590:
2793:). This led to the introduction of the
2611:A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism
2379:The large scale structure of space-time
2276:. In 1637 he published a theory of the
1705:are all examples of this manipulation.
1497:. Surface scatterance is caused by the
1320:, a Danish physicist, in 1676. Using a
14:
6065:
5806:Color Association of the United States
4896:Wireless electronic devices and health
4466:Introduction to Molecular Spectroscopy
4462:
3926:
3674:
3303:
3232:
3085:
3079:
5016:
4536:
4202:
3772:
3355:
2919:use it to hide themselves from prey.
2868:. The latter are of much interest in
2858:demonstration of quantum entanglement
2332:of light (which had been observed by
4922:List of civilian radiation accidents
4891:Wireless device radiation and health
4886:Biological dose units and quantities
4836:Electromagnetic radiation and health
4346:, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004,
3969:from the original on 21 October 2012
3927:Svitil, Kathy A. (5 February 2004).
3871:
3628:Oldford, R. W; MacKay, R. J (2000).
3609:from the original on 24 October 2013
3218:. Laxmi Publications. p. 1416.
2179:(c. second century) wrote about the
1912:illuminated by colourful artificial
1493:the incoming light, which is called
4396:from the original on 8 October 2022
4205:Fundamentals of Optical Engineering
4106:from the original on 8 October 2022
3939:from the original on 9 October 2012
3569:from the original on 8 October 2022
3527:from the original on 8 October 2022
3393:Handbook of Pharmaceutical Analysis
3193:from the original on 8 October 2022
3108:from the original on 8 October 2022
2674:named these light quanta particles
2365:of 1704. His reputation helped the
2324:of 1675 that light was composed of
1120:, from ancient campfires to modern
1105:, is an important research area in
24:
5670:Blueâgreen distinction in language
4871:Radioactivity in the life sciences
4326:A.I. Sabra CUP Archive,1981 p. 48
4255:Ptolemy and A. Mark Smith (1996).
3766:
3750:. News.harvard.edu. Archived from
3662:from the original on 24 March 2017
2288:
2252:(1596â1650) held that light was a
2190:
1432:
200:
25:
6089:
5042:
4488:
4072:Nichols, E.F; Hull, G.F. (1903).
3999:from the original on 14 June 2012
3070:International Lighting Vocabulary
3048:International Lighting Vocabulary
2856:Other remarkable results are the
2759:
2641:
2430:to the direction of propagation.
2347:of light, but could only explain
2023:
1848:, can produce visible radiation:
1274:
1005:and is usually defined as having
122:
6046:
6037:
6036:
5827:International Colour Association
5410:
4520:
4506:
4494:
4456:
4259:. Diane Publishing. p. 23.
4053:from the original on 6 June 2022
3853:from the original on 12 May 2019
3827:from the original on 5 July 2010
3092:Textbook of Practical Physiology
3086:Pal, G.K.; Pal, Pravati (2001).
2943:
2929:
2841:by laser beam. This, along with
1797:" in the spectrum of each atom.
1708:
1473:or pass through. Conversely, an
1324:, RĂžmer observed the motions of
5822:International Colour Consortium
4449:
4434:
4422:Theoretical Concepts in Physics
4369:
4356:
4336:
4248:
4221:
4196:
4134:
4118:
4074:"The Pressure due to Radiation"
4065:
4011:
3981:
3951:
3929:"Asteroids Get Spun By the Sun"
3920:
3900:
3865:
3839:
3803:
3739:
3704:
3621:
3427:A Textbook of Organic Chemistry
3239:Uzan, J-P; Leclercq, B (2008).
1738:, the radiation emitted by the
1450:. The observation and study of
1101:. The study of light, known as
5887:List of Crayola crayon colours
5811:International Colour Authority
4207:. Discovery Publishing House.
3297:
3245:. Translated by Robert Mizon.
3205:
3173:Gregory Hallock Smith (2006).
3166:
3036:
2915:use light to locate mates and
2814:were subsequently discovered.
2480:). Young showed by means of a
2407:
2132:Classical Greece and Hellenism
2012:(CCD) tend to respond to some
1961:
496:Atomic, molecular, and optical
161:
155:
141:
110:
104:
90:
83:
39:Visible light (disambiguation)
13:
1:
4511:The dictionary definition of
3591:Saidman, Jean (15 May 1933).
3058:. Number 17.4. CIE, 4th ed..
3029:
2569:and perpendicular B denoting
2494:Nova theoria lucis et colorum
2392:The fact that light could be
2173:On the nature of the Universe
2078:nanoelectromechanical systems
2056:For example, a one-milliwatt
1734:. A simple thermal source is
1516:
1413:Rowland Institute for Science
1236:depends on a kind of natural
5690:Traditional colours of Japan
5467:Achromatic colours (Neutral)
5350:Multi-primary colour display
3326:10.1017/CBO9781139174190.004
2264:as well as the "species" of
2244:
2076:-scale applications such as
2060:exerts a force of about 3.3
1715:Lightsource Renewable Energy
1085:, is one of the fundamental
7:
5124:Spectral power distribution
4759:Cosmic background radiation
4445:. Springer Verlag New York.
2922:
2530:MichelsonâMorley experiment
2295:Corpuscular theory of light
2099:Although the motion of the
1182:that we perceive as light,
10:
6094:
5550:Colour realism (art style)
5208:Evolution of colour vision
4988:
4846:Lasers and aviation safety
4463:Barrow, Gordon M. (1962).
3886:10.1109/MSPEC.2009.5268000
3552:Fundamentals of Ecology 3E
3396:. CRC Press. p. 187.
2870:quantum information theory
2851:BoseâEinstein condensation
2763:
2606:On Physical Lines of Force
2550:
2292:
2149:a source such as the sun.
2092:The possibility of making
2027:
1965:
1723:
1712:
1681:The refractive quality of
1520:
1505:between the particles and
1426:
1278:
1234:Infrared sensing in snakes
1155:
1124:. With the development of
1001:. Visible light spans the
36:
29:
6078:Electromagnetic radiation
6032:
6004:
5917:
5867:List of colours (compact)
5842:
5835:
5786:
5705:
5685:Colour in Chinese culture
5655:
5587:
5578:
5497:
5430:
5419:
5408:
5308:
5255:
5137:
5060:
5051:
4986:
4950:
4914:
4876:Radioactive contamination
4801:
4729:Electromagnetic radiation
4719:
4631:
4578:
4571:
4418:Longair, Malcolm (2003).
4078:The Astrophysical Journal
3510:Color and Light in Nature
3269:(inactive 28 July 2024).
3267:10.1007/978-0-387-74081-2
3215:Comprehensive Physics XII
3179:. SPIE Press. p. 4.
2817:Development of short and
2709:(after Bose) that follow
2588:, an effect now known as
2553:Electromagnetic radiation
2412:To explain the origin of
2236:in the fifth century and
2136:In the fifth century BC,
1422:
1164:electromagnetic radiation
991:electromagnetic radiation
5872:List of colours by shade
5335:Digital image processing
5068:Electromagnetic spectrum
4989:See also the categories
4927:1996 Costa Rica accident
4588:Acoustic radiation force
4342:Fokko Jan Dijksterhuis,
4047:10.1002/andp.19013111102
3304:Laufer, Gabriel (1996).
3054:27 February 2010 at the
3024:
2821:laser pulsesâcreated by
2711:BoseâEinstein statistics
2650:, attempting to explain
2608:. In 1873, he published
2599:Faraday's work inspired
2367:particle theory of light
2048:Due to the magnitude of
1988:intended for human use.
1764:incandescent light bulbs
1760:electromagnetic spectrum
1719:Synchrotron light source
1401:BoseâEinstein condensate
1158:Electromagnetic spectrum
1146:electromagnetic spectrum
1009:in the range of 400â700
253:Einstein field equations
5877:List of colour palettes
4901:Radiation heat-transfer
4754:Gravitational radiation
3697:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
3684:Newcomb, Simon (1911).
3430:. Narosa. p. 110.
3212:Narinder Kumar (2008).
2981:Journal of Luminescence
2738:quantum electrodynamics
1986:Illumination (lighting)
1469:object allows light to
1013:(nm), corresponding to
556:Theories of gravitation
471:Electroweak interaction
5100:Structural colouration
4942:1990 Zaragoza accident
4937:1984 Moroccan accident
4906:Linear energy transfer
4580:Non-ionizing radiation
4525:Quotations related to
3773:Berns, Roy S. (2019).
3482:10.1364/JOSA.66.000339
2899:mostly in the form of
2880:Use for light on Earth
2803:electromagnetic fields
2573:
2547:Electromagnetic theory
2482:diffraction experiment
2473:
2466:double-slit experiment
2454:
2306:
2010:charge-coupled devices
1916:
1631:in the first medium, Ξ
1614:
1532:
1437:
1297:The speed of light in
1294:
1153:
241:
171:
58:
32:Light (disambiguation)
5882:List of colour spaces
5801:Color Marketing Group
5556:On Vision and Colours
5489:Tinctures in heraldry
5472:Polychromatic colours
5457:Complementary colours
5445:Monochromatic colours
4932:1987 GoiĂąnia accident
4734:Synchrotron radiation
4724:Earth's energy budget
4706:Radioactive materials
4701:Particle accelerators
4443:Understanding Physics
4379:Understanding Physics
3713:Astrophysical Journal
3647:10.1214/ss/1009212817
3138:. MIT Press. p.
3006:List of light sources
2862:quantum teleportation
2722:electromagnetic field
2560:
2517:Académie des Sciences
2506:Augustin-Jean Fresnel
2460:
2450:
2302:
2183:of light in his book
2044:, the speed of light.
2000:by a quantity called
1908:
1854:synchrotron radiation
1807:light-emitting diodes
1746:at around 6,000
1726:List of light sources
1724:Further information:
1703:refracting telescopes
1645:indices of refraction
1615:
1530:
1436:
1288:
1143:
434:Philosophy of physics
242:
172:
49:
5862:List of colours: NâZ
5857:List of colours: GâM
5852:List of colours: AâF
5774:Tint, shade and tone
5657:Cultural differences
5003:Radiation protection
4856:Radiation protection
4744:Black-body radiation
4651:Background radiation
4566:(physics and health)
4503:at Wikimedia Commons
3913:25 June 2010 at the
3356:Bradt, Hale (2004).
3306:"Geometrical Optics"
3072:, the definition of
2664:Arthur Holly Compton
2660:photoelectric effect
2652:black-body radiation
2521:Siméon Denis Poisson
2371:Pierre-Simon Laplace
1732:black-body radiation
1546:
1093:that represents the
566:Theory of everything
444:Quantum field theory
181:
74:
30:For other uses, see
18:Propagation of light
5909:List of web colours
5904:List of RAL colours
5310:Colour reproduction
5275:LĂŒscher colour test
5112:Colour of chemicals
4973:Radiation hardening
4915:Radiation incidents
4851:Medical radiography
4810:Radiation syndrome
4764:Cherenkov radiation
4441:Cassidy, D (2002).
4166:2016NatPh..12..731A
4090:1903ApJ....17..315N
4039:1901AnP...311..433L
3818:Thulescientific.com
3725:1927ApJ....65....1M
3634:Statistical Science
3474:1976JOSA...66..339S
3318:1996iole.book.....L
3259:2008nlu..book.....U
2866:quantum logic gates
2791:degree of coherence
2754:Shinichiro Tomonaga
2734:second quantization
2703:Satyendra Nath Bose
2616:Maxwell's equations
2601:James Clerk Maxwell
2442:luminiferous aether
2398:Ătienne-Louis Malus
2322:Hypothesis of Light
2320:. He stated in his
2036:Maxwell's equations
1968:Photometry (optics)
1924:Electroluminescence
1889:Cathodoluminescence
1862:Cherenkov radiation
1850:cyclotron radiation
1823:mercury-vapor lamps
1489:and to some degree
1378:Albert A. Michelson
1291:Fondachelli-Fantina
1194:. The designation "
1099:waves and particles
516:Non-linear dynamics
454:Quantum computation
449:Quantum information
323:Satyendra Nath Bose
5318:Colour photography
5270:Colour preferences
5213:Impossible colours
5203:Colour vision test
5198:Colour temperature
5176:Colour calibration
5105:Animal colouration
4968:Radioactive source
4789:Radiation exposure
4769:Askaryan radiation
4749:Particle radiation
4633:Ionizing radiation
4362:James R. Hofmann,
4203:Singh, S. (2009).
3965:. 31 August 2004.
3906:See, for example,
3754:on 28 October 2011
2975:Huygens' principle
2970:Fermat's principle
2965:Colour temperature
2831:Raman spectroscopy
2668:Compton scattering
2574:
2563:linearly polarized
2502:André-Marie AmpÚre
2474:
2455:
2452:Christiaan Huygens
2432:Christiaan Huygens
2402:Jean-Baptiste Biot
2387:George F. R. Ellis
2334:Francesco Grimaldi
2307:
2270:Robert Grosseteste
2105:Nichols radiometer
2101:Crookes radiometer
2030:Radiation pressure
1917:
1687:Magnifying glasses
1610:
1533:
1438:
1409:Harvard University
1295:
1269:photomorphogenesis
1154:
541:General relativity
536:Special relativity
476:Strong interaction
237:
167:
59:
6060:
6059:
6000:
5999:
5782:
5781:
5706:Colour dimensions
5695:Human skin colour
5574:
5573:
5564:Theory of Colours
5462:Analogous colours
5406:
5405:
5340:Colour management
5257:Colour psychology
5139:Colour perception
5010:
5009:
4991:Radiation effects
4861:Radiation therapy
4797:
4796:
4739:Thermal radiation
4676:Neutron radiation
4641:Radioactive decay
4499:Media related to
4389:978-0-387-98756-9
4332:978-0-521-28436-3
4266:978-0-87169-862-9
4174:10.1038/nphys3732
3995:. 9 August 2004.
3933:Discover Magazine
3788:978-1-119-36668-3
3562:978-1-259-08109-5
3520:978-0-521-77504-5
3437:978-81-7319-159-6
3403:978-0-8247-4194-5
3369:978-0-521-53551-9
3335:978-0-521-45233-5
3276:978-0-387-73454-5
3225:978-81-7008-592-8
3186:978-0-8194-6093-6
3149:978-0-262-02336-8
3101:978-81-250-2021-9
3064:978-3-900734-07-7
2683:quantum mechanics
2437:Treatise on Light
2152:In about 300 BC,
2002:luminous efficacy
1956:Radioactive decay
1939:Triboluminescence
1900:computer monitors
1866:chemoluminescence
1606:
1499:surface roughness
1452:optical phenomena
1387:Mount San Antonio
1032:optical radiation
987:visible radiation
976:
975:
439:Quantum mechanics
313:Ernest Rutherford
293:Erwin Schrödinger
288:Werner Heisenberg
138:
86:
16:(Redirected from
6085:
6050:
6049:
6040:
6039:
5840:
5839:
5585:
5584:
5517:Secondary colour
5428:
5427:
5414:
5290:National colours
5285:Political colour
5265:Colour symbolism
5223:Opponent process
5181:Colour constancy
5159:Colour blindness
5090:Spectral colours
5058:
5057:
5037:
5030:
5023:
5014:
5013:
4951:Related articles
4866:Radiation damage
4691:Nuclear reactors
4576:
4575:
4557:
4550:
4543:
4534:
4533:
4524:
4510:
4498:
4482:
4481:
4471:
4461:
4460:
4453:
4447:
4446:
4438:
4432:
4431:
4425:
4415:
4406:
4405:
4403:
4401:
4373:
4367:
4360:
4354:
4340:
4334:
4321:
4312:
4311:
4309:
4307:
4301:
4295:. Archived from
4290:
4282:
4271:
4270:
4252:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4241:
4236:on 19 March 2017
4232:. Archived from
4225:
4219:
4218:
4200:
4194:
4193:
4159:
4138:
4132:
4131:
4122:
4116:
4115:
4113:
4111:
4101:
4069:
4063:
4062:
4060:
4058:
4015:
4009:
4008:
4006:
4004:
3985:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3974:
3955:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3944:
3924:
3918:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3869:
3863:
3862:
3860:
3858:
3843:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3832:
3826:
3815:
3807:
3801:
3800:
3770:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3759:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3708:
3702:
3701:
3689:
3681:
3672:
3671:
3669:
3667:
3649:
3625:
3619:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3576:
3574:
3546:
3540:
3539:
3534:
3532:
3504:
3498:
3497:
3455:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3421:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3410:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3378:
3376:
3353:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3342:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3288:
3280:
3251:Internet Archive
3236:
3230:
3229:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3200:
3198:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3158:
3156:
3137:
3127:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3113:
3083:
3077:
3040:
2960:Ballistic photon
2953:
2948:
2947:
2939:
2934:
2933:
2874:computer science
2847:Sisyphus cooling
2839:optical tweezers
2775:George Sudarshan
2742:Julian Schwinger
2672:Gilbert N. Lewis
2594:electromagnetism
2590:Faraday rotation
2121:evanescent waves
2091:
2071:
2055:
2047:
1934:Sonoluminescence
1893:cathode-ray tube
1780:thermal emission
1619:
1617:
1616:
1611:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1587:
1586:
1574:
1573:
1558:
1557:
1503:refractive index
1369:
1367:
1364:
1352:Hippolyte Fizeau
1346:
1344:
1341:
1180:visible spectrum
1084:
1082:
1079:
1003:visible spectrum
968:
961:
954:
619:SkĆodowska-Curie
501:Condensed matter
466:Weak interaction
461:Electromagnetism
318:Louis de Broglie
246:
244:
243:
238:
236:
235:
223:
215:
214:
196:
195:
176:
174:
173:
168:
154:
153:
144:
139:
137:
126:
103:
102:
93:
88:
87:
79:
61:
60:
21:
6093:
6092:
6088:
6087:
6086:
6084:
6083:
6082:
6063:
6062:
6061:
6056:
6028:
5996:
5913:
5831:
5788:
5778:
5701:
5680:Blue in culture
5676:Colour history
5651:
5570:
5544:Colour analysis
5539:Colour triangle
5493:
5450:black-and-white
5422:
5415:
5402:
5345:Colour printing
5304:
5251:
5133:
5047:
5041:
5011:
5006:
5005:
4982:
4978:Havana syndrome
4963:Nuclear physics
4946:
4910:
4803:
4793:
4779:Unruh radiation
4715:
4696:Nuclear weapons
4681:Nuclear fission
4627:
4567:
4561:
4491:
4486:
4485:
4472:. McGraw-Hill.
4469:
4455:
4454:
4450:
4439:
4435:
4416:
4409:
4399:
4397:
4390:
4374:
4370:
4361:
4357:
4341:
4337:
4322:
4315:
4305:
4303:
4299:
4288:
4284:
4283:
4274:
4267:
4253:
4249:
4239:
4237:
4226:
4222:
4215:
4201:
4197:
4139:
4135:
4123:
4119:
4109:
4107:
4070:
4066:
4056:
4054:
4033:(11): 433â458.
4016:
4012:
4002:
4000:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3972:
3970:
3957:
3956:
3952:
3942:
3940:
3925:
3921:
3915:Wayback Machine
3905:
3901:
3870:
3866:
3856:
3854:
3845:
3844:
3840:
3830:
3828:
3824:
3813:
3809:
3808:
3804:
3789:
3771:
3767:
3757:
3755:
3744:
3740:
3709:
3705:
3682:
3675:
3665:
3663:
3626:
3622:
3612:
3610:
3589:
3585:
3572:
3570:
3563:
3547:
3543:
3530:
3528:
3521:
3505:
3501:
3456:
3452:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3422:
3418:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3388:
3384:
3374:
3372:
3370:
3354:
3350:
3340:
3338:
3336:
3302:
3298:
3282:
3281:
3277:
3247:Springer-Praxis
3237:
3233:
3226:
3210:
3206:
3196:
3194:
3187:
3171:
3167:
3154:
3152:
3150:
3128:
3124:
3111:
3109:
3102:
3084:
3080:
3067:
3056:Wayback Machine
3041:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
2994:Light Fantastic
2949:
2942:
2935:
2928:
2925:
2911:. For example,
2909:bioluminescence
2882:
2843:Doppler cooling
2799:squeezed states
2771:John R. Klauder
2768:
2762:
2746:Richard Feynman
2644:
2578:Michael Faraday
2555:
2549:
2510:transverse wave
2492:. He argued in
2464:'s sketch of a
2410:
2383:Stephen Hawking
2310:Pierre Gassendi
2304:Pierre Gassendi
2297:
2291:
2289:Particle theory
2274:Johannes Kepler
2247:
2193:
2191:Classical India
2134:
2129:
2089:
2069:
2053:
2045:
2032:
2026:
1974:
1966:Main articles:
1964:
1896:television sets
1885:phosphorescence
1872:. For example,
1870:bioluminescence
1837:or a microwave
1813:lamps (such as
1728:
1722:
1711:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1626:
1598:
1594:
1582:
1578:
1569:
1565:
1553:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1543:
1525:
1519:
1460:aurora borealis
1431:
1425:
1403:of the element
1365:
1362:
1360:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1328:and one of its
1283:
1277:
1255:located in the
1238:thermal imaging
1200:static electric
1160:
1150:visible portion
1138:
1126:electric lights
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:speed in vacuum
972:
943:
942:
939:
938:
937:
927:
919:
918:
579:
571:
570:
561:Quantum gravity
511:Complex systems
409:
401:
400:
336:
328:
327:
273:Albert Einstein
263:
255:
228:
224:
219:
207:
203:
188:
184:
182:
179:
178:
177:
149:
145:
140:
130:
125:
98:
94:
89:
78:
77:
75:
72:
71:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6091:
6081:
6080:
6075:
6058:
6057:
6055:
6054:
6044:
6033:
6030:
6029:
6027:
6026:
6021:
6016:
6010:
6008:
6002:
6001:
5998:
5997:
5995:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5923:
5921:
5915:
5914:
5912:
5911:
5906:
5901:
5896:
5895:
5894:
5884:
5879:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5848:
5846:
5837:
5833:
5832:
5830:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5813:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5792:
5790:
5784:
5783:
5780:
5779:
5777:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5765:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5749:
5744:
5734:
5733:
5732:
5730:Pastel colours
5722:
5721:
5720:
5709:
5707:
5703:
5702:
5700:
5699:
5698:
5697:
5692:
5687:
5682:
5674:
5673:
5672:
5661:
5659:
5653:
5652:
5650:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5593:
5591:
5582:
5576:
5575:
5572:
5571:
5569:
5568:
5560:
5559:(Schopenhauer)
5552:
5547:
5541:
5536:
5531:
5526:
5521:
5520:
5519:
5514:
5512:Primary colour
5503:
5501:
5495:
5494:
5492:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5476:
5475:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5459:
5454:
5453:
5452:
5436:
5434:
5425:
5417:
5416:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5403:
5401:
5400:
5398:Colour mapping
5395:
5390:
5389:
5388:
5387:
5386:
5376:
5375:
5374:
5359:
5358:
5357:
5352:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5331:
5330:
5325:
5323:Colour balance
5314:
5312:
5306:
5305:
5303:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5280:Kruithof curve
5277:
5272:
5267:
5261:
5259:
5253:
5252:
5250:
5249:
5242:
5237:
5236:
5235:
5230:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5194:
5193:
5183:
5178:
5173:
5172:
5171:
5166:
5156:
5155:
5154:
5152:Sonochromatism
5143:
5141:
5135:
5134:
5132:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5120:
5119:
5109:
5108:
5107:
5102:
5092:
5087:
5086:
5085:
5080:
5075:
5064:
5062:
5061:Colour physics
5055:
5053:Colour science
5049:
5048:
5040:
5039:
5032:
5025:
5017:
5008:
5007:
4987:
4984:
4983:
4981:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4954:
4952:
4948:
4947:
4945:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4918:
4916:
4912:
4911:
4909:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4826:Health physics
4823:
4822:
4821:
4816:
4807:
4805:
4799:
4798:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4791:
4786:
4784:Dark radiation
4781:
4776:
4774:Bremsstrahlung
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4720:
4717:
4716:
4714:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4686:Nuclear fusion
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4656:Alpha particle
4653:
4648:
4643:
4637:
4635:
4629:
4628:
4626:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4584:
4582:
4573:
4569:
4568:
4560:
4559:
4552:
4545:
4537:
4531:
4530:
4518:
4504:
4490:
4489:External links
4487:
4484:
4483:
4448:
4433:
4407:
4388:
4382:. BirkhÀuser.
4368:
4355:
4335:
4313:
4302:on 30 May 2015
4272:
4265:
4247:
4220:
4214:978-8183564366
4213:
4195:
4150:(8): 731â735.
4144:Nature Physics
4133:
4117:
4099:10.1086/141035
4084:(5): 315â351.
4064:
4010:
3980:
3950:
3919:
3899:
3864:
3838:
3802:
3787:
3765:
3738:
3733:10.1086/143021
3703:
3692:Chisholm, Hugh
3673:
3640:(3): 254â278.
3620:
3583:
3561:
3541:
3519:
3499:
3468:(4): 339â341.
3450:
3436:
3416:
3402:
3382:
3368:
3348:
3334:
3312:. p. 11.
3296:
3275:
3231:
3224:
3204:
3185:
3165:
3148:
3122:
3100:
3078:
3034:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3020:
3015:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2990:
2984:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2951:Science portal
2940:
2937:Physics portal
2924:
2921:
2905:photosynthesis
2895:use to create
2881:
2878:
2812:squeezed light
2807:H. Jeff Kimble
2795:coherent state
2789:of light (see
2783:Leonard Mandel
2779:Roy J. Glauber
2766:Quantum optics
2764:Main article:
2761:
2760:Quantum optics
2758:
2726:Pascual Jordan
2720:quantized the
2701:In 1924â1925,
2643:
2642:Quantum theory
2640:
2636:spectral lines
2620:Heinrich Hertz
2618:. Soon after,
2582:magnetic field
2571:magnetic field
2567:electric field
2551:Main article:
2548:
2545:
2537:speed of light
2490:Leonhard Euler
2409:
2406:
2293:Main article:
2290:
2287:
2258:Ibn al-Haytham
2250:René Descartes
2246:
2243:
2192:
2189:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2028:Main article:
2025:
2024:Light pressure
2022:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1958:
1953:
1942:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1858:bremsstrahlung
1795:emission lines
1754:; 10,340
1710:
1707:
1695:contact lenses
1640:
1636:
1632:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1609:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1521:Main article:
1518:
1515:
1427:Main article:
1424:
1421:
1407:, one team at
1281:Speed of light
1279:Main article:
1276:
1275:Speed of light
1273:
1156:Main article:
1137:
1134:
1122:kerosene lamps
1107:modern physics
974:
973:
971:
970:
963:
956:
948:
945:
944:
941:
940:
935:Modern physics
933:
932:
928:
925:
924:
921:
920:
917:
916:
911:
906:
901:
896:
891:
886:
881:
876:
871:
866:
861:
856:
851:
846:
841:
836:
831:
826:
821:
816:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
769:P. W. Anderson
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
696:
691:
686:
681:
676:
671:
666:
661:
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
631:
626:
621:
616:
611:
606:
601:
596:
591:
586:
580:
577:
576:
573:
572:
569:
568:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
538:
533:
531:Plasma physics
528:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
457:
456:
451:
446:
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431:
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410:
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393:
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383:
378:
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368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
337:
334:
333:
330:
329:
326:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
303:Wolfgang Pauli
300:
298:Pascual Jordan
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
264:
261:
260:
257:
256:
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166:
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136:
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129:
124:
121:
118:
115:
112:
109:
106:
101:
97:
92:
85:
82:
68:
67:
65:Modern physics
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6090:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6070:
6068:
6053:
6045:
6043:
6035:
6034:
6031:
6025:
6022:
6020:
6017:
6015:
6012:
6011:
6009:
6007:
6003:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
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5958:
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5953:
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5930:
5928:
5925:
5924:
5922:
5920:
5916:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5893:
5890:
5889:
5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5875:
5873:
5870:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5849:
5847:
5845:
5841:
5838:
5834:
5828:
5825:
5823:
5820:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5804:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5794:
5793:
5791:
5789:organisations
5785:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5753:
5750:
5748:
5745:
5743:
5740:
5739:
5738:
5735:
5731:
5728:
5727:
5726:
5725:Colourfulness
5723:
5719:
5716:
5715:
5714:
5711:
5710:
5708:
5704:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5677:
5675:
5671:
5668:
5667:
5666:
5663:
5662:
5660:
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5654:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
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5590:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5577:
5566:
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5542:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5509:
5508:
5507:Colour mixing
5505:
5504:
5502:
5500:
5499:Colour theory
5496:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5479:Light-on-dark
5477:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5451:
5448:
5447:
5446:
5443:
5442:
5441:
5438:
5437:
5435:
5433:
5432:Colour scheme
5429:
5426:
5424:
5418:
5413:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5385:
5382:
5381:
5380:
5377:
5373:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5365:
5364:
5363:
5360:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5347:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5320:
5319:
5316:
5315:
5313:
5311:
5307:
5301:
5300:Chromotherapy
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5262:
5260:
5258:
5254:
5248:
5247:
5243:
5241:
5240:Tetrachromacy
5238:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5225:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5192:
5189:
5188:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5164:Achromatopsia
5162:
5161:
5160:
5157:
5153:
5150:
5149:
5148:
5147:Chromesthesia
5145:
5144:
5142:
5140:
5136:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5118:
5115:
5114:
5113:
5110:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5097:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5074:
5071:
5070:
5069:
5066:
5065:
5063:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5050:
5045:
5038:
5033:
5031:
5026:
5024:
5019:
5018:
5015:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4995:Radioactivity
4992:
4985:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4955:
4953:
4949:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4919:
4917:
4913:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4811:
4809:
4808:
4806:
4800:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4721:
4718:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4661:Beta particle
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4646:Cluster decay
4644:
4642:
4639:
4638:
4636:
4634:
4630:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4585:
4583:
4581:
4577:
4574:
4572:Main articles
4570:
4565:
4558:
4553:
4551:
4546:
4544:
4539:
4538:
4535:
4528:
4523:
4519:
4517:at Wiktionary
4516:
4515:
4509:
4505:
4502:
4497:
4493:
4492:
4479:
4475:
4470:(Scanned PDF)
4468:
4467:
4459:
4452:
4444:
4437:
4429:
4424:
4423:
4414:
4412:
4395:
4391:
4385:
4381:
4380:
4372:
4365:
4359:
4353:
4352:1-4020-2697-8
4349:
4345:
4339:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4320:
4318:
4298:
4294:
4287:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4268:
4262:
4258:
4251:
4235:
4231:
4224:
4216:
4210:
4206:
4199:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4137:
4129:
4121:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4068:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4014:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3984:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3954:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3923:
3916:
3912:
3909:
3903:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3880:(10): 46â51.
3879:
3875:
3874:IEEE Spectrum
3868:
3852:
3848:
3842:
3823:
3819:
3812:
3806:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3769:
3753:
3749:
3742:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3707:
3699:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3687:"Light"
3680:
3678:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3624:
3608:
3604:
3601:(in French).
3600:
3599:
3594:
3587:
3580:
3568:
3564:
3558:
3554:
3553:
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3538:
3526:
3522:
3516:
3512:
3511:
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3496:
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3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3462:
3454:
3439:
3433:
3429:
3428:
3420:
3405:
3399:
3395:
3394:
3386:
3371:
3365:
3361:
3360:
3352:
3337:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3300:
3292:
3286:
3278:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3243:
3235:
3227:
3221:
3217:
3216:
3208:
3192:
3188:
3182:
3178:
3177:
3169:
3162:
3151:
3145:
3141:
3136:
3135:
3126:
3119:
3107:
3103:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3082:
3075:
3071:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3013:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2946:
2941:
2938:
2932:
2927:
2920:
2918:
2917:vampire squid
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2887:provides the
2886:
2877:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2854:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2815:
2813:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2767:
2757:
2755:
2751:
2750:Freeman Dyson
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2730:Vladimir Fock
2727:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2699:
2695:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2639:
2637:
2633:
2628:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2544:
2542:
2541:LĂ©on Foucault
2538:
2533:
2531:
2525:
2522:
2518:
2513:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2428:perpendicular
2425:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2363:
2358:
2357:gravitational
2354:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2305:
2301:
2296:
2286:
2282:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2242:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2222:Vishnu Purana
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2197:ancient India
2188:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2142:four elements
2139:
2124:
2122:
2117:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2095:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2058:laser pointer
2051:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2031:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1973:
1969:
1957:
1954:
1951:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1929:Scintillation
1927:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1811:gas discharge
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1769:
1765:
1761:
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1737:
1733:
1727:
1720:
1716:
1709:Light sources
1706:
1704:
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1696:
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1688:
1684:
1679:
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1406:
1402:
1397:
1395:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1374:LĂ©on Foucault
1371:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
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1311:
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1133:
1131:
1130:power systems
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1110:
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1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1073:
1069:
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1057:
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1049:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
983:visible light
980:
969:
964:
962:
957:
955:
950:
949:
947:
946:
936:
930:
929:
923:
922:
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905:
902:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
869:J. J. Thomson
867:
865:
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857:
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852:
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845:
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837:
835:
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805:
802:
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797:
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790:
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772:
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765:
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750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
714:van der Waals
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
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677:
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581:
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542:
539:
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534:
532:
529:
527:
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522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
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489:
487:
484:
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479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
455:
452:
450:
447:
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5762:Fluorescence
5718:Dichromatism
5580:Colour terms
5562:
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5534:Colour wheel
5529:Colour solid
5524:Chromaticity
5393:Colour space
5362:Colour model
5295:Chromophobia
5244:
5072:
4999:Radiobiology
4881:Radiobiology
4841:Laser safety
4597:
4529:at Wikiquote
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3091:
3088:"chapter 52"
3081:
3073:
3069:
3047:
3038:
3018:Spectroscopy
3010:
2993:
2979:
2893:green plants
2883:
2855:
2835:optical trap
2816:
2769:
2715:
2700:
2696:
2690:
2686:
2680:
2645:
2632:wave packets
2629:
2625:interference
2609:
2605:
2598:
2575:
2534:
2526:
2514:
2496:(1746) that
2493:
2478:Thomas Young
2475:
2462:Thomas Young
2435:
2423:Micrographia
2421:
2418:Robert Hooke
2411:
2391:
2378:
2360:
2355:because the
2342:
2321:
2317:
2314:Isaac Newton
2308:
2283:
2248:
2227:
2220:
2212:
2194:
2184:
2172:
2162:
2157:
2151:
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2118:
2108:
2098:
2072:However, in
2049:
2039:
2033:
1990:
1975:
1952:annihilation
1950:antiparticle
1943:
1918:
1881:fluorescence
1878:
1843:
1792:
1772:
1750:(5,730
1740:chromosphere
1729:
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1668:
1659:> 1 in a
1656:
1648:
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1534:
1464:
1445:
1439:
1398:
1391:
1383:Mount Wilson
1372:
1349:
1307:
1296:
1266:
1262:
1242:
1231:
1216:
1212:
1161:
1111:
1068:polarization
1037:
1030:
993:that can be
986:
982:
978:
977:
546:Astrophysics
526:Neurophysics
429:Mathematical
419:Experimental
385:
43:
5757:Iridescence
5589:Basic terms
5484:Web colours
5440:Colour tool
5379:subtractive
5328:Colour cast
5233:Unique hues
5191:Colour code
5186:Colour task
5129:Colorimetry
5095:Chromophore
4623:Ultraviolet
4618:Radio waves
4400:15 November
4240:20 February
4110:15 November
4019:Lebedew, P.
3857:12 November
3197:15 November
2996:(TV series)
2827:modelocking
2823:Q switching
2681:Eventually
2498:diffraction
2486:wavelengths
2470:diffraction
2408:Wave theory
2330:diffraction
2266:Roger Bacon
2238:Dharmakirti
2228:The Indian
2209:Vaisheshika
2203:schools of
2094:solar sails
2062:piconewtons
2018:ultraviolet
1962:Measurement
1803:spontaneous
1786:flame or a
1699:microscopes
1661:transparent
1537:Snell's Law
1511:translucent
1467:transparent
1208:near fields
1198:" excludes
1184:ultraviolet
1168:radio waves
1162:Generally,
1148:, with the
1056:radio waves
1027:ultraviolet
1017:of 750â420
1015:frequencies
1007:wavelengths
809:von Neumann
674:Schrödinger
506:Statistical
424:Theoretical
376:Information
249:Schrödinger
6067:Categories
5919:Shades of:
5752:Brightness
5423:philosophy
5228:Afterimage
5218:Metamerism
5169:Dichromacy
4804:and health
4802:Radiation
4671:Cosmic ray
4426:. p.
4293:Sifuae.com
4157:1506.04248
3797:1080250734
3758:8 November
3613:21 October
3605:: 1537â9.
3573:18 October
3531:12 October
3443:20 October
3409:20 October
3375:20 October
3341:20 October
3155:11 October
3112:11 October
3030:References
3001:Light mill
2987:Light beam
2819:ultrashort
2787:statistics
2718:Paul Dirac
2648:Max Planck
2586:dielectric
2375:black hole
2349:refraction
2345:reflection
2326:corpuscles
2278:refraction
2254:mechanical
2232:, such as
2181:refraction
2163:In 55 BC,
2138:Empedocles
2066:U.S. penny
1993:cone cells
1982:photometry
1978:radiometry
1972:Radiometry
1833:, as in a
1831:stimulated
1819:neon signs
1815:neon lamps
1775:micrometre
1691:spectacles
1676:refraction
1672:orthogonal
1523:Refraction
1517:Refraction
1495:glossiness
1487:specularly
1479:reflecting
1444:is termed
1310:physicists
1308:Different
1192:gamma rays
1172:microwaves
1052:microwaves
1044:gamma rays
1011:nanometres
926:Categories
719:Heisenberg
679:de Broglie
629:Rutherford
624:Sommerfeld
578:Scientists
521:Biophysics
371:Randomness
308:Paul Dirac
278:Niels Bohr
268:Max Planck
55:dispersing
5769:Grayscale
5742:Lightness
5737:Luminance
5546:(fashion)
5246:The dress
4958:Half-life
4831:Dosimetry
4666:Gamma ray
4613:Microwave
4603:Starlight
4564:Radiation
4306:29 August
4182:1745-2473
4027:Ann. Phys
3831:29 August
3666:21 August
3285:cite book
2913:fireflies
2716:In 1927,
2576:In 1845,
2519:in 1817.
2394:polarized
2245:Descartes
2230:Buddhists
2217:atomicity
2165:Lucretius
2146:Aphrodite
2082:asteroids
2074:nanometre
2020:or both.
2006:photocell
1948:Particleâ
1910:Hong Kong
1874:fireflies
1664:substance
1651:= 1 in a
1596:θ
1592:
1567:θ
1563:
1483:absorbing
1368: m/s
1356:cog wheel
1345: m/s
1322:telescope
1318:Ole RĂžmer
1196:radiation
1087:constants
1083: m/s
1060:intensity
1019:terahertz
999:human eye
995:perceived
914:Uhlenbeck
904:Zeilinger
864:Gell-Mann
594:Becquerel
551:Cosmology
233:ν
230:μ
221:κ
212:ν
209:μ
201:Λ
193:ν
190:μ
165:⟩
147:ψ
123:ℏ
114:⟩
96:ψ
84:^
6042:Category
6024:Lighting
5747:Darkness
5567:(Goethe)
5367:additive
5355:Quattron
4608:Sunlight
4593:Infrared
4478:62-12478
4394:Archived
4190:52226942
4104:Archived
4051:Archived
4021:(1901).
3997:Archived
3967:Archived
3937:Archived
3911:Archived
3851:Archived
3822:Archived
3660:Archived
3607:Archived
3567:Archived
3525:Archived
3191:Archived
3106:Archived
3052:Archived
3045:(1987).
2923:See also
2901:starches
2885:Sunlight
2646:In 1900
2468:showing
2213:tanmatra
2169:atomists
2113:Einstein
2086:windmill
2014:infrared
1914:lighting
1846:electron
1805:, as in
1799:Emission
1736:sunlight
1643:are the
1491:scatters
1471:transmit
1458:and the
1456:rainbows
1454:such as
1411:and the
1405:rubidium
1293:, Sicily
1221:(called
1204:magnetic
1176:infrared
1064:spectrum
1023:infrared
909:Goudsmit
899:Lawrence
894:Chadwick
889:Shockley
849:'t Hooft
799:Millikan
784:Poincaré
774:LemaĂźtre
644:Einstein
486:Particle
408:Branches
391:Particle
341:Topology
335:Concepts
283:Max Born
262:Founders
6006:Related
5967:Magenta
5892:history
5796:Pantone
5083:Visible
5078:Rainbow
4819:chronic
4162:Bibcode
4086:Bibcode
4057:29 July
4035:Bibcode
3894:7928030
3721:Bibcode
3694:(ed.).
3656:1847825
3490:1262982
3470:Bibcode
3314:Bibcode
3255:Bibcode
3068:By the
2691:neither
2676:photons
2414:colours
2362:Opticks
2234:DignÄga
2205:Samkhya
2177:Ptolemy
1801:can be
1742:of the
1623:where Ξ
1326:Jupiter
1314:Galileo
1227:retinal
1223:photons
1091:photons
1040:physics
997:by the
884:Bardeen
854:Veltman
824:Feynman
794:Penrose
789:Wheeler
779:Thomson
764:Hawking
739:Hilbert
734:Moseley
694:Compton
669:Kramers
649:Wilczek
599:Lorentz
589:Röntgen
491:Nuclear
414:Applied
381:Entropy
6019:Qualia
6014:Vision
5962:Purple
5957:Violet
5937:Yellow
5932:Orange
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3134:Vision
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2889:energy
2864:, and
2781:, and
2752:, and
2707:bosons
2656:quanta
2353:medium
2338:aether
2318:plenum
2262:Witelo
2199:, the
2185:Optics
2158:Optica
2156:wrote
2154:Euclid
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2070:
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1788:welder
1768:flames
1683:lenses
1653:vacuum
1629:normal
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1507:medium
1475:opaque
1447:optics
1442:matter
1429:Optics
1423:Optics
1394:matter
1299:vacuum
1257:retina
1219:quanta
1188:X-rays
1178:, the
1103:optics
1095:quanta
1070:. Its
1066:, and
1048:X-rays
839:Lenard
759:Wigner
749:Jordan
729:Zeeman
704:Walton
604:Planck
584:Witten
481:Atomic
361:Matter
356:Energy
6073:Light
6052:Index
5992:Black
5982:White
5977:Brown
5942:Green
5844:Lists
5836:Names
5818:(CIE)
5647:Brown
5642:White
5632:Black
5602:Green
5117:Water
5073:Light
4814:acute
4711:X-ray
4598:Light
4527:Light
4514:light
4501:Light
4300:(PDF)
4289:(PDF)
4186:S2CID
4152:arXiv
3943:8 May
3890:S2CID
3825:(PDF)
3814:(PDF)
3779:Wiley
3719:: 1.
3690:. In
3074:light
3025:Notes
2891:that
2504:gave
2381:, by
2201:Hindu
1998:power
1839:maser
1835:laser
1639:and n
1330:moons
1253:cones
985:, or
979:Light
879:Bragg
874:Raman
844:Salam
814:Higgs
804:Nambu
754:Dirac
744:Gödel
724:Dyson
709:Fermi
699:Pauli
639:Onnes
634:Soddy
609:Curie
386:Light
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5952:Blue
5947:Cyan
5637:Grey
5617:Pink
5597:Blue
5384:CMYK
4474:LCCN
4402:2020
4384:ISBN
4348:ISBN
4328:ISBN
4308:2017
4261:ISBN
4242:2017
4209:ISBN
4178:ISSN
4112:2020
4059:2022
4005:2008
3993:NASA
3975:2008
3963:NASA
3945:2007
3859:2009
3833:2017
3793:OCLC
3783:ISBN
3760:2011
3668:2008
3615:2013
3575:2013
3557:ISBN
3533:2013
3515:ISBN
3486:PMID
3445:2013
3432:ISBN
3411:2013
3398:ISBN
3377:2013
3364:ISBN
3343:2013
3330:ISBN
3291:link
3271:ISBN
3220:ISBN
3199:2020
3181:ISBN
3157:2013
3144:ISBN
3114:2013
3096:ISBN
3060:ISBN
2845:and
2825:and
2728:and
2687:both
2385:and
2272:and
2260:and
2207:and
1970:and
1898:and
1856:and
1817:and
1701:and
1655:and
1251:and
1249:rods
1206:and
1190:and
1144:The
1128:and
1118:fire
1054:and
859:Bell
829:Yang
819:Hahn
689:Bose
684:Laue
664:Bohr
659:Weyl
654:Born
614:Wien
396:Wave
366:Work
351:Time
251:and
5927:Red
5713:Hue
5607:Red
5372:RGB
4170:doi
4094:doi
4043:doi
3882:doi
3729:doi
3642:doi
3603:196
3478:doi
3322:doi
3263:doi
3043:CIE
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2638:).
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1784:gas
1744:Sun
1589:sin
1560:sin
1481:or
1385:to
1366:000
1363:000
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1343:000
1340:000
1338:227
1303:m/s
1114:Sun
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1078:792
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