1256:. Admiralty courts rarely heard live testimony. The commissioners' interrogatories sought to establish the relative size, speed, and force of the vessels, what signals were exchanged and what fighting ensued, the location of the capture, the state of the weather and "the degree of light or darkness," and what other vessels were in sight. That was because naval prize law gave assisting vessels, defined as those that were "in signal distance" at the time, a share of the proceeds. The written interrogatories and ship's papers established the nationality of the prize and her crew, and the origin and destination of the cargo: the vessel was said to be "confiscated out of her own mouth."
1468:
1268:
of the 18th century, Russia, Scandinavia, France, and the United States had taken the position that "free ships make free goods": that is, cargo on a neutral ship could not be condemned as a prize. But
Britain asserted the opposite, that an enemy's goods on a neutral vessel, or neutral goods on an enemy vessel, may be taken, a position which prevailed in 19th century practice. The ingenuity of belligerents in evading the law through pretended neutrality, false papers, quick title transfers, and a myriad of other devices, make up the principal business of the prize courts during the last century of fighting sail.
1530:
against known risks. ... On the other side of the table, those purchasing vessels and cargoes from prize courts had the comfort of knowing that what they bought was really theirs. The doctrine and practice of maritime prize was widely adhered to for four centuries, among a multitude of sovereign nations, because adhering to it was in the material interest of their navies, their privateersmen, their merchants and bankers, and their sovereigns. Diplomats and international lawyers who struggle in this world to achieve a universal rule of law may well ponder on this lesson.
1298:
1289:
another because the pots and pans in the galley were of
English manufacture. Outraged U.S. shipowners, their descendants, and descendants of their descendants (often serving as fronts for insurers) challenged these decisions in litigation collectively called the French Spoliation Cases. The spoliation cases last over a century, from the 1790s until 1915. Together with Indian tribal claims for treaty breaches, the French Spoliation Cases enjoy the dubious distinction of figuring among the longest-litigated claims in U.S. history.
1144:, but sometimes brutal hours and even days of cannonading ensued, along with boarding and hand-to-hand fighting with cutlasses, pistols, and boarding pikes. No matter how furious and bloody the battle, once it was over the victors had to collect themselves, put aside anger and exercise forbearance, treating captives with courtesy and civility to the degree prudence allowed. Officers restrained the crew to prevent pillaging defeated adversaries, or pilfering the cargo, known as breaking bulk. Francis Upton's treatise on
1109:
1443:). Likewise Russia, Portugal, Germany, Japan, China, Romania, and France followed the United States in World War I, declaring they would no longer pay prize money to naval officers. On November 9, 1914, the British and French governments signed an agreement establishing government jurisdiction over prizes captured by either of them. The Russian government acceded to this agreement on March 5, 1915, and the Italian government followed suit on January 15, 1917.
795:
1096:, since "rade and commerce presuppose the existence of civil contracts … and recourse to judicial tribunals; and this is necessarily incompatible with a state of war." Indeed, each citizen of a nation "is at war with every citizen of the enemy," which imposes a "duty, on every citizen, to attack the enemy and seize his property, though by established custom, this right is restricted to such only, as are the commissioned instruments of the government."
47:
158:
1241:
1725:
1237:, accusing the captured vessel of belonging to the enemy, or carrying enemy cargo, or running a blockade. Prize commissioners took custody of the vessel and its cargo, and gathered the ship's papers, charts, and other documents. They had a special duty to notify the prize court of perishable property, to be sold promptly to prevent spoilage and the proceeds held for whoever prevailed in the prize proceeding.
2614:
886:
1000:
996:. During the American Revolution the combined American naval and privateering prizes totaled nearly $ 24 million; in the War of 1812, $ 45 million. Such huge revenues were earned when $ 200 were a generous year's wages for a sailor; his share of a single prize could fetch ten or twenty times his yearly pay, and taking five or six prizes in one voyage was common.
2361:'William L. Marcy, voorstellen der Noord Amerikaansche regering', NA, Min. BuZa, 2.05.01, inv. nr. 3465 'Zeerecht in oorlogstijd'. (3 september 1856), Stuk nr.: 41. (William L. Macy, proposals of the North-American Government, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2.05.01, inv. nr. 3465 'Law of the Seas in wartime, letter incoming September 3, 1856)
1485:
An Act to make provision as to the payment, and the distribution or application, of any prize money granted by His
Majesty out of the proceeds of prize captured in the late war, as to payments and receipts in respect of proceeds of prize to or from the Government or a court of a part of His Majesty's
1267:
A prize court normally ordered the vessel and its cargo condemned and sold at auction. But the court's decision became vastly more complicated in the case of neutral vessels, or a neutral nation's cargo carried on an enemy vessel. Different countries treated these situations differently. By the close
2006:
that
American rescuers who found a wrecked and abandoned French prize adrift without sails or rigging could not condemn her as a prize, but were entitled as salvors to the judge's estimate of fair compensation for time lost, labor, risk taken, and mental and physical suffering, to induce mariners to
1288:
with France in the 1790s, corrupt French
Caribbean prize courts (often sharing in the proceeds) resorted to pretexts and subterfuges to justify condemning neutral American vessels. They condemned one for carrying alleged English contraband because the compass in the binnacle showed an English brand;
1520:
Shortly before World War II France passed a law which allowed for taking prizes, as did the
Netherlands and Norway, though the German invasion and subsequent capitulation of all three of those countries quickly put this to an end. Britain formally ended the eligibility of naval officers to share in
1408:
cruised against Union merchant shipping. Likewise, the Union (though refusing to recognize the legitimacy of
Confederate letters of marque) allowed its navy to take Confederate vessels as prizes. Under US Constitution Article 1 Section 8, it is still theoretically possible for Congress to authorize
1383:
The US didn't want to restrict privateering and did strive for protection of all private property on neutral of enemy ships. Marcy did warn countries with large commercial maritime interests and a small navy, like The
Netherlands, to be aware that the end of privateering meant they would be totally
1157:
Taking the prize before a prize court might be impractical for any number of reasons, such as bad weather, shortage of prize crew, dwindling water and provisions, or the proximity of an overpowering enemy force—in which case a vessel might be ransomed. That is, instead of destroying her on the spot
1065:
Prize
Committee, which reversed the Philadelphia jury verdict and awarded the whole prize to Olmsted. But Pennsylvania authorities refused to enforce the decision, asserting the Continental Congress could not intrude on a state prize court jury verdict. Olmsted doggedly pursued the case for decades
1486:
dominions outside the United
Kingdom, to extinguish for the future the prerogative rights to make grants of prize money to captors and to grant prize bounty, to authorise the payment into the Exchequer of certain unclaimed sums in prize courts, and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.
1263:
or burden of proof. While in criminal courts a defendant is innocent until proven guilty, in prize court a vessel is guilty unless proven innocent. Prize captors need show only "reasonable suspicion" that the property is subject to condemnation; the owner bears the burden of proving the contrary.
1152:
Embezzlements of the cargo seized, or acts personally violent, or injuries perpetrated upon the captured crew, or improperly separating them from the prize-vessel, or not producing them for examination before the prize-court, or other torts injurious to the rights and health of the prisoners, may
1529:
Self-interest was the driving force that compelled men of the sea to accept the international law of prize ... because it brought a valuable element of certainty to their dealings. If the rules were clear and universal, they could ship their goods abroad in wartime, after first buying insurance
1229:
rather than merely the law of their home country). A proper prize court condemnation was absolutely requisite to convey clear title to a vessel and its cargo to the new owners and settle the matter. According to Upton's treatise, "Even after four years' possession, and the performance of several
1271:
Neutral vessels could be subject to capture if they ran a blockade. The blockade had to be effective to be cognizable in a prize court, that is, not merely declared but actually enforced. Neutrals had to be warned of it. If so then any ships running the blockade of whatever flag were subject to
1363:
The declaration has been written in French, translated in English and the two versions have been sent to nations worldwide with the invitation to access, leading to the acceding of altogether 55 nations, a big step towards the globalisation of international law. This broad acceptance wouldn't
1136:
was a common ruse, both for predator and prey. The convention was that a vessel must hoist her true colors before firing the first shot. Firing under a false flag could cost dearly in prize court proceedings, possibly even resulting in restitution to the captured vessel's owner.
1181:
Usually, however, the captor put aboard a prize crew to sail a captured vessel to the nearest port of their own or an allied country, where a prize court could adjudicate the prize. If while sailing en route a friendly vessel re-captured the prize, called a rescue, the right of
1099:
The formal commission bestowed upon a naval vessel, and the Letter of Marque and Reprisal granted to private merchant vessels converting them into naval auxiliaries, qualified them to take enemy property as the armed hands of their sovereign, and to share in the proceeds.
1354:
The Declaration did contain a juridical novelty, making it possible for the first time in history that nations not represented at the establishment and/or the signing of a multilateral treaty, could access as a party afterwards. Again in the plain wordings of the treaty:
1091:
of July 1776, by the turn of the 19th century it was generally accepted that a sovereign government first had to declare war. The "existence of war between nations terminates all legal commercial intercourse between their citizens or subjects," wrote Francis Upton in
1086:
were sometimes issued before a formal declaration of war, as happened during the American Revolution when the rebelling colonies of Massachusetts, Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania all granted Letters of Marque months before the Continental Congress's official
1379:"The United States have learned with sincere regret that in one or two instances, the four propositions, with all the conditions annexed, have been promptly, and this Government cannot but think, unadvisedly accepted without restriction or qualification."
904:, Donald Petrie writes, "at the outset, prize taking was all smash and grab, like breaking a jeweler's window, but by the fifteenth century a body of guiding rules, the maritime law of nations, had begun to evolve and achieve international recognition."
916:" inter alia founded the doctrine of freedom of the seas—was an advocate's brief justifying Dutch seizures of Spanish and Portuguese shipping. Grotius defends the practice of taking prizes as not merely traditional or customary, but just. His
1280:
The legitimacy of an adjudication depended on regular and just proceedings. Departures from internationally accepted standards of fairness risked ongoing litigation by disgruntled shipowners and their insurers, often protracted for decades.
1524:
Under contemporary international law and treaties, nations may still bring enemy vessels before their prize courts, to be condemned and sold. But no nation now offers a share to the officers or crew who risked their lives in the capture:
1388:“(…) that it may be induced to hesitate in acceding to a proposition which is here conceived to be fraught with injurious consequences to all but those Powers which already have or are willing to furnish themselves with powerful navies.”
1173:
On occasion a seized vessel would be released to ferry home prisoners, a practice which Lord Stowell said "in the consideration of humanity and policy" Admiralty Courts must protect with the utmost attention. While on her mission as a
2564:
Theodore Richard, Reconsidering the Letter of Marque: Utilizing Private Security Providers Against Piracy (April 1, 2010). Public Contract Law Journal, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 411–464 at 429 n.121, Spring 2010. Available at SSRN:
1426:, and only abjured the practice by statute during World War I. The U.S. prize courts adjudicated no cases resulting from its own takings in either World War I or World War II (although the Supreme Court did rule on a German prize—
1421:
ratified it. Commerce raiding by private vessels ended with the American Civil War, but Navy officers remained eligible for prize money a little while longer. The United States continued paying prizes to naval officers in the
1276:
enjoins: "the penalty, and the sole penalty ... is the forfeiture of the property employed in ." Persons aboard blockade runners could only be temporarily detained as witnesses, and after testifying, immediately released.
1057:. Olmsted and the privateer disputed ownership of the prize, and in November 1778 a Philadelphia prize court jury came to a split verdict awarding each a share. Olmsted, with the assistance of then American General
1839:
Prize Cases Decided in the United States Supreme Court, Introduction at 2–7(detailing confusion of early state prize courts competing with, and denying the appellate authority of, the Continental Congress's prize
705:
970:, the leading United States judicial authority on prize law, drew heavily on the 1753 report and Lord Stowell's decisions, as did Francis Upton, who wrote the last major American treatise on prize law, his
1052:
in Jamaica as an ordinary hand in an effort to get home. Olmsted organized a mutiny and commandeered the sloop. But as Olmsted's mutineers sailed their prize to America, a Pennsylvania privateer took the
1188:
declared title to the rescued prize restored to its prior owners. That is, the ship did not become a prize of the recapturing vessel. However, the rescuers were entitled to compensation for
1367:
The United States however, were not a signatory and had reasons not to accede the treaty afterwards. After having received the invitation to accede, the US Secretary of State,
716:
959:(1705–1793). It was said to be the most important exposition of prize law published in English, along with the subsequent High Court of Admiralty decisions of
924:
was the verb "to seize", and that the law of nations had deemed looting enemy property legal since the beginning of Western recorded history in Homeric times.
724:
2348:
De verklaring van Parijs en Neutraliteit - Nederland en de ontwikkeling van het Internationaal Maritieme recht van 1856 tot de Eerste Wereldoorlog, p. 19
1349:
Blockades, in order to be binding, must be effective-that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of the enemy.
951:
with France of the late 1790s. Much of Anglo-American prize law derives from 18th Century British precedents – in particular, a compilation called the
1074:
later called "the first case in which the supremacy of the Constitution was enforced by judicial tribunals against the assertion of state authority".
1132:
When a privateer or naval vessel spotted a tempting vessel—whatever flag she flew or often enough flying none at all—they gave chase. Sailing under
1048:
disputes between state and federal authorities. A captured American privateer captain, 20-year-old Gideon Olmsted, shipped aboard the British sloop
1818:, vol. 131 (New York: Banks & Brothers 1889) app., p. xxxiv n. (quoting U.S. Supreme Court Justice Stanley Matthews on the significance of the
2318:
De verklaring van Parijs en Neutraliteit - Nederland en de ontwikkeling van het Internationaal Maritieme recht van 1856 tot de Eerste Wereldoorlog
981:
case precedents are the most accessible description of prize law, in prize cases, courts construe and apply international customs and usages, the
2217:
p. 441 (noting naval captors operating under a "misapprehension" have sometimes treated blockade runners as prisoners of war, which is in error.)
1767:, adjusted for inflation according to the Consumer Price Index $ 24 million in the dollars of 1800 computes to approximately $ 450 million today.
672:
1930:
ruling that tort claims for cruelty would require more than just bare affidavit allegations, but pleadings, proof, and opportunity of defense).
1178:
she was immune to recapture so long as she proceeded directly on her errand, promptly returned, and did not engage in trading in the meantime.
2374:
p. xxiii (noting the US and Spain declined to sign, though both in effect renounced privateering by subsequent actions even if not in words)
2335:
p. xxiii (noting the US and Spain declined to sign, though both in effect renounced privateering by subsequent actions even if not in words)
597:
877:
proceeding in which the court determined the status of the condemned property and the manner in which the property was to be disposed of.
1913:
which noted indecorous treatment like putting the captured crew in irons might well be defensible as necessary, under the circumstances).
1272:
capture and condemnation. However passengers and crew aboard the blockade runners were not to be treated as prisoners of war, as Upton's
1206:
The prize that made it back to the capturing vessel's country or that of an ally which had authorized prize proceedings would be sued in
227:
2474:
2456:
2438:
1213:—meaning "against the thing", against the vessel itself. For this reason. decisions in prize cases bear the name of the vessel, such as
1563:
1328:
renouncing granting letters of marque. Proposal to the Declaration came from the French Foreign Minister and president of the Congress
345:
2143:
p. 361-62 (observing claimant must show the property is not subject to confiscation, a reversal of the usual presumption of innocence)
1325:
1217:(a U.S. Supreme Court case holding goods bought before hostilities commenced nonetheless become contraband after war is declared) or
1088:
1359:"The present Declaration is not and shall not be binding, except between those Powers who have acceded, or shall accede, to it."
1329:
1302:
781:
755:
1491:
710:
1805:
Forward pp. vii to xv (discussing Olmsted's harrowing adventures at sea, followed by a 30 year ordeal in the courts on land).
956:
1558:
1153:
render the arrest of the vessel or cargo, as prize, defeasible, and also subject the tort feasor for damages therefore.
745:
700:
666:
547:
1170:
and the promise to pay unenforceable in court, but at sea it was accepted practice and the IOUs negotiable instruments.
111:
1067:
83:
1259:
One considerable difference between prize law and ordinary Anglo-American criminal law is the reversal of the normal
130:
2426:
p. 21 (noting that in the US all captures now inure to the state, but none adjudiated in either World War I or II).
1472:
871:, usually ships. Once the ship was secured on friendly territory, it would be made the subject of a prize case: an
750:
195:
90:
2413:
p. xxiii (observing the point of privateering is to destroy commerce, which now is a task assigned to the navy)
1977:
condemned as a prize for having taken a cargo on board after delivering prisoners to France as a cartel ship ).
68:
1896:, 4 Rob. 185, a British case involving restitution and allocation of expenses after firing under false colors)
1033:. Prize cases were among the most complex of the time, as the disposition of vast sums turned on the fluid
97:
64:
1755:
p. 21 (Lord Stowell noting that prize law is matter of international law, not the law of any one nation).
960:
774:
1189:
2618:
661:
587:
79:
2278:
Warren F. Spencer, "The Mason Memorandum and the Diplomatic Origins of the Declaration of Paris." in
1410:
1346:
Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not liable to capture under enemy's flag;
1029:
893:, a 17th-century Dutch academic prodigy known as the Mozart of international law, who wrote the 1604
470:
17:
935:
of 1861–1865. This period largely coincides with the last century of fighting sail and includes the
1423:
1414:
1071:
1011:
With so much at stake, prize law attracted some of the greatest legal talent of the age, including
683:
399:
2633:
57:
186:
2638:
1317:
1024:
767:
35:
2384:
2494:
2471:
2453:
2435:
1553:
1496:
1480:
1405:
1234:
560:
414:
2606:
2204:
p. 163 (discussing blockade of Charleston and capture and condemnation of blockade runners).
2256:, p. 197(reciting several anti-privateering provisions in the Declaration and their effect)
2169:
p. 161-2(discussing the international difference of opinion over cargo carried by neutrals)
2080:(appendix)(reproducing standard form interrogatories for the United States District Court).
1392:
The US did accept the other points of the Declaration, being a codification of custom law.
1062:
630:
376:
179:
2493:
p. 338 (noting abolition of prize money for British naval officers in the Prize Act 1948 (
8:
1715:
The Library of Congress catalog does not show an entry for Upton's work under this title.
1435:
940:
928:
323:
2293:
2291:
1401:
1297:
993:
932:
828:
798:
439:
308:
239:
104:
1313:
1230:
voyages, the title to the property is not changed without sentence of condemnation".
944:
864:
729:
646:
535:
480:
335:
290:
244:
172:
1371:
a lawyer and judge, wrote a letter dated 14 July 1856 to other nations, among which
988:
Fortunes in prize money were to be made at sea as vividly depicted in the novels of
1583:
1568:
1548:
1368:
1083:
805:
690:
497:
355:
340:
297:
222:
206:
2228:
Not-Quite Justice After Never-Was War: A French Spoliation Case from the Quasi-War
2478:
2460:
2442:
2093:
p. 356 (quoting Sir James Marriott on using a vessel's own papers to condemn her)
1372:
1253:
1207:
1201:
1058:
936:
656:
625:
570:
565:
525:
318:
2130:
is on the claimant"—he must prove his own good title before contesting a prize).
1108:
2351:(in Dutch). Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculteit der Letteren, Geschiedenis.
2321:(in Dutch). Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculteit der Letteren, Geschiedenis.
1540:
1343:
The neutral flag covers enemy's goods, with the exception of contraband of war;
1306:
1226:
1034:
1020:
989:
982:
554:
530:
490:
485:
404:
313:
280:
2627:
1440:
1175:
1140:
Often a single cannon shot across the bow was enough to persuade the prey to
1127:
859:. In the past, the capturing force would commonly be allotted a share of the
836:
814:
651:
463:
429:
394:
389:
285:
270:
232:
201:
149:
2559:
The Prize Game: lawful looting on the high seas in the days of fighting sail
2054:, p. 238 (describing the uniform requirement of a sentence of condemnation.)
2587:
Predators and Prizes: American Privateering and Imperial Warfare, 1739–1748
1764:
1578:
1509:
1184:
1045:
1016:
1007:
in a mutiny, and spent the next 30 years litigating a claim for prize money
967:
856:
695:
380:
263:
258:
2385:"Convention relative to the establishment of an International Prize Court"
1384:
dependent on nations with a strong navy. Marcy did end the letter hoping:
1166:
for an agreed sum as ransom from the ship's master. On land this would be
1409:
letters of marque, but in the last 150 years it has not done so. An
1321:
1252:
The commissioners took testimony from witnesses on standard form written
1222:
860:
542:
419:
409:
1605:
1158:
as was their prerogative, the privateer or naval officer would accept a
794:
2545:
De Iure Praedae Commentarius (Commentary on the Law of Prize and Booty)
2126:
p. 459 (observing it is "a well known rule of the prize court that the
1573:
1133:
1012:
978:
910:
De Iure Praedae Commentarius (Commentary on the Law of Prize and Booty)
821:
592:
303:
275:
28:
2436:
Convention Relating to Prizes Captured during the Present European War
2182:, p. 195-6 (reviewing contemporary practice on cargo of enemy vessels)
1395:
143:
Vessel, cargo, or equipment captured during armed conflict on the seas
1418:
1285:
1192:, just as if they had rescued a crippled vessel from sinking at sea.
1167:
1003:
Captain Gideon Olmsted, who at age 20 commandeered the British sloop
948:
609:
582:
577:
502:
445:
424:
360:
328:
27:"Prize ship" redirects here. For the Philip K. Dick short story, see
2346:
2316:
2269:
p. 145 (discussing the Convention of 1856 which ended privateering).
1312:
Most privateering came to an end in the late-19th century, when the
46:
2566:
2292:
The Avalon Project : Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy.
1427:
1292:
1141:
868:
1240:
905:
890:
832:
509:
475:
453:
434:
1973:
13–30 (treating of cartel immunity, noting the case of the ship
1853:, p. 16–17 (discussing cessation of business when war declared).
157:
2613:
1816:
United States Reports, Cases Adjudged in the October Term, 1888
1780:, Preface p. ix (totaling captured vessels and prize proceeds).
1680:) p. 43 (considering property seizure as a species of warfare).
873:
602:
350:
1606:"prize | Etymology, origin and meaning of prize by etymonline"
2596:(New York: John Voorhies Law Bookseller and Publisher, 1863).
1159:
852:
840:
253:
248:
1793:
pp.10–11 (comparing prize awards with pay officers and crew)
1632:(Rev. 4th ed.). West Publishing Co. 1968. p. 900.
921:
920:
claims that the etymology of the name of the Greek war god
885:
848:
458:
2575:(Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1928)
1663:) p. ix (introductory notes describing Grotius's purpose).
1646:
p. 4–5 (on the evolving prize rules in international law).
999:
2294:"Laws of War : Declaration of Paris; April 16, 1856"
1248:
under attack by a swarm of seven French corsairs, in 1797
1163:
1040:
One of the earliest U.S. cases for instance, that of the
1037:, and difficult questions of jurisdiction and precedent.
1909:, p. 445 (citing the federal district court case of the
1301:
Negotiators assembled at Congress of Paris, presided by
2000:
Prize Case Decisions of the United States Supreme Court
843:
captured during armed conflict. The most common use of
2524:
Prize Cases Decided in the United States Supreme Court
1824:
Prize Cases Decided in the United States Supreme Court
1233:
The agent of the privateer or naval officer brought a
809:, a French frigate captured as a British prize in 1795
1866:, p. 16–17 (discussing implications of state of war).
1364:
otherwise have been possible in such a short period.
985:, and not the laws or precedents of any one country.
867:
that would entitle private parties to capture enemy
1990:, p. 234-35 (discussing postliminium and salvage).
1396:
End of privateering and the decline of naval prizes
880:
71:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2007:undertake the peril and expense of rescue at sea).
2625:
1417:, but this treaty never came into force as only
1293:Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law (1856)
908:'s seminal treatise on international law called
2124:Prizes Cases in the United States Supreme Court
1121:French privateer of 250 tons & 92 men, 1807
2230:, Sea History Vol. 113 p.16 (Winter 2005–2006)
1117:packet of 150 tons & 28 men capturing the
2589:(Columbia, SC: U. South Carolina Press, 1991)
2561:(Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1999)
2533:(London: Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd. 1949)
2344:
2314:
1960:p. 168 (quoting Lord Stowell on cartel ships)
863:of the captured prize. Nations often granted
775:
2594:Law of Nations Affecting Commerce during War
1765:While the calculation is complex and inexact
1564:Blockade runners of the American Civil War
1335:In the plain wordings of the Declaration:
1195:
912:, published in 1604—of which Chapter 12, "
782:
768:
2540:(Washington DC: Library of Congress 1978)
1943:13–30 (discussing ransoming of whaleship
1326:Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law
847:in this sense is the capture of an enemy
131:Learn how and when to remove this message
2554:(London: S. Low, Marston & Co. 1900)
2002:p. 130 (reprinting the 1796 decision in
1678:Commentary on the Law of Prize and Booty
1661:Commentary on the Law of Prize and Booty
1296:
1239:
1107:
998:
895:Commentary on the Law of Prize and Booty
884:
793:
756:London Maritime Arbitrators Association
14:
2626:
1826:, Introduction at 5–6 (discussing the
1413:was to be set up by treaty XII of the
1340:Privateering is and remains abolished;
1044:, took fully 30 years to resolve
927:Prize law fully developed between the
711:International Convention on Load Lines
2241:Not-Quite Justice After Never-Was War
957:William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield
1559:Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture
1103:
69:adding citations to reliable sources
40:
2472:Text of Italian letter of accession
2454:Text of Russian letter of accession
746:International Maritime Organization
701:Ballast Water Management Convention
667:International Convention on Salvage
548:The captain goes down with the ship
24:
2280:Diplomacy in an Age of Nationalism
25:
2650:
2600:
1439:—that was brought to and held at
2612:
2567:http://ssrn.com/abstract=1591039
2552:A History of American Privateers
2372:A History of American Privateers
2333:A History of American Privateers
1778:A History of American Privateers
1473:Parliament of the United Kingdom
1466:
881:History and sources of prize law
156:
45:
2571:William Morrison Robinson Jr.,
2500:
2483:
2465:
2447:
2429:
2416:
2403:
2391:. Government of the Netherlands
2377:
2364:
2355:
2338:
2325:
2308:
2285:
2272:
2259:
2246:
2233:
2220:
2207:
2194:
2185:
2172:
2159:
2146:
2141:A Treatise on the Law of Prize
2133:
2113:
2104:A Treatise on the Law of Prize
2096:
2091:A Treatise on the Law of Prize
2083:
2070:
2057:
2044:
2035:A Treatise on the Law of Prize
2027:
2010:
1993:
1980:
1963:
1950:
1933:
1916:
1899:
1882:
1869:
1856:
1843:
1833:
1808:
1796:
1783:
1770:
1758:
1742:
953:1753 Report of the Law Officers
196:Ordinamenta et consuetudo maris
56:needs additional citations for
2547:(Oxford: Clarendon Press 1950)
2531:A Treatise on the Law of Prize
2526:(Oxford: Clarendon Press 1923)
2491:A Treatise on the Law of Prize
2424:A Treatise on the Law of Prize
2411:History of American Privateers
2037:p. 21 (citing Lord Stowell in
1791:History of American Privateers
1753:A Treatise on the Law of Prize
1718:
1709:
1696:
1683:
1666:
1649:
1636:
1622:
1598:
1284:For example, during America's
1084:Letters of Marque and Reprisal
13:
1:
2607:summary of US Prize laws 1868
2538:The Journal of Gideon Olmsted
2536:Gawalt & Kreidler, eds.,
2516:
2191:Petrie, The Prize Game p. 163
1803:The Journal of Gideon Olmsted
1318:Treaty of Paris in March 1856
1077:
751:Comité Maritime International
717:International Regulations for
673:United Nations Convention on
2345:Timon Schultz (April 2015).
2315:Timon Schultz (April 2015).
1674:De Iure Praedae Commentarius
1657:De Iure Praedae Commentarius
719:Preventing Collisions at Sea
7:
2582:(London: Robert Hale, 2001)
2578:Lord Russell of Liverpool,
2252:Lord Russell of Liverpool,
2065:Maritime Warfare and Prize,
1534:
1320:that did put an end to the
1221:(Lord Stowell holding that
1089:Declaration of Independence
961:William Scott, Lord Stowell
738:International organizations
10:
2655:
2573:The Confederate Privateers
2215:Maritime Warfare and Prize
2078:Maritime Warfare and Prize
2018:Maritime Warfare and Prize
1971:Maritime Warfare and Prize
1890:Maritime Warfare and Prize
1864:Maritime Warfare and Prize
1851:Maritime Warfare and Prize
1448:United Kingdom legislation
1274:Maritime Warfare and Prize
1199:
1125:
1094:Maritime Warfare and Prize
972:Maritime Warfare and Prize
662:Maritime Labour Convention
33:
26:
2522:James Scott Brown (ed.),
1508:
1503:
1490:
1479:
1465:
1460:
1453:
1411:International Prize Court
1225:enforce rights under the
1030:Two Years Before the Mast
977:While the Anglo-American
639:International conventions
1592:
1415:Hague Convention of 1907
1324:, also did agree on the
1072:Justice Stanley Matthews
889:Hugo de Groot, known as
684:International piracy law
675:the Law of the Sea
1196:Admiralty court process
827:, "taken, seized") are
706:Anti-fouling Convention
2550:Edgar Stanton Maclay,
2495:12, 13 & 14 Geo. 6
2120:Brown v. United States
2052:Maritime Law and Prize
1988:Maritime Law and Prize
1926:, p. 445 (quoting the
1924:Maritime Law and Prize
1907:Maritime Law and Prize
1814:J. C. Bancroft Davis,
1630:Black's Law Dictionary
1532:
1497:12, 13 & 14 Geo. 6
1406:Confederate privateers
1390:
1381:
1361:
1352:
1309:
1249:
1155:
1123:
1113:Captain Rogers of the
1025:Richard Henry Dana Jr.
1008:
897:
810:
36:Prize (disambiguation)
2621:at Wikimedia Commons
2180:The French Privateers
1554:Confederate privateer
1527:
1521:prize money in 1948.
1386:
1377:
1357:
1337:
1300:
1243:
1200:Further information:
1150:
1111:
1002:
931:of 1756–1763 and the
888:
797:
1424:Spanish–American War
1244:The American vessel
1063:Continental Congress
631:Vice admiralty court
377:Contract of carriage
180:Corpus Juris Civilis
65:improve this article
34:For other uses, see
2592:Upton, Francis H.,
2580:The French Corsairs
2254:The French Corsairs
2016:As cited by Upton,
1726:"Upton, Francis H."
1436:The Steamship Appam
1070:case in 1809 which
1066:until he won, in a
2477:2012-09-27 at the
2459:2012-09-27 at the
2441:2012-09-27 at the
2106:p. 361 discussing
1892:p. 421-22 (citing
1610:www.etymonline.com
1402:American Civil War
1316:who agreed on the
1310:
1250:
1124:
1068:U.S. Supreme Court
1061:, appealed to the
1009:
945:French Revolutions
933:American Civil War
898:
811:
240:Maritime transport
2617:Media related to
2585:Carl E. Swanson,
2296:. Yale Law School
2282:(1971) pp. 44-66.
1518:
1517:
1461:Act of Parliament
1314:plenipotentiaries
1104:Capturing a prize
966:American Justice
865:letters of marque
792:
791:
730:Athens Convention
696:MARPOL Convention
647:Hague-Visby Rules
536:Freight forwarder
481:Proof of delivery
336:Maritime security
173:Code of Hammurabi
141:
140:
133:
115:
16:(Redirected from
2646:
2616:
2511:
2504:
2498:
2487:
2481:
2469:
2463:
2451:
2445:
2433:
2427:
2420:
2414:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2396:
2381:
2375:
2368:
2362:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2342:
2336:
2329:
2323:
2322:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2289:
2283:
2276:
2270:
2263:
2257:
2250:
2244:
2237:
2231:
2224:
2218:
2211:
2205:
2198:
2192:
2189:
2183:
2176:
2170:
2163:
2157:
2150:
2144:
2137:
2131:
2117:
2111:
2100:
2094:
2087:
2081:
2074:
2068:
2061:
2055:
2048:
2042:
2031:
2025:
2024:, 8 Cranch 155,)
2020:, p. 23 (citing
2014:
2008:
1997:
1991:
1984:
1978:
1967:
1961:
1954:
1948:
1937:
1931:
1920:
1914:
1903:
1897:
1886:
1880:
1873:
1867:
1860:
1854:
1847:
1841:
1837:
1831:
1822:case); see also
1812:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1787:
1781:
1774:
1768:
1762:
1756:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1722:
1716:
1713:
1707:
1700:
1694:
1687:
1681:
1670:
1664:
1653:
1647:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1602:
1569:Letter of marque
1549:Commerce raiding
1514:16 December 1948
1470:
1469:
1456:
1451:
1450:
1369:William L. Marcy
1146:Maritime Warfare
947:, and America's
929:Seven Years' War
784:
777:
770:
691:SOLAS Convention
678:
543:Captain (Master)
341:Letter of marque
298:Marine insurance
207:Hanseatic League
160:
146:
145:
136:
129:
125:
122:
116:
114:
80:"Prize" law
73:
49:
41:
21:
2654:
2653:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2624:
2623:
2603:
2557:Donald Petrie,
2519:
2514:
2505:
2501:
2488:
2484:
2479:Wayback Machine
2470:
2466:
2461:Wayback Machine
2452:
2448:
2443:Wayback Machine
2434:
2430:
2421:
2417:
2408:
2404:
2394:
2392:
2389:Treaty Database
2383:
2382:
2378:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2343:
2339:
2330:
2326:
2313:
2309:
2299:
2297:
2290:
2286:
2277:
2273:
2264:
2260:
2251:
2247:
2238:
2234:
2225:
2221:
2212:
2208:
2199:
2195:
2190:
2186:
2177:
2173:
2164:
2160:
2151:
2147:
2138:
2134:
2122:, reprinted in
2118:
2114:
2101:
2097:
2088:
2084:
2075:
2071:
2062:
2058:
2049:
2045:
2032:
2028:
2015:
2011:
1998:
1994:
1985:
1981:
1968:
1964:
1955:
1951:
1938:
1934:
1921:
1917:
1904:
1900:
1887:
1883:
1874:
1870:
1861:
1857:
1848:
1844:
1838:
1834:
1813:
1809:
1801:
1797:
1788:
1784:
1775:
1771:
1763:
1759:
1747:
1743:
1733:
1731:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1710:
1701:
1697:
1688:
1684:
1671:
1667:
1654:
1650:
1641:
1637:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1614:
1612:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1537:
1475:
1467:
1454:
1449:
1398:
1373:The Netherlands
1295:
1254:interrogatories
1208:admiralty court
1204:
1202:Admiralty court
1198:
1130:
1106:
1080:
1059:Benedict Arnold
994:Patrick O'Brian
937:Napoleonic Wars
883:
788:
721:
718:
680:
676:
674:
657:Rotterdam Rules
626:Admiralty court
566:Freight company
557:
319:General average
300:
271:Merchant marine
177:
144:
137:
126:
120:
117:
74:
72:
62:
50:
39:
32:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2652:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2634:Law of the sea
2610:
2609:
2602:
2601:External links
2599:
2598:
2597:
2590:
2583:
2576:
2569:
2562:
2555:
2548:
2541:
2534:
2527:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2512:
2508:The Prize Game
2499:
2482:
2464:
2446:
2428:
2415:
2402:
2376:
2363:
2354:
2337:
2324:
2307:
2284:
2271:
2267:The Prize Game
2258:
2245:
2232:
2226:Jock Yellott,
2219:
2206:
2202:The Prize Game
2193:
2184:
2178:Lord Russell,
2171:
2167:The Prize Game
2158:
2154:The Prize Game
2145:
2132:
2112:
2095:
2082:
2069:
2056:
2043:
2026:
2009:
1992:
1979:
1962:
1949:
1941:The Prize Game
1932:
1915:
1898:
1881:
1877:The Prize Game
1868:
1855:
1842:
1832:
1807:
1795:
1782:
1769:
1757:
1741:
1717:
1708:
1704:The Prize Game
1695:
1691:The Prize Game
1682:
1665:
1648:
1644:The Prize Game
1635:
1621:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1536:
1533:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1500:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1471:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1457:
1455:Prize Act 1948
1447:
1397:
1394:
1351:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1330:Count Walewski
1307:Edouard Dubufe
1305:, painting by
1303:Count Walewski
1294:
1291:
1227:Law of Nations
1197:
1194:
1162:in form of an
1115:Windsor Castle
1105:
1102:
1079:
1076:
1046:jurisdictional
1035:Law of Nations
1021:Daniel Webster
990:C. S. Forester
983:Law of Nations
955:, authored by
902:The Prize Game
882:
879:
790:
789:
787:
786:
779:
772:
764:
761:
760:
759:
758:
753:
748:
740:
739:
735:
734:
733:
732:
727:
725:SAR Convention
722:
715:
713:
708:
703:
698:
693:
688:
687:
686:
671:
669:
664:
659:
654:
649:
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640:
636:
635:
634:
633:
628:
620:
619:
615:
614:
613:
612:
607:
606:
605:
595:
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585:
580:
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574:
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563:
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550:
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538:
533:
520:
519:
515:
514:
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512:
507:
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505:
495:
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483:
478:
473:
468:
467:
466:
456:
451:
450:
449:
442:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
405:Bill of lading
402:
397:
392:
384:
383:
373:
372:
371:
370:
369:
368:
366:Wartime prizes
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
333:
332:
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
295:
294:
293:
288:
283:
281:Passenger ship
278:
268:
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256:
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237:
236:
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230:
217:
216:
212:
211:
210:
209:
204:
199:
192:
191:
190:
175:
167:
166:
162:
161:
153:
152:
142:
139:
138:
53:
51:
44:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2651:
2640:
2639:Prize warfare
2637:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2622:
2620:
2615:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2595:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2570:
2568:
2563:
2560:
2556:
2553:
2549:
2546:
2542:
2539:
2535:
2532:
2528:
2525:
2521:
2520:
2510:, pp. 145–46.
2509:
2503:
2496:
2492:
2486:
2480:
2476:
2473:
2468:
2462:
2458:
2455:
2450:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2432:
2425:
2419:
2412:
2406:
2390:
2386:
2380:
2373:
2367:
2358:
2350:
2349:
2341:
2334:
2328:
2320:
2319:
2311:
2295:
2288:
2281:
2275:
2268:
2262:
2255:
2249:
2242:
2236:
2229:
2223:
2216:
2210:
2203:
2197:
2188:
2181:
2175:
2168:
2162:
2155:
2149:
2142:
2136:
2129:
2128:onus probandi
2125:
2121:
2116:
2109:
2108:onus probandi
2105:
2099:
2092:
2086:
2079:
2073:
2066:
2060:
2053:
2047:
2040:
2036:
2030:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2005:
2004:The Mary Ford
2001:
1996:
1989:
1983:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1959:
1953:
1946:
1942:
1936:
1929:
1925:
1919:
1912:
1908:
1902:
1895:
1891:
1885:
1878:
1872:
1865:
1859:
1852:
1846:
1836:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1811:
1804:
1799:
1792:
1786:
1779:
1773:
1766:
1761:
1754:
1751:in Colombos,
1750:
1745:
1730:
1727:
1721:
1712:
1705:
1699:
1692:
1686:
1679:
1675:
1669:
1662:
1658:
1652:
1645:
1639:
1631:
1625:
1611:
1607:
1601:
1597:
1588:
1586:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
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1543:
1539:
1538:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1464:
1459:
1452:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1441:Hampton Roads
1438:
1437:
1432:
1431:
1425:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1290:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1275:
1269:
1265:
1262:
1261:onus probandi
1257:
1255:
1247:
1242:
1238:
1236:
1231:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1209:
1203:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1186:
1179:
1177:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1135:
1129:
1128:Cruiser rules
1122:
1119:Jeune Richard
1118:
1114:
1110:
1101:
1097:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1006:
1001:
997:
995:
991:
986:
984:
980:
975:
973:
969:
964:
963:(1743–1836).
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
925:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
896:
892:
887:
878:
876:
875:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
823:
819:
816:
815:admiralty law
808:
807:
802:
801:
796:
785:
780:
778:
773:
771:
766:
765:
763:
762:
757:
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
743:
742:
741:
737:
736:
731:
728:
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723:
720:
714:
712:
709:
707:
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702:
699:
697:
694:
692:
689:
685:
682:
681:
679:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
655:
653:
652:Hamburg Rules
650:
648:
645:
644:
643:
642:
638:
637:
632:
629:
627:
624:
623:
622:
621:
617:
616:
611:
608:
604:
601:
600:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
572:
569:
567:
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562:
559:
558:
556:
553:
549:
546:
545:
544:
541:
537:
534:
532:
529:
528:
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82: –
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54:This article
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2393:. Retrieved
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1958:Law of Prize
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1935:
1928:Louisa Agnes
1927:
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1911:Louisa Agnes
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1613:. Retrieved
1609:
1600:
1584:
1579:Prize of war
1541:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1510:Royal assent
1445:
1434:
1433:in the case
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1185:postliminium
1183:
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1134:false colors
1131:
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1116:
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1028:
1017:Joseph Story
1010:
1004:
987:
976:
971:
968:Joseph Story
965:
952:
926:
917:
914:Mare Liberum
913:
909:
901:
900:In his book
899:
894:
872:
857:prize of war
844:
824:
817:
812:
804:
799:
476:Packing list
444:
381:Charterparty
365:
291:Registration
264:Shipbuilding
194:
185:
178:
127:
121:January 2021
118:
108:
101:
94:
87:
75:
63:Please help
58:verification
55:
1894:The Peacock
1400:During the
1322:Crimean War
1176:cartel ship
1148:cautioned:
618:Judiciaries
420:Consignment
2628:Categories
2529:Colombos,
2517:References
2489:Colombos,
2422:Colombos,
2139:Colombos,
2089:Colombos,
2039:The Elsebe
2033:Colombos,
1956:Colombos,
1945:Eliza Swan
1749:The Elsebe
1734:16 January
1729:LC Catalog
1615:2023-11-14
1574:War trophy
1481:Long title
1219:The Elsebe
1126:See also:
1078:Commission
1027:author of
1013:John Adams
979:common law
918:Commentary
822:Old French
820:(from the
440:Commercial
415:Chartering
329:Total loss
304:Act of God
276:Cargo ship
91:newspapers
29:Prize Ship
2619:Prize law
2543:Grotius,
2497:. c. 9)).
2239:Yellott,
2102:Colombos,
2022:The Rapid
1672:Grotius,
1655:Grotius,
1419:Nicaragua
1286:Quasi-War
1215:The Rapid
1168:extortion
1082:Although
949:Quasi-War
829:equipment
610:Stevedore
588:Principal
583:Consignor
578:Consignee
561:Charterer
446:Pro forma
425:Demurrage
410:Brokerage
361:Smuggling
356:Pollution
314:Collision
18:Prize law
2506:Petrie,
2475:Archived
2457:Archived
2439:Archived
2409:Maclay,
2370:Maclay,
2331:Maclay,
2243:, p. 19.
2165:Petrie,
2152:Petrie,
1939:Petrie,
1888:Uptown,
1875:Petrie,
1776:Maclay,
1702:Petrie,
1689:Petrie,
1642:Petrie,
1587:incident
1535:See also
1492:Citation
1142:heave-to
941:American
869:property
851:and its
833:vehicles
677:(UNCLOS)
471:Manifest
464:Maritime
400:Barratry
286:Mortgage
245:Shipping
215:Features
2265:Petrie,
2213:Upton,
2200:Petrie,
2076:Upton,
2063:Upton,
2050:Upton,
1986:Upton,
1969:Upton,
1922:Upton,
1905:Upton,
1862:Upton,
1849:Upton,
1585:Altmark
1542:Alabama
1190:salvage
906:Grotius
891:Grotius
837:vessels
803:towing
800:Blanche
571:Manager
555:Carrier
518:Parties
510:Waybill
486:Salvage
454:Laytime
435:Invoice
259:Freight
228:Illegal
223:Fishing
187:Digesta
165:History
105:scholar
2067:p. 454
1840:court)
1828:Active
1820:Active
1544:Claims
1499:. c. 9
1246:Betsey
1211:in rem
1055:Active
1050:Active
1042:Active
1023:, and
1005:Active
939:, the
874:in rem
839:, and
818:prizes
603:Mutiny
598:Seaman
531:Factor
395:Agency
351:Piracy
107:
100:
93:
86:
78:
2156:p.161
1975:Venus
1693:p. 5
1593:Notes
1504:Dates
1430:Appam
1235:libel
1160:scrip
861:worth
855:as a
853:cargo
845:prize
841:cargo
825:prise
806:Pique
593:Owner
526:Agent
498:Terms
346:Drugs
309:Cargo
254:Cargo
249:Ferry
112:JSTOR
98:books
2397:2017
2302:2022
1879:at 7
1736:2024
1706:p. 7
992:and
943:and
922:Ares
849:ship
459:Lien
84:news
1428:SS
1164:IOU
813:In
491:Law
67:by
2630::
2387:.
1947:).
1830:).
1789:A
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