Predation - Knowledge

2256: 529: 2654: 2576: 1381: 2682: 2629: 2197: 1432: 2707: 1608: 1405: 2308: 728: 1631: 44: 1454: 2822: 989: 60: 1543: 1518: 1846: 873: 970: 2605: 1485: 1972: 1469: 1935: 1865: 1189: 10046: 266: 1995:, where predators are adapting to competitors, their own predators or dangerous prey. Apparent adaptations to predation may also have arisen for other reasons and then been co-opted for attack or defence. In some of the insects preyed on by bats, hearing evolved before bats appeared and was used to hear signals used for territorial defence and mating. Their hearing evolved in response to bat predation, but the only clear example of reciprocal adaptation in bats is stealth echolocation. 367: 851: 1115: 386: 652: 1769: 926: 9828: 235: 2743: 938:

Ballistic interception involves a brief period for planning, giving the prey an opportunity to escape. Some frogs wait until snakes have begun their strike before jumping, reducing the time available to the snake to recalibrate its attack, and maximising the angular adjustment that the snake would need to make to intercept the frog in real time. Ballistic predators include insects such as dragonflies, and vertebrates such as

777: 9840: 1092: 2809:, predators (and parasitoids) from a pest's natural range are introduced to control populations, at the risk of causing unforeseen problems. Natural predators, provided they do no harm to non-pest species, are an environmentally friendly and sustainable way of reducing damage to crops and an alternative to the use of chemical agents such as 2653: 692:. The sit-and-wait method is most suitable if the prey are dense and mobile, and the predator has low energy requirements. Wide foraging expends more energy, and is used when prey is sedentary or sparsely distributed. There is a continuum of search modes with intervals between periods of movement ranging from seconds to months. Sharks, 1987:

dinner is unpredictable, as the predator may quickly find better prey. In addition, most predators are generalists, which reduces the impact of a given prey adaption on a predator. Since specialization is caused by predator-prey coevolution, the rarity of specialists may imply that predator-prey arms races are rare.

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Lapointe, Stephen L.; Capinera, John L.; Capinera, John L.; Nayar, Jai K.; Goettel, Mark S.; Nation, James L.; Heppner, John B.; Negron, Jose F.; Heppner, John B.; Kondratieff, Boris C.; Schöning, Caspar; Stewart, Kenneth W.; Aldryhim, Yousif; Heppner, John B.; Hangay, George (2008). "Deimatic Behavior".

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Cumming, Jeffrey M.; Sinclair, Bradley J.; Triplehorn, Charles A.; Aldryhim, Yousif; Galante, Eduardo; Marcos-Garcia, Ma Angeles; Edmunds, Malcolm; Edmunds, Malcolm; Lounibos, L. Phillip; Frank, J. Howard; Showler, Allan T.; Yu, Simon J.; Capinera, John L.; Heppner, John B.; Philogène, Bernard J. R.;

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Many factors can stabilize predator and prey populations. One example is the presence of multiple predators, particularly generalists that are attracted to a given prey species if it is abundant and look elsewhere if it is not. As a result, population cycles tend to be found in northern temperate and

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Predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. This may

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A more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. The predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives the evolution of mimicry. Avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned

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In size-selective predation, predators select prey of a certain size. Large prey may prove troublesome for a predator, while small prey might prove hard to find and in any case provide less of a reward. This has led to a correlation between the size of predators and their prey. Size may also act as a

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Ambush or sit-and-wait predators are carnivorous animals that capture prey by stealth or surprise. In animals, ambush predation is characterized by the predator's scanning the environment from a concealed position until a prey is spotted, and then rapidly executing a fixed surprise attack. Vertebrate

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Having found prey, a predator must decide whether to pursue it or keep searching. The decision depends on the costs and benefits involved. A bird foraging for insects spends a lot of time searching but capturing and eating them is quick and easy, so the efficient strategy for the bird is to eat every

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Ainsworth, Gillian B.; Calladine, John; Martay, Blaise; Park, Kirsty; Redpath, Steve; Wernham, Chris; Wilson, Mark; Young, Juliette (2016). "UNDERSTANDING PREDATION - A review bringing together natural science and local knowledge of recent wild bird population changes and their drivers in Scotland".

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regularly makes foraging flights to a range of around 700 kilometres (430 miles), up to a maximum foraging range of 3,000 kilometres (1,860 miles) for breeding birds gathering food for their young. With static prey, some predators can learn suitable patch locations and return to them at intervals to

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At the most basic level, predators kill and eat other organisms. However, the concept of predation is broad, defined differently in different contexts, and includes a wide variety of feeding methods; moreover, some relationships that result in the prey's death are not necessarily called predation. A

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are more opportunistic generalists, preying on at least 100 species. The specialists may be highly adapted to capturing their preferred prey, whereas generalists may be better able to switch to other prey when a preferred target is scarce. When prey have a clumped (uneven) distribution, the optimal

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swallow their prey whole; some snakes can unhinge their jaws to allow them to swallow large prey, while fish-eating birds have long spear-like beaks that they use to stab and grip fast-moving and slippery prey. Fish and other predators have developed the ability to crush or open the armoured shells

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collaborate to catch and kill herbivores as large as buffalo, and lions even hunt elephants. It can also make prey more readily available through strategies like flushing of prey and herding it into a smaller area. For example, when mixed flocks of birds forage, the birds in front flush out insects

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Peckarsky, Barbara L.; Abrams, Peter A.; Bolnick, Daniel I.; Dill, Lawrence M.; Grabowski, Jonathan H.; Luttbeg, Barney; Orrock, John L.; Peacor, Scott D.; Preisser, Evan L.; Schmitz, Oswald J.; Trussell, Geoffrey C. (September 2008). "Revisiting the classics: considering nonconsumptive effects in

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cells at around 2.7 Gya, the rise of multicellular organisms at about 2 Gya, and the rise of mobile predators (around 600 Mya - 2 Gya, probably around 1 Gya) have all been attributed to early predatory behavior, and many very early remains show evidence of boreholes or other markings attributed to

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The "life-dinner" principle has been criticized on multiple grounds. The extent of the asymmetry in natural selection depends in part on the heritability of the adaptive traits. Also, if a predator loses enough dinners, it too will lose its life. On the other hand, the fitness cost of a given lost

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systems to detect insects and other prey, and insects have developed a variety of defences including the ability to hear the echolocation calls. Many pursuit predators that run on land, such as wolves, have evolved long limbs in response to the increased speed of their prey. Their adaptations have

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in the sea. Ambush predators often construct a burrow in which to hide, improving concealment at the cost of reducing their field of vision. Some ambush predators also use lures to attract prey within striking range. The capturing movement has to be rapid to trap the prey, given that the attack is

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where prey is dense and then searching within patches. Where food is found in patches, such as rare shoals of fish in a nearly empty ocean, the search stage requires the predator to travel for a substantial time, and to expend a significant amount of energy, to locate each food patch. For example,

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In pursuit predation, predators chase fleeing prey. If the prey flees in a straight line, capture depends only on the predator's being faster than the prey. If the prey manoeuvres by turning as it flees, the predator must react in real time to calculate and follow a new intercept path, such as by

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to prey: the rate of kills increases in proportion to the rate of encounters. If this rate is limited by time spent handling each catch, then prey populations can reach densities above which predators cannot control them. Another assumption is that all prey individuals are identical. In reality,

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The metaphor of an arms race implies ever-escalating advances in attack and defence. However, these adaptations come with a cost; for instance, longer legs have an increased risk of breaking, while the specialized tongue of the chameleon, with its ability to act like a projectile, is useless for

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cycle. The predator must decide where to look for prey based on its geographical distribution; and once it has located prey, it must assess whether to pursue it or to wait for a better choice. If it chooses pursuit, its physical capabilities determine the mode of pursuit (e.g., ambush or chase).

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Hughes's earliest books contained a bewildering profusion of poems between their covers: ... fish and fowl, beasts of the field and forest, vigorous embodiments of predators and prey. Hughes as a student had taken up anthropology, not literature, and he chose to meditate his way into trancelike

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In mythology and folk fable, predators such as the fox and wolf have mixed reputations. The fox was a symbol of fertility in ancient Greece, but a weather demon in northern Europe, and a creature of the devil in early Christianity; the fox is presented as sly, greedy, and cunning in fables from

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Social hunting allows predators to tackle a wider range of prey, but at the risk of competition for the captured food. Solitary predators have more chance of eating what they catch, at the price of increased expenditure of energy to catch it, and increased risk that the prey will escape. Ambush

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Cursorial hunting strategies range from one extreme of transient acceleration, power and speed to the other extreme of persistence and endurance with prey being fatigued to facilitate capture.Dogs and humans are considered to rely on endurance rather than outright speed and manoeuvrability for

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One of the factors to consider is size. Prey that is too small may not be worth the trouble for the amount of energy it provides. Too large, and it may be too difficult to capture. For example, a mantid captures prey with its forelegs and they are optimized for grabbing prey of a certain size.

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Ballistic interception is the strategy where a predator observes the movement of a prey, predicts its motion, works out an interception path, and then attacks the prey on that path. This differs from ambush predation in that the predator adjusts its attack according to how the prey is moving.

262:, though conventionally parasites are thought not to kill their hosts. A predator can be defined to differ from a parasitoid in that it has many prey, captured over its lifetime, where a parasitoid's larva has just one, or at least has its food supply provisioned for it on just one occasion. 2279:

of the environment. Predators limit the growth of prey both by consuming them and by changing their behavior. Increases or decreases in the prey population can also lead to increases or decreases in the number of predators, for example, through an increase in the number of young they bear.

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that occur as predators consume their prey. The result is that only about 10% of the energy at any trophic level is transferred to the next level. This is often referred to as "the 10% rule" which limits the number of trophic levels that an individual ecosystem is capable of supporting.

1021:) before starting the pursuit. Pursuit predators include terrestrial mammals such as humans, African wild dogs, spotted hyenas and wolves; marine predators such as dolphins, orcas and many predatory fishes, such as tuna; predatory birds (raptors) such as falcons; and insects such as 2193:. Introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the ecosystem. For example, grazers of a grassland may prevent a single dominant species from taking over. 2439:

The earliest predators were microbial organisms, which engulfed or grazed on others. Because the fossil record is poor, these first predators could date back anywhere between 1 and over 2.7 Gya (billion years ago). Predation visibly became important shortly before the

2604: 2224:. In that area, wolves are both keystone species and apex predators. Without predation, herbivores began to over-graze many woody browse species, affecting the area's plant populations. In addition, wolves often kept animals from grazing near streams, protecting the 1323:

over a relatively narrow field of view, whereas prey animals often have less acute all-round vision. Animals such as foxes can smell their prey even when it is concealed under 2 feet (60 cm) of snow or earth. Many predators have acute hearing, and some such as

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along Blacktail Creek due to a lack of predation caused channel incision because the reduced beaver population was no longer able to slow the water down and keep the soil in place. The predators were thus demonstrated to be of vital importance in the ecosystem.

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It is difficult to determine whether given adaptations are truly the result of coevolution, where a prey adaptation gives rise to a predator adaptation that is countered by further adaptation in the prey. An alternative explanation is

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for the prey's body. However, the "life-dinner" principle of Dawkins and Krebs predicts that this arms race is asymmetric: if a predator fails to catch its prey, it loses its dinner, while if it succeeds, the prey loses its life.

2115:. There are generally up to six trophic levels in the open ocean, four over continental shelves, and around three in upwelling zones. For example, a marine habitat with five trophic levels could be represented as follows: 1576:

strategy for the predator is predicted to be more specialized as the prey are more conspicuous and can be found more quickly; this appears to be correct for predators of immobile prey, but is doubtful with mobile prey.

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Loron, Corentin C.; Rainbird, Robert H.; Turner, Elizabeth C.; Wilder Greenman, J.; Javaux, Emmanuelle J. (2018). "Implications of selective predation on the macroevolution of eukaryotes: Evidence from Arctic Canada".

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in Alaska and Canada, the hare populations fluctuate in near synchrony with a 10-year period, and the lynx populations fluctuate in response. This was first seen in historical records of animals caught by

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Predation dates from before the rise of commonly recognized carnivores by hundreds of millions (perhaps billions) of years. Predation has evolved repeatedly in different groups of organisms. The rise of

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or mats of microbes are predators, as they consume and kill their food organisms, while herbivores that browse leaves are not, as their food plants usually survive the assault. When animals eat seeds (

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Sampson, Scott D.; Loewen, Mark A. (27 June 2005). "Tyrannosaurus rex from the Upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) North Horn Formation of Utah: biogeographic and paleoecologic implications".

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with its venom), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. Predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter-adaptations. In western North America, the

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Once the predator has captured the prey, it has to handle it: very carefully if the prey is dangerous to eat, such as if it possesses sharp or poisonous spines, as in many prey fish. Some

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While examples of predators among mammals and birds are well known, predators can be found in a broad range of taxa including arthropods. They are common among insects, including mantids,

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palatable insect it finds. By contrast, a predator such as a lion or falcon finds its prey easily but capturing it requires a lot of effort. In that case, the predator is more selective.

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demonstrates a long history of interactions between predators and their prey from the Cambrian period onwards, showing for example that some predators drilled through the shells of

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states of preconsciousness before committing poems to paper. His poems, early or late, enter into the relations of living creatures; they move in close to animal consciousness:

2062:. Many predators however eat from multiple levels of the food chain; a carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers. This means that many predators must contend with 548:

Seed predation is restricted to mammals, birds, and insects but is found in almost all terrestrial ecosystems. Egg predation includes both specialist egg predators such as some

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of the bacteria that they prey upon. Carnivorous vertebrates of all five major classes (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) have lower relative rates of sugar to

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Grant, S. W. F.; Knoll, A. H.; Germs, G. J. B. (1991). "Probable Calcified Metaphytes in the Latest Proterozoic Nama Group, Namibia: Origin, Diagenesis, and Implications".

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Li, Min; Fry, B.G.; Kini, R. Manjunatha (2005). "Eggs-Only Diet: Its Implications for the Toxin Profile Changes and Ecology of the Marbled Sea Snake (Aipysurus eydouxii)".

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Kane, Adam; Healy, Kevin; Guillerme, Thomas; Ruxton, Graeme D.; Jackson, Andrew L. (2017). "A recipe for scavenging in vertebrates – the natural history of a behaviour".

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which lock in the erect position; as the catfish thrashes about when captured, these could pierce the predator's mouth, possibly fatally. Some fish-eating birds like the

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In social predation, a group of predators cooperates to kill prey. This makes it possible to kill creatures larger than those they could overpower singly; for example,

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Cyclical fluctuations have been seen in populations of predator and prey, often with offsets between the predator and prey cycles. A well-known example is that of the

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A predator may assess a patch and decide whether to spend time searching for prey in it. This may involve some knowledge of the preferences of the prey; for example,

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Predators may actively search for or pursue prey or wait for it, often concealed. When prey is detected, the predator assesses whether to attack it. This may involve

1904:, by signalling that a chase would be unprofitable, or by forming groups. If they become a target, they can try to fend off the attack with defences such as armour, 2947:

and cougar, have shifted from hostility or ambivalence, accompanied by active persecution, towards positive and protective in the second half of the 20th century.

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and domestic hounds. The African wild dog is an extreme persistence predator, tiring out individual prey by following them for many miles at relatively low speed.

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for detecting, catching, killing, and digesting prey. These include speed, agility, stealth, sharp senses, claws, teeth, filters, and suitable digestive systems.

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Fedriani, Jose M.; Fuller, Todd K.; Sauvajot, Raymond M.; York, Eric C. (October 2000). "Competition and intraguild predation among three sympatric carnivores".

144:, sometimes after stalking the prey. If the attack is successful, the predator kills the prey, removes any inedible parts like the shell or spines, and eats it. 7499:

Preisser, Evan L.; Bolnick, Daniel I.; Benard, Michael F. (2005). "Scared to Death? The Effects of Intimidation and Consumption in Predator–Prey Interactions".

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Scharf, Inon; Nulman, Einat; Ovadia, Ofer; Bouskila, Amos (September 2006). "Efficiency evaluation of two competing foraging modes under different conditions".

3184: 2325:, predicts population cycles. However, attempts to reproduce the predictions of this model in the laboratory have often failed; for example, when the protozoan 9604: 9487: 8134:

Levin, Simon A.; Carpenter, Stephen R.; Godfray, H. Charles J.; Kinzig, Ann P.; Loreau, Michel; Losos, Jonathan B.; Walker, Brian; Wilcove, David S. (2009).

2929:, men transformed into wolves. In ancient Rome, and in ancient Egypt, the wolf was worshipped, the she-wolf appearing in the founding myth of Rome, suckling 4520:"Outrun or Outmaneuver: Predator–Prey Interactions as a Model System for Integrating Biomechanical Studies in a Broader Ecological and Evolutionary Context" 2228:' food sources. The removal of wolves had a direct effect on the beaver population, as their habitat became territory for grazing. Increased browsing on 2368:

A range of mathematical models have been developed by relaxing the assumptions made in the Lotka–Volterra model; these variously allow animals to have

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Kellert, Stephen R.; Black, Matthew; Rush, Colleen Reid; Bath, Alistair J. (1996). "Human Culture and Large Carnivore Conservation in North America".

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ecosystems because the food webs are simpler. The snowshoe hare-lynx system is subarctic, but even this involves other predators, including coyotes,

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that consume sap from living plants. However, since they typically do not kill their hosts, they are now often thought of as parasites. Animals that

1484: 258:, lays its eggs in or on its host; the eggs hatch into larvae, which eat the host, and it inevitably dies. Zoologists generally call this a form of 6267: 2344:, meaning that any change in the equations can stabilize or destabilize the dynamics. For example, one assumption is that predators have a linear 1900:. They can detect predators and warn others of their presence. If detected, they can try to avoid being the target of an attack, for example, by 3248:

Nilsson, Sven G.; Björkman, Christer; Forslund, Pär; Höglund, Jacob (1985). "Egg predation in forest bird communities on islands and mainland".

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Predators and prey are natural enemies, and many of their adaptations seem designed to counter each other. For example, bats have sophisticated

11355: 10608: 1978:, itself a predator, is venomous enough to kill predators that attack it, so when they avoid it, this behaviour must be inherited, not learnt. 796:

Mantids are reluctant to attack prey that is far from that size. There is a positive correlation between the size of a predator and its prey.

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Analysis of vertebrate predator-prey community: Studies within the European Forest zone in terrains with transitional mixed forest in Belarus

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Eastman, Lucas B.; Thiel, Martin (2015). "Foraging behavior of crustacean predators and scavengers". In Thiel, Martin; Watling, Les (eds.).

1032:, in which the predator tires out the prey by following it over a long distance, sometimes for hours at a time. The method is used by human 9457: 8995:

Anderson, P. S. L.; Westneat, M. (2009). "A biomechanical model of feeding kinematics for Dunkleosteus terrelli (Arthrodira, Placodermi)".

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Many predators are powerfully built and can catch and kill animals larger than themselves; this applies as much to small predators such as

5452: 601:) prey on other microorganisms; the feeding mode is evidently ancient, and evolved many times in both groups. Among freshwater and marine 11499: 10417: 5316: 11569: 9373: 8508:

Berryman, Alan A.; Hawkins, Bradford A.; Hawkins, Bradford A. (2006). "The refuge as an integrating concept in ecology and evolution".

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or Late Devonian, enabling them among other things to escape from predators. Among the largest predators that have ever lived were the

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To counter predation, prey have evolved defences for use at each stage of an attack. They can try to avoid detection, such as by using

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Trophic transfer efficiency measures how effectively energy is transferred or passed up through higher trophic levels of the marine

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antelope over short distances, but follows it in the midday heat until it is exhausted, a pursuit that can take up to five hours.

1468: 421:, only the larvae are predatory (the adults do not eat). Spiders are predatory, as well as other terrestrial invertebrates such as 5753: 4603: 1251:

are solitary, including the cougar and cheetah. However, the solitary cougar does allow other cougars to share in a kill, and the

4747:"A division of labour with role specialization in group-hunting bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) off Cedar Key, Florida" 3450: 11579: 11307: 10410: 7958: 6021:

Sprules, W. Gary (1972). "Effects of Size-Selective Predation and Food Competition on High Altitude Zooplankton Communities".

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Hubel, Tatjana Y.; Myatt, Julia P.; Jordan, Neil R.; Dewhirst, Oliver P.; McNutt, J. Weldon; Wilson, Alan M. (29 March 2016).

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molluscs, while others ate these organisms by breaking their shells. Among the Cambrian predators were invertebrates like the

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Bergstrom, C. T.; Lachmann, M. (2001). "Alarm calls as costly signals of antipredator vigilance: the watchful babbler game".

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Power, R. John; Shem Compion, R.X. (April 2009). "Lion Predation on Elephants in the Savuti, Chobe National Park, Botswana".

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Hayward, M. W.; Henschel, P.; O'Brien, J.; Hofmeyr, M.; Balme, G.; Kerley, G.I.H. (2006). "Prey preferences of the leopard (

2396:, where prey are safe from predators, may enable prey to maintain larger populations but may also destabilize the dynamics. 11584: 1342:, and ants share powerful jaws, sharp teeth, or claws which they use to seize and kill their prey. Some predators such as 11772: 7199:

Janis, C. M.; Wilhelm, P. B. (1993). "Were there mammalian pursuit predators in the Tertiary? Dances with wolf avatars".

5322: 1799: 1785: 6216: 5719: 5397:"Cooperative foraging expands dietary niche but does not offset intra-group competition for resources in social spiders" 5071:

Lang, Stephen D. J.; Farine, Damien R. (2017). "A multidimensional framework for studying social predation strategies".

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for large prey. For example, adult elephants are relatively safe from predation by lions, but juveniles are vulnerable.

1017:, as it closes on the prey. Many pursuit predators use camouflage to approach the prey as close as possible unobserved ( 11525: 11348: 11189: 10601: 10272: 9576: 9233: 9181: 8115: 7855: 5566: 3389: 2388:; and analysing the interactions of more than just two species at once. Such models predict widely differing and often 2155:(feeding on other plants and animals for energy and nutrients—herbivores, omnivores and carnivores, and detritivores). 1698:, for example, copy the light signals of other species, thereby attracting male fireflies, which they capture and eat. 1173:

form a circle around a school of fish and move inwards, concentrating the fish by a factor of 200. By hunting socially

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Darimont, C. T.; Fox, C. H.; Bryan, H. M.; Reimchen, T. E. (20 August 2015). "The unique ecology of human predators".

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Awramik, S. M. (19 November 1971). "Precambrian columnar stromatolite diversity: Reflection of metazoan appearance".

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Cressman, Ross; Garay, József (2009). "A predator–prey refuge system: Evolutionary stability in ecological systems".

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transport than either herbivores or omnivores, presumably because they acquire plenty of amino acids from the animal

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Vermeij, G J (November 1994). "The Evolutionary Interaction Among Species: Selection, Escalation, and Coevolution".

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MacNulty, Daniel R.; Tallian, Aimee; Stahler, Daniel R.; Smith, Douglas W. (12 November 2014). Sueur, Cédric (ed.).

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Pike, David A.; Clark, Rulon W.; Manica, Andrea; Tseng, Hui-Yun; Hsu, Jung-Ya; Huang, Wen-San (26 February 2016).

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with appendages suitable for grabbing prey, large compound eyes and jaws made of a hard material like that in the

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Kozlov, Vladimir; Vakulenko, Sergey (3 July 2013). "On chaos in Lotka–Volterra systems: an analytical approach".

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Sih, Andrew; Christensen, Bent (2001). "Optimal diet theory: when does it work, and when and why does it fail?".

3637:"Surf and turf: predation by egg-eating snakes has led to the evolution of parental care in a terrestrial lizard" 2786:

to catch prey for food or for sport. Two mid-sized predators, dogs and cats, are the animals most often kept as

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that has adapted to egg predation has atrophied venom glands, and the gene for its three finger toxin contains a

9832: 9074: 8025: 8008: 7917: 7900: 7820: 6422: 5641: 1689:, certain predators, including insects and fishes, make use of coloration and behaviour to attract prey. Female 214:

of well-defended species, and defensive spines and chemicals. Sometimes predator and prey find themselves in an

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Goldbogen, J. A.; Calambokidis, J.; Shadwick, R. E.; Oleson, E. M.; McDonald, M. A.; Hildebrand, J. A. (2006).

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predators are often solitary to reduce the risk of becoming prey themselves. Of 245 terrestrial members of the

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Williams, Amanda C.; Flaxman, Samuel M. (2012). "Can predators assess the quality of their prey's resource?".

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Jurkevitch, Edouard; Davidov, Yaacov (2006). "Phylogenetic Diversity and Evolution of Predatory Prokaryotes".

12035: 11634: 11589: 11341: 10594: 10511: 8616: 2611: 11121: 9251:"A first estimate of the structure and density of the populations of pet cats and dogs across Great Britain" 2255: 11467: 10491: 4723: 4615: 2322: 2315: 2250: 1556:, over twice her weight. Lions can attack much larger prey, including elephants, but do so much less often. 10486: 10451: 8856:

Dunn, F. S.; Kenchington, C. G.; Parry, L. A.; Clark, J. W.; Kendall, R. S.; Wilby, P. R. (25 July 2022).

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Bengtson, S. (2002). "Origins and early evolution of predation". In Kowalewski, M.; Kelley, P. H. (eds.).

319:, organisms that only eat organisms found already dead, are not predators, but many predators such as the 11824: 10715: 6388:

Castello, M. E.; A. Rodriguez-Cattaneo; P. A. Aguilera; L. Iribarne; A. C. Pereira; A. A. Caputi (2009).

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Forbes, L. Scott (1989). "Prey Defences and Predator Handling Behaviour: The Dangerous Prey Hypothesis".

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Sanders, Jon G.; Beichman, Annabel C.; Roman, Joe; Scott, Jarrod J.; Emerson, David; McCarthy, James J.;

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Perry, Gad (January 1999). "The Evolution of Search Modes: Ecological versus Phylogenetic Perspectives".

3553:"Cephalopods as Predators: A Short Journey among Behavioral Flexibilities, Adaptions, and Feeding Habits" 2582: 2470: 1063:, diving and actively swimming into concentrations of plankton, and then taking a huge gulp of water and 6568:

Karasov, William H.; Diamond, Jared M. (1988). "Interplay between Physiology and Ecology in Digestion".

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Reynolds, Andy (September 2015). "Liberating Lévy walk research from the shackles of optimal foraging".

2275:

In the absence of predators, the population of a species can grow exponentially until it approaches the

1760:) that inactives it. These changes are explained by the fact that its prey does not need to be subdued. 582:

using either active traps in the form of constricting rings, or passive traps with adhesive structures.

11889: 11609: 11096: 10813: 10710: 10501: 10252: 9881: 9844: 5785: 2966: 2196: 1810:

Physiological adaptations to predation include the ability of predatory bacteria to digest the complex

94: 5582:

Stow, Adam; Nyqvist, Marina J.; Gozlan, Rodolphe E.; Cucherousset, Julien; Britton, J. Robert (2012).

3472: 12070: 11682: 11574: 11432: 11417: 11412: 11091: 10803: 10391: 7302:"Adaptive responses of predators to prey and prey to predators: The failure of the arms-race analogy" 6313:

Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs, Plants, and Venomous Animals

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Watanabe, James M. (2007). "Invertebrates, overview". In Denny, Mark W.; Gaines, Steven Dean (eds.).

3077: 2956: 2217: 2201: 727: 31: 10586: 3719: 2416:

small predator species. It likely triggered major evolutionary transitions including the arrival of

2349:

predators tend to select young, weak, and ill individuals, leaving prey populations able to regrow.

1999:

from bad experiences with prey. However, when the prey is capable of killing the predator (as can a

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McNair, James N (1986). "The effects of refuges on predator-prey interactions: A reconsideration".

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Sheriff, Michael J.; Peacor, Scott D.; Hawlena, Dror; Thaker, Maria; Gaillard, Jean-Michel (2020).

2482:, England. It is thought to be one of the earliest predatory animals, catching small prey with its 2384:, so that only some individuals reproduce; to live in a varying environment, such as with changing 1727: 831:, where a predator observes and predicts a prey's motion and then launches its attack accordingly. 11333: 10964: 2943:, Mowgli is raised by the wolf pack. Attitudes to large predators in North America, such as wolf, 2185:

of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. Such predators are known as

2151:(using light energy to grow without intake of any additional organic compounds or nutrients) with 2050:

are secondary consumers; their predators are tertiary consumers, and so forth. At the top of this

1607: 11904: 11767: 11677: 11545: 11427: 11397: 11254: 11219: 10939: 10906: 10881: 10371: 7243: 2883:

Among poetry on the theme of predation, a predator's consciousness might be explored, such as in

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change from minimal burrowing (left) to a diverse burrowing fauna (right), probably to avoid new

2301: 2268: 1835: 768:

of a wide variety of organisms including bacteria, honeybees, sharks and human hunter-gatherers.

750: 704:

are almost always moving while web-building spiders, aquatic invertebrates, praying mantises and

191: 7846:

Bond, W. J. (2012). "11. Keystone species". In Schulze, Ernst-Detlef; Mooney, Harold A. (eds.).

4970:"Baleen whales host a unique gut microbiome with similarities to both carnivores and herbivores" 2108:'s body. Within each transfer, while there are uses of energy, there are also losses of energy. 555:

and generalists such as foxes and badgers that opportunistically take eggs when they find them.

12050: 11994: 11929: 11792: 11727: 11662: 11224: 11012: 10720: 10700: 10436: 8143: 6311: 6282: 5460: 2909: 1952: 754: 745: 732: 215: 82: 7175: 7065:"Number of eyespots and their intimidating effect on naïve predators in the peacock butterfly" 5894: 5867: 4795: 3905: 3017: 2821: 1630: 11954: 11899: 11762: 11747: 11530: 11487: 11477: 11472: 11229: 11209: 11065: 11055: 10997: 10992: 10828: 10680: 10461: 10016: 9865: 9426: 6387: 5779: 5326: 4719: 3706: 2892: 2737: 2087: 1964: 1794:

Several groups of predatory fish have the ability to detect, track, and sometimes, as in the

1789: 1563:

Predators are often highly specialized in their diet and hunting behaviour; for example, the

998: 735:

regularly flies hundreds of kilometres across the nearly empty ocean to find patches of food.

43: 35: 9198: 8624: 8135: 8051: 7167: 6955:

Dominey, Wallace J. (1983). "Mobbing in Colonially Nesting Fishes, Especially the Bluegill,

3897: 3735:"On the Origin of Carnivory: Molecular Physiology and Evolution of Plants on an Animal Diet" 3050:

Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M. (2002). "Trophic strategies, animal diversity and body size".

2995:

A range of 3000 kilometres means a flight distance of at least 6000 kilometres out and back.

2307: 2020:

explain population dynamics effects such as the cycles observed in lynx and snowshoe hares.

12080: 12045: 12040: 11964: 11959: 11914: 11812: 11782: 11777: 11629: 11492: 11482: 11027: 10866: 10655: 10551: 10526: 10466: 10299: 9644: 9339: 9262: 9105: 9004: 8959: 8869: 8775: 8724: 8665: 8552: 8517: 8474: 8439: 8396: 8230: 7973: 7735: 7692: 7645: 7598: 7555: 7508: 7463: 7255: 7007: 6836: 6491: 6346: 6146: 6077: 6030: 5822: 5595: 5408: 5248: 5127: 5080: 5034: 4981: 4344: 4301: 4264: 3950: 3799: 3648: 3336: 3257: 2860: 2369: 2341: 2063: 1524: 907: 856: 575: 348: 8586:

Abrams, P. A. (2000). "The evolution of predator-prey interactions: theory and evidence".

3751: 3734: 2162:. As energy moves up the trophic levels, it decreases due to heat, waste, and the natural 147:

Predators are adapted and often highly specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as

8: 12130: 12105: 11969: 11939: 11884: 11797: 11687: 11672: 11619: 11452: 11387: 11269: 11199: 11131: 10730: 10481: 10386: 10240: 9381: 8625: 5584:"Behavioural Syndrome in a Solitary Predator Is Independent of Body Size and Growth Rate" 3999: 2795: 2425: 2345: 2333: 2246: 2004: 1947: 1939: 1325: 1155: 1029: 1014: 815:

To capture prey, predators have a spectrum of pursuit modes that range from overt chase (

780: 395: 313:), they are consuming entire living organisms, which by definition makes them predators. 9656: 9648: 9343: 9266: 9109: 9008: 8963: 8873: 8779: 8728: 8669: 8556: 8521: 8478: 8443: 8400: 8234: 7977: 7739: 7696: 7649: 7602: 7559: 7512: 7467: 7412: 7259: 7011: 6840: 6495: 6350: 6150: 6081: 6034: 5826: 5599: 5412: 5252: 5131: 5084: 5038: 4985: 4675: 4348: 4305: 4268: 3954: 3803: 3652: 3340: 3261: 3234: 1247:(the group that includes the cats, dogs, and bears), 177 are solitary; and 35 of the 37 988: 12167: 12141: 12090: 12085: 11894: 11857: 11599: 11555: 11520: 11377: 11302: 11204: 11136: 11126: 11060: 11007: 10818: 10763: 10725: 10650: 10565: 10381: 10031: 9798: 9529: 9285: 9250: 9129: 9078: 9020: 8890: 8857: 8835: 8791: 8748: 8697: 8681: 8412: 8253: 8218: 7989: 7796: 7769: 7708: 7614: 7381: 7331: 7318: 7301: 7279: 7216: 7033: 6976: 6805: 6792: 6775: 6744: 6709: 6657: 6632: 6585: 6512: 6479: 6455: 6430: 6370: 6261: 6170: 6046: 6003: 5968: 5843: 5811:"Biomass transformation webs provide a unified approach to consumer-resource modelling" 5810: 5672: 5618: 5583: 5508: 5483: 5429: 5396: 5372: 5345: 5150: 5115: 5050: 5002: 4969: 4946: 4888: 4863: 4771: 4746: 4619: 4479: 4436: 4218: 4051: 4043: 3875: 3815: 3772: 3669: 3636: 3579: 3552: 3414: 3362: 3302:

Hulme, P. E.; Benkman, C. W. (2002). "Granivory". In C. M. Herrera; O. Pellmyr (eds.).

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are small animals that, like predators, feed entirely on other organisms; they include

218:, a cycle of adaptations and counter-adaptations. Predation has been a major driver of 195: 187: 180: 59: 8408: 7062: 6431:"Electrifying love: electric fish use species-specific discharge for mate recognition" 3063: 1255:

can be either solitary or social. Other solitary predators include the northern pike,

12030: 11999: 11787: 11614: 11422: 11287: 11264: 11002: 10778: 10690: 10675: 10660: 10640: 10376: 10021: 9806: 9780: 9761: 9744: 9720: 9698: 9679: 9572: 9564: 9503: 9436: 9405: 9355: 9330:

Liebenberg, Louis (2008). "The relevance of persistence hunting to human evolution".

9290: 9229: 9204: 9177: 9152: 9121: 9082: 8977: 8928: 8918: 8895: 8827: 8740: 8689: 8636: 8568: 8529: 8490: 8486: 8451: 8416: 8367: 8258: 8197: 8172: 8147: 8136: 8111: 7937: 7876: 7851: 7800: 7761: 7571: 7524: 7481: 7323: 7271: 7179: 7168: 7110: 7063:

Merilaita, Sami; Vallin, Adrian; Kodandaramaiah, Ullasa; et al. (26 July 2011).

7025: 6923: 6864: 6859: 6824: 6797: 6662: 6548: 6517: 6460: 6411: 6362: 6317: 6290: 6287:

Critical care toxicology: diagnosis and management of the critically poisoned patient

6247: 6195: 6162: 6137: 6105: 6090: 6065: 5937: 5900: 5873: 5848: 5834: 5789: 5676: 5623: 5562: 5513: 5434: 5377: 5266: 5155: 5096: 5007: 4938: 4893: 4844: 4801: 4776: 4641: 4585: 4541: 4471: 4401: 4360: 4317: 4313: 4210: 4173: 4129: 4082: 4003: 3917: 3898: 3867: 3823: 3776: 3764: 3756: 3674: 3584: 3531: 3506: 3418: 3385: 3307: 3273: 3152: 3142: 3111: 3023: 2961: 2930: 2904: 2867: 2830: 2693: 2544: 2276: 1749: 1636: 1445: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1285: 1174: 1002: 959: 817: 571: 458: 372: 344: 203: 141: 9024: 8839: 8795: 8701: 8599: 8043: 7773: 7335: 7220: 6809: 6748: 6374: 6174: 6007: 4950: 4483: 4440: 4055: 3366: 2327: 1542: 764:, that tends to involve clusters of short steps with occasional long steps. It is a 663:

To feed, a predator must search for, pursue and kill its prey. These actions form a

12162: 11984: 11847: 11839: 11757: 11639: 11624: 11560: 11540: 11457: 11447: 11442: 11407: 11239: 11179: 11050: 10851: 10793: 10705: 10665: 10521: 10506: 10245: 10026: 9858: 9652: 9347: 9280: 9270: 9249:

Aegerter, James; Fouracre, David; Smith, Graham C. (2017). Olsson, I Anna S (ed.).

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The Lotka–Volterra equations rely on several simplifying assumptions, and they are

2205: 2186: 2176: 1975: 1851: 1845: 1691: 1581: 1475: 1320: 1041: 899: 872: 840: 137: 9803:

Avoiding attack: the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals, and mimicry

8345: 8328: 7106: 4432: 2798:, a form of pursuit predation where the pursuer may be slower than prey such as a 1971: 1710:

are extremely well camouflaged, and actively lure their prey to approach using an

969: 12120: 11979: 11949: 11944: 11934: 11867: 11852: 11732: 11712: 11594: 11462: 11368: 11259: 11169: 11111: 10695: 10621: 10353: 10225: 10204: 9432: 9351: 9275: 8736: 8361: 8243: 8217:

Genovart, M.; Negre, N.; Tavecchia, G.; Bistuer, A.; Parpal, L.; Oro, D. (2010).

7658: 7633: 7239: 6158: 5608: 5140: 4078: 3811: 2939: 2934: 2854: 2845: 2826: 2771: 2660: 2466:, with evidence of selective (rather than random) predation from a similar time. 2405: 2221: 1908:, unpalatability, or mobbing; and they can often escape an attack in progress by 1905: 1777: 1459: 1441: 1224: 1196: 1170: 1075: 1033: 903: 879: 859: 823: 63: 7787:

Lalli, Carol M.; Parsons, Timothy R. (1997). "Energy Flow and Mineral Cycling".

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Pimm, S. L.; Lawton, J. H. (1978). "On feeding on more than one trophic level".

7452:"Non-Consumptive Predator Effects on Prey Population Size: A Dearth of Evidence" 4823:"Capture Success and Efficiency of Dragonflies Pursuing Different Types of Prey" 4356: 2899:" has been interpreted as referring to the struggle between predators and prey. 2365:, and the cycle is reinforced by variations in the food available to the hares. 2267:) (yellow background) and Canada lynx (black line, foreground) furs sold to the 1934: 12100: 11924: 11877: 11807: 11802: 11697: 11564: 11437: 11244: 11234: 11214: 11017: 10982: 10921: 10798: 10753: 10645: 10328: 10304: 10287: 10082: 9623:

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6428: 5420: 5346:"Energetics and evasion dynamics of large predators and prey: pumas vs. hounds" 4697: 2723: 2635: 2502: 2417: 2101: 1490: 1316: 1296: 1178: 975: 614: 610: 563: 391: 352: 299: 255: 106: 102: 8972: 8947: 8677: 8564: 8219:"The young, the weak and the sick: evidence of natural selection by predation" 7959:"Predators Reduce Prey Population Growth by Inducing Changes in Prey Behavior" 7020: 6995: 6358: 6135:

Lloyd J. E. (1965). "Aggressive Mimicry in Photuris: Firefly Femmes Fatales".

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and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular

1864: 1740:

to subdue their prey, and venom can also aid in digestion (as is the case for

1188: 761: 12156: 12125: 11101: 11075: 11032: 11022: 10977: 10944: 10836: 10670: 10625: 10516: 10338: 10333: 10292: 10282: 10230: 10045: 9995: 9990: 9909: 9794: 9748: 8932: 7528: 6628: 4965: 3760: 3569: 3551:

Villanueva, Roger; Perricone, Valentina; Fiorito, Graziano (17 August 2017).

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Stanley, Steven M. (2008). "Predation defeats competition on the seafloor".

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Getty, T. (2002). "The discriminating babbler meets the optimal diet hawk".

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Feulner, P. G.; M. Plath; J. Engelmann; F. Kirschbaum; R. Tiedemann (2009).

4253:"Black-browed albatrosses, international fisheries and the Patagonian Shelf" 3939:"Zooplankton grazing and growth: Scaling within the 2-2,-μm body size range" 3620: 3603: 1231:. These predators are able to access small crevices and flush out the prey. 179:

to grip, kill, and cut up their prey. Other adaptations include stealth and

12110: 12095: 11752: 11722: 11667: 11550: 11515: 11392: 10891: 10456: 10358: 10235: 10123: 9944: 9934: 9734: 9359: 9294: 9125: 8981: 8899: 8831: 8744: 8693: 8572: 8262: 7765: 7575: 7485: 7327: 7267: 7029: 6801: 6740: 6705: 6666: 6648: 6521: 6464: 6446: 6415: 6366: 6166: 6109: 5999: 5852: 5696: 5663:

Weseloh, Ronald M.; Hare, J. Daniel (2009). "Predation/Predatory Insects".

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Griffiths, David (November 1980). "Foraging costs and relative prey size".

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A simple model of a system with one species each of predator and prey, the

2182: 2092:

Trophic transfer within an ecosystem refers to the transport of energy and

1795: 1773: 1659: 1618: 1553: 1411: 1391: 1339: 1236: 1232: 1052: 739:

Prey distributions are often clumped, and predators respond by looking for

626: 482: 332: 265: 168: 52: 9758:

Predator-prey interactions : co-evolution between bats and their prey

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Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control

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Krebs, Charles J.; Boonstra, Rudy; Boutin, Stan; Sinclair, A.R.E. (2001).

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Nelson, Erik H.; Matthews, Christopher E.; Rosenheim, Jay A. (July 2004).

7901:"Wolves and the Ecology of Fear: Can Predation Risk Structure Ecosystems?" 7747: 6868: 4321: 3082:"Evolution of parasitism along convergent lines: from ecology to genomics" 11402: 10949: 10911: 10886: 10876: 10841: 10788: 10768: 10471: 10179: 10164: 10159: 10149: 10144: 10128: 10087: 10077: 9924: 9919: 9914: 8823: 7668: 6620: 5186: 4839: 4822: 4561: 4536: 4519: 4292:

Charnov, Eric L. (1976). "Optimal foraging, the marginal value theorem".

4069:

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3937:

Hansen, Per Juel; Bjørnsen, Peter Koefoed; Hansen, Benni Winding (1997).

2976: 2876: 2851: 2848: 2775: 2506: 2152: 2132: 2128: 2000: 1956: 1929: 1901: 1741: 1671: 1437: 1268: 1256: 1220: 1216: 1208: 1182: 1135: 891: 863: 602: 478: 328: 8194:

Virus Dynamics : Mathematical Principles of Immunology and Virology

8070: 7275: 6849: 5499: 5221: 4879: 2478:(557–562 mya, some 20 million years before the Cambrian explosion) from 2459:. However, predators had been grazing on micro-organisms since at least 366: 12115: 11692: 11657: 11297: 11249: 11194: 11164: 11070: 10987: 10931: 10808: 10758: 10572: 10531: 10496: 10343: 10199: 10194: 10184: 10107: 10097: 9985: 9959: 9949: 9695:

Searching Behaviour : the behavioural ecology of finding resources

9039: 8685: 7993: 7756: 7618: 7385: 7212: 6980: 6589: 6503: 6406: 6389: 6050: 5362: 5261: 5236: 5054: 4993: 4580: 4563: 4277: 4252: 4047: 3819: 3348: 3269: 2884: 2791: 2746: 2697: 2595: 2566: 2562: 2554: 2532: 2514: 2510: 2483: 2461: 2412: 2163: 2051: 1913: 1893: 1855: 1819: 1780:) showing location of electric organ and electrocytes stacked within it 1757: 1614: 1593: 1533: 1395: 1387: 1351: 1289: 1114: 1048: 947: 939: 850: 713: 672:

it (e.g., killing it, removing any shell or spines, and ingesting it).

598: 533: 522: 510: 490: 474: 466: 462: 410: 259: 251: 242: 238: 207: 199: 164: 110: 98: 48: 8108:

On the Volterra and Other Non-Linear Models of Interacting Populations

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Lindeman, Raymond L. (1942). "The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology".

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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

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Bryce, Caleb M.; Wilmers, Christopher C.; Williams, Terrie M. (2017).

4933: 4916: 3660: 3357: 1802:. The electric organ is derived from modified nerve or muscle tissue. 1146:

avoid the danger of spines by tearing up their prey before eating it.

12020: 11974: 11702: 11146: 11116: 10871: 10846: 10783: 10773: 10748: 10740: 10685: 10616: 10559: 10544: 10348: 10277: 10189: 10169: 10154: 10102: 10092: 10072: 10067: 10054: 9964: 9954: 9939: 9929: 9889: 9850: 9499: 8851: 8849: 7704: 6100: 5235:

Vail, Alexander L.; Manica, Andrea; Bshary, Redouan (23 April 2013).

4821:

Combes, S. A.; Salcedo, M. K.; Pandit, M. M.; Iwasaki, J. M. (2013).

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Marine trophic levels vary depending on locality and the size of the

2047: 2043: 1870: 1815: 1768: 1304: 1244: 1207:

Predators of different species sometimes cooperate to catch prey. In

1022: 994: 943: 930: 724:, alternate between actively searching and scanning the environment. 634: 590: 470: 454: 446: 426: 414: 406: 385: 316: 219: 156: 130: 122: 118: 114: 10432: 9676:

Social predation : how group living benefits predators and prey

9016: 8858:"A crown-group cnidarian from the Ediacaran of Charnwood Forest, UK" 8787: 8035: 7985: 7610: 7520: 7376: 7359: 6972: 6581: 6042: 5046: 4564:"Strike mechanics of an ambush predator: the spearing mantis shrimp" 4396: 4379: 3186:

The fossil record of predation. The Paleontological Society Papers 8

3019:

Biodiversity and Insect Pests: Key Issues for Sustainable Management

925: 651: 12075: 12004: 11535: 11363: 11042: 10954: 10901: 10856: 10174: 10062: 9712: 9307: 9242: 5964: 4914: 4467: 4206: 4126:

Geographical ecology : patterns in the distribution of species

4039: 2926: 2922: 2841: 2759: 2716: 2644: 2619: 2522: 2518: 2475: 2441: 2311: 2159: 2143:(feed on a mixed diet of phyto- and zooplankton and detritus); and 2140: 2136: 2105: 2093: 2071: 1917: 1753: 1707: 1568: 1529: 1139: 1101: 1056: 800: 664: 656: 646: 594: 586: 579: 549: 542: 509:

are predators, and in turn crustaceans are preyed on by nearly all

506: 486: 450: 442: 422: 418: 282: 234: 223: 67: 8846: 8808: 5395:

Majer, Marija; Holm, Christina; Lubin, Yael; Bilde, Trine (2018).

2742: 1181:

that would readily escape an individual hunter, while cooperating

12065: 11872: 11742: 11737: 11364: 11312: 10972: 10617: 10476: 10440: 10433: 10314: 10000: 9980: 9904: 9827: 8167:

Murdoch, William W.; Briggs, Cheryl J.; Nisbet, Roger M. (2013).

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MacArthur, Robert H. (1984). "The economics of consumer choice".

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tears its fish prey apart, avoiding dangers such as sharp spines.

1097: 1037: 776: 717: 705: 693: 630: 622: 618: 538: 514: 494: 290: 211: 152: 9040:"Paleoecology of Dunkleosteus Terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira)" 8430:

Sih, Andrew (1987). "Prey refuges and predator-prey stability".

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Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004).

5116:"Influence of Group Size on the Success of Wolves Hunting Bison" 4380:"Ecological modelling: The mathematical mirror to animal nature" 3016:

Gurr, Geoff M.; Wratten, Stephen D.; Snyder, William E. (2012).

2907:

onwards. The big bad wolf is known to children in tales such as

609:

and smaller zooplankton is common, and found in many species of

605:, whether single-celled or multi-cellular, predatory grazing on 10319: 10309: 9839: 6776:"Bird Predation as a Selective Agent in a Butterfly Population" 3192:. The Paleontological Society. pp. 289–317. Archived from 2971: 2918: 2783: 2668: 2536: 2456: 2385: 2229: 2225: 2075: 2067: 1983:

lapping water, so the chameleon must drink dew off vegetation.

1745: 1703: 1667: 1622: 1494: 1367: 1347: 1252: 1143: 1120: 1068: 709: 567: 502: 376: 320: 160: 71: 9607:. WaldWissen Information for Forest Management. Archived from 9525:"Predators and Prey | Selected Poems, 1957–1994 by Ted Hughes" 5286:"Groupers Use Gestures to Recruit Morays For Hunting Team-Ups" 5214:

The cooperative breeding system of the Harris' Hawk in Arizona

4917:"Kinematics of foraging dives and lunge-feeding in fin whales" 4251:

Gremillet, D.; Wilson, R. P.; Wanless, S.; Chater, T. (2000).

3247: 9089: 8216: 5951:

Pulliam, H. Ronald (1974). "On the Theory of Optimal Diets".

5581: 1737: 1723: 1663: 1462:

uses sharp hooked claws and beak to kill and tear up its prey

1363: 1343: 1200: 1161: 1105: 1060: 979: 804: 784: 701: 552: 518: 434: 324: 286: 241:

paralyse and eventually kill their hosts, but are considered

7238: 6626: 4855: 4250: 3691: 3382:

The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behaviour

2170: 1091: 668:

Having captured the prey, it may also need to expend energy

9075:

10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0469:TRFTUC]2.0.CO;2

8133: 8026:

10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0025:WDTYCO]2.0.CO;2

8006: 7918:

10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0755:WATEOF]2.0.CO;2

5113: 4745:

Gazda, S. K.; Connor, R. C.; Edgar, R. K.; Cox, F. (2005).

3839: 3837: 2914: 2799: 2762:, are to some extent predatory, using weapons and tools to 2288: 2059: 2007:

has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the

1878: 1675: 1549: 1371: 1192: 1165: 1078:, like the lion and wolf that hunt in groups, or solitary. 498: 438: 430: 327:

scavenge when the opportunity arises. Among invertebrates,

278: 172: 8988: 8106:

Goel, Narendra S.; Maitra, S. C.; Montroll, E. W. (1971).

7725: 7544: 7449: 6480:"Electric eels use high-voltage to track fast-moving prey" 6330: 4820: 4453: 3628: 3550: 1706:, they attract prey and seize it when it is close enough. 1398:

teeth at rear for cutting flesh with a scissor-like action

9628: 9146: 8855: 8085: 7632:

Ordiz, Andrés; Bischof, Richard; Swenson, Jon E. (2013).

4963: 4864:"Energy cost and return for hunting in African wild dogs" 2787: 2377: 1359: 1328: 1312: 1300: 176: 148: 30:"Predator" and "Prey" redirect here. For other uses, see 9095: 7634:"Saving large carnivores, but losing the apex predator?" 7625: 6936: 5559:

Coyote America : a natural and supernatural history

5533:"Solitary Pumas Turn Out to Be Mountain Lions Who Lunch" 4861: 3930: 3891: 3889: 3834: 3530:(Student ed.). W.H. Freeman & Co. p. 432. 3326: 2451:—as evidenced by the almost simultaneous development of 2066:, where other predators kill and eat them. For example, 7956: 7248:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

5781:

Evolution and Escalation: An Ecological History of Life

4113:(7th (eBook) ed.). Eric R. Pianka. pp. 78–83. 3129:

Poulin, Robert (2011). "The Many Roads to Parasitism".

2774:

animals. They also use other predatory species such as

2557:

period. They preyed upon herbivorous dinosaurs such as

1444:

with forward-facing eyes, catching another predator, a

1219:

spot prey that is inaccessible to them, they signal to

8507: 7492: 6774:

Bowers, M. D.; Brown, Irene L.; Wheye, Darryl (1985).

4562:

deVries, M. S.; Murphy, E. A. K.; Patek S. N. (2012).

1963:, the genes of predator and prey can be thought of as 1702:

are ambush predators; camouflaged as flowers, such as

9248: 8611: 8609: 8052:"The Snowshoe Hare 10-year Cycle – A Cautionary Tale" 7498: 4513: 3886: 3448: 1104:

which it holds erect to discourage predators such as

827:). Another strategy in between ambush and pursuit is 760:

Search patterns often appear random. One such is the

680:

Predators have a choice of search modes ranging from

629:

animal larvae, and two groups of crustaceans, namely

113:(which always does, eventually). It is distinct from 9634: 8994: 8501: 8380: 7870: 5644:. American Museum of Natural History. 25 August 2014 5343: 5237:"Referential gestures in fish collaborative hunting" 4511: 4509: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4493: 3936: 3843: 3634: 3384:. University of California Press. pp. 107–108. 2840:

In film, the idea of the predator as a dangerous if

1331:

hunt exclusively by active or passive use of sound.

803:

can choose a patch of vegetation suitable for their

659:

cycle for a predator, with some variations indicated

9793: 9625:. – Inf.bl. Forsch.bereiches Landsch.ökol. 39: 4–5. 8166: 7631: 6942: 6918:Krause, Jens; Ruxton, Graeme D. (10 October 2002). 6881: 6602: 6057: 5896:

Problematic Wildlife: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach

5394: 5339: 5337: 4744: 4412: 3844:Velicer, Gregory J.; Mendes-Soares, Helena (2007). 3602:Hanssen, Sveinn Are; Erikstad, Kjell Einar (2012). 3595: 3304:

Plant animal Interactions: An Evolutionary Approach

3221:Janzen, D. H. (1971). "Seed Predation by Animals". 3045: 3043: 3041: 3039: 2790:in western societies. Human hunters, including the 2392:predator-prey population dynamics. The presence of 2376:; to have differences between individuals, such as 1366:as to big and visibly muscular carnivores like the 1149: 902:. Among the many invertebrate ambush predators are 8917:. Springer. pp. 113–139, 141–176 and passim. 8765: 8606: 8105: 8009:"What Drives the 10-year Cycle of Snowshoe Hares?" 7546:textbook examples of predator–prey interactions". 7165: 6561: 6280: 5979: 5482:Elbroch, L. Mark; Quigley, Howard (10 July 2016). 3297: 3295: 3241: 2891:. The phrase "Nature, red in tooth and claw" from 1678:(open plains) are camouflaged with coloration and 335:are both hunters and scavengers of other insects. 7246:(1979). "Arms races between and within species". 6691: 5752:. Royal Saskatchewan Museum. 2012. Archived from 5172: 5066: 5064: 4490: 3895: 3733:Hedrich, Rainer; Fukushima, Kenji (20 May 2021). 3070: 3015: 2525:periods, one of which, the 6 m (20 ft) 2096:as a result of predation. Energy passes from one 1858:makes it less visible to both predators and prey. 1493:unhinges its jaw to swallow large prey like this 890:ambush predators include frogs, fish such as the 269:Relation of predation to other feeding strategies 12154: 9458:"Is 'Predator' Finally Getting a Worthy Sequel?" 9400:Flint, Mary Louise; Dreistadt, Steve H. (1998). 9323: 9203:. University of New Hampshire Press. p. 9. 9196: 8329:"Book Review: Mathematics in population biology" 6773: 6241: 5334: 5234: 4062: 3732: 3036: 1140:spines on the back (dorsal) and belly (pectoral) 753:strategy for search has been modelled using the 273:There are other difficult and borderline cases. 9598: 9596: 9594: 9592: 9590: 9588: 8915:Predator—Prey Interactions in the Fossil Record 8386: 8322: 8320: 7899:Ripple, William J.; Beschta, Robert L. (2004). 7873:Environmental Science: Earth as a living planet 6825:"The chemistry of defense: theory and practice" 6063: 5656: 5575: 4418: 3990:Kramer, Donald L. (2001). "Foraging Behavior". 3601: 3292: 2535:"superpredator", preying upon other predators. 1288:, predators have evolved a variety of physical 1047:A specialised form of pursuit predation is the 9399: 8714: 7936:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 68–69. 7894: 7892: 7056: 6816: 6567: 5985: 5859: 5699:. MarineBio Conservation Society. 17 June 2018 5481: 5061: 4128:. Princeton University Press. pp. 59–76. 3790:Pramer, D. (1964). "Nematode-trapping fungi". 3444: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3436: 3434: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3076: 11349: 10602: 10418: 9866: 9755: 9428:Science Fiction Film: A Critical Introduction 9060: 8615: 8585: 8542: 8333:Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 8210: 8129: 8127: 7898: 7582: 7437: 7425: 7166:Barbosa, Pedro; Castellanos, Ignacio (2005). 7153: 6899: 6303: 5484:"Social interactions in a solitary carnivore" 5388: 5193: 4518:Moore, Talia Y.; Biewener, Andrew A. (2015). 4517: 4244: 4172:. Oxford University Press. pp. 535–556. 3985: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3604:"The long-term consequences of egg predation" 3049: 2455:in animals and algae, and predation-avoiding 2200:Riparian willow recovery at Blacktail Creek, 1902:signalling that they are toxic or unpalatable 1319:have forward-facing eyes, providing accurate 9585: 8759: 8708: 8317: 8050:Krebs, Charley; Myers, Judy (12 July 2014). 7786: 7540: 7538: 7234: 7232: 7230: 7198: 6917: 6627:Merilaita, Sami; Scott-Samuel, Nicholas E.; 6537:Electroreception and communication in fishes 6266:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6191:Dazzled and Deceived: Mimicry and Camouflage 6064:Owen-Smith, Norman; Mills, M. G. L. (2008). 5886: 5107: 4167: 4068: 4021: 4019: 3301: 3182: 2337:, the latter is often driven to extinction. 2204:, after reintroduction of wolves, the local 1055:. These very large marine predators feed on 285:that consume blood from living animals, and 9756:Jacobs, David Steve; Bastian, Anna (2017). 9557: 7889: 6987: 6922:. Oxford University Press. pp. 13–15. 6767: 6471: 6134: 5944: 5913: 5662: 4285: 4234: 4232: 3431: 3398: 3163: 2913:, but is a demonic figure in the Icelandic 2590:predator (c. 560 mya). It was a stem-group 2331:is added to a culture containing its prey, 1829: 11570:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity 11356: 11342: 10609: 10595: 10425: 10411: 9873: 9859: 9717:Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals 9329: 9174:Blood Sport: Hunting in Britain Since 1066 9147:Gabriel, Otto; von Brandt, Andres (2005). 8649: 8171:. Princeton University Press. p. 39. 8124: 8049: 7682: 7353: 7351: 7349: 7347: 7345: 7295: 7293: 6528: 6289:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 1075. 5865: 5741: 5739: 5737: 5205: 5070: 5018: 4557: 4555: 3972: 3789: 3499:Encyclopedia of tidepools and rocky shores 2539:developed the ability to fly in the Early 978:are lunge feeders, filtering thousands of 9673: 9567:(1995). "The Tooth and Claw Centennial". 9308:The Humane Society of the United States. 9284: 9274: 9031: 8971: 8889: 8344: 8252: 8242: 8099: 8034: 8024: 7916: 7839: 7755: 7667: 7657: 7535: 7475: 7375: 7317: 7227: 7135: 7089: 7080: 7019: 6905: 6887: 6875: 6858: 6848: 6822: 6791: 6656: 6511: 6454: 6405: 6336: 6309: 6099: 6089: 5842: 5617: 5607: 5507: 5428: 5371: 5361: 5260: 5199: 5149: 5139: 5001: 4932: 4887: 4838: 4770: 4579: 4535: 4395: 4276: 4123: 4104: 4102: 4100: 4098: 4025: 4016: 3962: 3861: 3750: 3668: 3619: 3578: 3568: 3356: 3105: 2171:Biodiversity maintained by apex predation 1587: 946:(attacking with their tongues), and some 920: 117:on dead prey, though many predators also 11468:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations 11107:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense 9774: 9493: 9424: 9200:The Devil's Cormorant: A Natural History 8588:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 8311: 8299: 8287: 8275: 8191: 8160: 7789:Biological Oceanography: An Introduction 7588: 7401:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 6948: 6539:. Vol. 42. Universität Regensburg. 5892: 5802: 5228: 4668:"Eastern Frogfish, Batrachomoeus dubius" 4377: 4334: 4229: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4145: 3496: 3223:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 3216: 3214: 3122: 2820: 2741: 2436:) and armoured shells and exoskeletons. 2306: 2254: 2195: 1970: 1933: 1767: 1187: 982:from seawater and swallowing them alive. 933:attacks prey by shooting out its tongue. 924: 882:waiting in its burrow to ambush its prey 783:select plants of good quality for their 775: 726: 650: 527: 264: 233: 58: 42: 11500:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model 9602: 9522: 9223: 9171: 8906: 8631:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 8326: 8142:. Princeton University Press. pp. 7398: 7342: 7290: 6954: 6673: 6608: 6477: 6020: 5950: 5777: 5734: 5722:. New England Complex Systems Institute 5530: 4647:. Indiana Division of Fish and Wildlife 4596: 4552: 4291: 3528:What Is life? : a guide to biology 3404: 3080:; Randhawa, Haseeb S. (February 2015). 2925:. In the Middle Ages, belief spread in 2722:, perhaps the world's first vertebrate 2647:invertebrate, probably an apex predator 2513:were the armoured and mainly predatory 2399: 2135:(feed primarily on dead organic matter/ 2038:One way of classifying predators is by 1279: 89:, kills and eats another organism, its 14: 12155: 11308:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense 9880: 9779:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 281. 8912: 8464: 8359: 8196:. Oxford University Press. p. 8. 8192:Nowak, Martin; May, Robert M. (2000). 8000: 7357: 7299: 7192: 6993: 6534: 6246:. Cengage Learning. pp. 153–154. 6214: 6194:. Yale University Press. p. 134. 6187: 6116: 5556: 5211: 5024: 4814: 4659: 4108: 4095: 3989: 3969:summarizes findings from many authors. 3525: 3473:"Predators, parasites and parasitoids" 3451:"Predation, Herbivory, and Parasitism" 3220: 3128: 3022:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 105. 2432:, increased size, mobility (including 2240: 1800:sensing and generating electric fields 1394:for killing prey, and self-sharpening 11337: 10590: 10406: 9854: 9563: 9482:Schatz, Thomas. "The New Hollywood". 9455: 8945: 7170:Ecology of predator-prey interactions 6994:Brodie, Edmund D. (3 November 2009). 6726: 5667:(Second ed.). pp. 837–839. 4192: 4142: 3752:10.1146/annurev-arplant-080620-010429 3379: 3211: 2014: 1501: 1235:have been known to help whalers hunt 1169:that are caught by the birds behind. 1001:with captured prey, are invertebrate 821:) to a sudden strike on nearby prey ( 11323:Predator avoidance in schooling fish 9733: 9711: 9692: 9605:"The role of predators in Mythology" 9037: 7931: 7875:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 2. 7845: 7141: 7129: 7050: 6893: 6761: 6679: 6614: 6122: 5808: 5531:Quenqua, Douglas (11 October 2017). 5308: 5283: 4793: 4238: 4155: 3745:(1). annurev–arplant–080620-010429. 3405:Schmidt, Justin O. (2009). "Wasps". 2863:. 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University of California Press. 9149:Fish catching methods of the world 9063:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 7934:Introduction to population biology 7319:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1986.tb05747.x 7300:Abrams, Peter A. (November 1986). 6793:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1985.tb04082.x 6283:"Rattlesnakes and Other Crotalids" 5747:"Predator & Prey: Adaptations" 5673:10.1016/B978-0-12-374144-8.00219-8 4797:Ecology and Conservation of Fishes 4000:10.1093/oso/9780195131543.003.0024 3415:10.1016/B978-0-12-374144-8.00275-7 3139:10.1016/B978-0-12-385897-9.00001-X 3131:Advances in Parasitology Volume 74 2531:, is considered the world's first 1920:such as tails, or simply fleeing. 1763: 1643:in the form of a fishing rod-like 338: 93:. It is one of a family of common 25: 12184: 10862:Generalist and specialist species 9820: 9571:. 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University of Chicago Press. 9310:"U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics" 8600:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.79 7871:Botkin, D.; Keller, E. (2003). 7821:"Energy transfer in ecosystems" 7358:Brodie, Edmund D. (July 1999). 6596: 6394:Journal of Experimental Biology 6381: 6274: 6235: 6215:Bester, Cathleen (5 May 2017). 6208: 6181: 6128: 6014: 5893:Angelici, Francesco M. (2015). 5771: 5711: 5689: 5634: 5550: 5524: 5475: 5445: 5315:Toft, Klaus (Producer) (2007). 5277: 5166: 4957: 4921:Journal of Experimental Biology 4908: 4787: 4738: 4712: 4690: 4634: 4568:Journal of Experimental Biology 4447: 4371: 4328: 4186: 4161: 4117: 3783: 3726: 3685: 3544: 3519: 3490: 3465: 3373: 3306:. Blackwell. pp. 132–154. 3133:. Vol. 74. pp. 1–40. 2989: 2216:The elimination of wolves from 2212:. Left, in 2002; right, in 2015 1961:gene centered view of evolution 722:coccinellid beetles (ladybirds) 572:carnivorous and consume insects 449:. In marine environments, most 105:(which usually do not kill the 11190:Consumer–resource interactions 9740:Adaptive Coloration in Animals 9456:Newby, Richard (13 May 2018). 8862:Nature Ecology & Evolution 8545:Theoretical Population Biology 8467:Theoretical Population Biology 8432:Theoretical Population Biology 8366:. Princeton University Press. 8138:The Princeton guide to ecology 7201:Journal of Mammalian Evolution 6339:Journal of Molecular Evolution 5073:Nature Ecology & Evolution 4378:Buchanan, Mark (5 June 2008). 4294:Theoretical Population Biology 4257:Marine Ecology Progress Series 4170:Lifestyles and feeding biology 3739:Annual Review of Plant Biology 3503:University of California Press 3449:Stevens, Alison N. P. (2010). 3320: 3009: 1923: 1666:(grassy plains, reed swamps), 1028:An extreme form of pursuit is 915:not modifiable once launched. 417:. In some species such as the 190:on prey, and the prey develop 13: 1: 12036:Biological data visualization 11863:Environmental niche modelling 11590:Population viability analysis 8346:10.1090/S0273-0979-05-01055-4 7107:10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_863 6310:Barceloux, Donald G. (2008). 5720:"Predator-Prey Relationships" 4433:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.01.008 3064:10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02615-0 3002: 2612:Cambrian substrate revolution 2314:-prey population cycles in a 1805: 1199:, cooperate to hunt and kill 771: 229: 11521:Density-dependent inhibition 9801:; Speed, Michael P. (2004). 9352:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.07.004 9276:10.1371/journal.pone.0174709 8737:10.1126/science.174.4011.825 8487:10.1016/0040-5809(86)90004-3 8452:10.1016/0040-5809(87)90019-0 8244:10.1371/journal.pone.0009774 7659:10.1016/j.biocon.2013.09.024 6478:Catania, Kenneth C. 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CRC Press. p. 233. 3943:Limnology and Oceanography 3455:Nature Education Knowledge 2844:enemy is used in the 1987 2735: 2403: 2304:over more than a century. 2244: 2174: 2085: 2027: 1927: 1833: 1783: 1721: 1674:(waterside thickets), and 1591: 1505: 1311:. Predators as diverse as 1153: 1102:dorsal and pectoral spines 1067:it through their feathery 957: 953: 838: 810: 644: 342: 29: 12139: 12071:Ecosystem based fisheries 12013: 11913: 11838: 11711: 11683:Interspecific competition 11648: 11575:Minimum viable population 11508: 11433:Maximum sustainable yield 11418:Intraspecific competition 11413:Effective population size 11376: 11293:Anti-predator adaptations 11278: 11157: 11084: 11041: 10963: 10930: 10827: 10804:Photosynthetic efficiency 10739: 10633: 10512:Host–parasite coevolution 10447: 10392:Category:Eating behaviors 10367: 10213: 10137: 10116: 10053: 10042: 10009: 9973: 9897: 9888: 9494:Stringer, Julian (2003). 9224:Glasier, Phillip (1998). 9176:. 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In between, 675: 186:Predation has a powerful 32:Predator (disambiguation) 12061:Ecological stoichiometry 12026:Alternative stable state 9697:. Springer Netherlands. 9038:Carr, Robert K. (2010). 8627:Evolution of the Insects 4794:Tyus, Harold M. (2011). 4109:Pianka, Eric R. (2011). 3570:10.3389/fphys.2017.00598 2982: 2794:of southern Africa, use 2370:geographic distributions 2323:Lotka–Volterra equations 2251:Lotka–Volterra equations 1873:misdirects predators by 1830:Antipredator adaptations 1728:Evolution of snake venom 1717: 1682:suiting their habitats. 1211:, when fish such as the 192:antipredator adaptations 85:where one organism, the 12173:Biological pest control 11905:Ontogenetic niche shift 11768:Ideal free distribution 11678:Ecological facilitation 11428:Malthusian growth model 11398:Consumer-resource model 11255:Paradox of the plankton 11220:Energy systems language 10940:Chemoorganoheterotrophy 10907:Optimal foraging theory 10882:Heterotrophic nutrition 10437:biological interactions 10372:Antipredator adaptation 9674:Beauchamp, Guy (2012). 9118:10.1126/science.aac4249 8658:Journal of Paleontology 7638:Biological Conservation 7477:10.1111/1365-2656.13213 6316:. Wiley. p. 1028. 6223:. University of Florida 5953:The American Naturalist 5665:Encyclopedia of Insects 4456:The American Naturalist 4337:Physics of Life Reviews 4195:The American Naturalist 4028:The American Naturalist 3557:Frontiers in Physiology 3407:Encyclopedia of Insects 2807:biological pest control 2464: million years ago 2449: million years ago 2291:. Over a broad span of 1942:to hunt moths at night. 1836:Antipredator adaptation 908:Australian Crab spiders 70:cooperate to feed on a 12051:Ecological forecasting 11995:Marginal value theorem 11793:Landscape epidemiology 11728:Cross-boundary subsidy 11663:Biological interaction 11013:Microbial intelligence 10701:Green world hypothesis 9831:Quotations related to 9569:Dinosaur in a Haystack 9172:Griffin, Emma (2008). 7268:10.1098/rspb.1979.0081 7101:. pp. 1173–1174. 6741:10.1006/anbe.2001.1890 6706:10.1006/anbe.2000.1636 6649:10.1098/rstb.2016.0341 6633:"How camouflage works" 6535:Kramer, Bernd (1996). 6447:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0566 6217:"Antennarius striatus" 6188:Forbes, Peter (2009). 6000:10.1006/anbe.2000.1592 5872:. Tesey. p. 426. 5642:"How do Spiders Hunt?" 4763:10.1098/rspb.2004.2937 3714:Cite journal requires 3409:. pp. 1049–1052. 2967:Predator–prey reversal 2917:sagas, where the wolf 2910:Little Red Riding Hood 2870:, is central, too, to 2837: 2750: 2318: 2272: 2213: 1979: 1953:evolutionary arms race 1943: 1781: 1662:(treeless highlands), 1588:Camouflage and mimicry 1284:Under the pressure of 1204: 934: 921:Ballistic interception 829:ballistic interception 788: 755:marginal value theorem 746:black-browed albatross 736: 733:black-browed albatross 660: 558:Some plants, like the 545: 270: 246: 216:evolutionary arms race 83:biological interaction 75: 56: 27:Biological interaction 12056:Ecological humanities 11955:Ecological energetics 11900:Niche differentiation 11763:Habitat fragmentation 11531:Ecological extinction 11478:Small population size 11230:Feed conversion ratio 11210:Ecological succession 11142:San Francisco Estuary 11056:Ecological efficiency 10998:Microbial cooperation 7748:10.1007/s004420000448 7082:10.1093/beheco/arr135 6484:Nature Communications 5241:Nature Communications 4974:Nature Communications 4868:Nature Communications 4071:Limnological Analyses 3904:. Springer. pp. 3900:Predatory Prokaryotes 3846:"Bacterial predators" 3621:10.1093/beheco/ars198 2893:Alfred, Lord Tennyson 2824: 2745: 2738:Human uses of animals 2736:Further information: 2713:Dunkleosteus terrelli 2404:Further information: 2342:structurally unstable 2310: 2258: 2245:Further information: 2199: 2175:Further information: 2088:Energy flow (ecology) 2086:Further information: 2028:Further information: 1974: 1959:of two species. In a 1937: 1928:Further information: 1790:Electric organ (fish) 1784:Further information: 1771: 1756:(the deletion of two 1722:Further information: 1592:Further information: 1506:Further information: 1418:, and powerful jaws ( 1191: 928: 779: 730: 654: 625:, a diverse range of 531: 489:are predatory. Among 343:Further information: 268: 237: 62: 47:Solitary predator: a 46: 36:Prey (disambiguation) 12081:Evolutionary ecology 12046:Ecological footprint 12041:Ecological economics 11965:Ecological threshold 11960:Ecological indicator 11830:Source–sink dynamics 11783:Land change modeling 11778:Insular biogeography 11630:Species distribution 11369:Modelling ecosystems 11028:Microbial metabolism 10867:Intraguild predation 10656:Biogeochemical cycle 10622:Modelling ecosystems 10527:Parasitic castration 10467:Deception in animals 9847:at Wikimedia Commons 9693:Bell, W. J. (2012). 9637:Conservation Biology 9226:Falconry and Hawking 8824:10.1042/ETLS20170153 7791:. pp. 112–146. 7132:, pp. v–xi, 4–5 5809:Getz, W. M. (2011). 5557:Flores, Dan (2016). 5457:Sibley Nature Center 5296:on 17 September 2018 5187:10.3377/004.044.0104 4678:on 14 September 2014 4608:Hinterland Who's Who 4574:(Pt 24): 4374–4384. 4111:Evolutionary ecology 4073:. pp. 257–262. 3992:Evolutionary Ecology 3526:Phelan, Jay (2009). 3380:Kruuk, Hans (1972). 3199:on 10 September 2008 2933:. More recently, in 2400:Evolutionary history 2316:Lotka–Volterra model 2302:Hudson's Bay Company 2269:Hudson's Bay Company 2064:intraguild predation 1955:, an example of the 1639:uses camouflage and 1525:Platydemus manokwari 1334:Predators including 1280:Physical adaptations 857:Western green lizard 781:Seven-spot ladybirds 720:, and the larvae of 349:Nematophagous fungus 12131:Theoretical ecology 12106:Natural environment 11970:Ecosystem diversity 11940:Ecological collapse 11930:Bateman's principle 11885:Limiting similarity 11798:Landscape limnology 11620:Species homogeneity 11458:Population modeling 11453:Population dynamics 11270:Trophic state index 10387:Carnivorous protist 10241:Intraguild predator 9649:1996ConBi..10..977K 9382:The Life of Mammals 9344:2008JHumE..55.1156L 9267:2017PLoSO..1274709A 9110:2015Sci...349..858D 9009:2009Pbio...35..251A 8964:2013CBio...23.R860D 8874:2022NatEE...6.1095D 8780:2008Pbio...34....1S 8729:1971Sci...174..825A 8670:1991JPal...65....1G 8557:2009TPBio..76..248C 8522:2006Oikos.115..192B 8479:1986TPBio..29...38M 8444:1987TPBio..31....1S 8401:2013Nonli..26.2299K 8235:2010PLoSO...5.9774G 7978:2004Ecol...85.1853N 7932:Neal, Dick (2004). 7825:National Geographic 7740:2000Oecol.125..258F 7697:1978Natur.275..542P 7650:2013BCons.168..128O 7603:1942Ecol...23..399L 7560:2008Ecol...89.2416P 7513:2005Ecol...86..501P 7468:2020JAnEc..89.1302S 7260:1979RSPSB.205..489D 7012:2009CBio...19.R931B 6996:"Toxins and venoms" 6957:Lepomis macrochirus 6850:10.1073/pnas.92.1.2 6841:1995PNAS...92....2B 6496:2015NatCo...6.8638C 6351:2005JMolE..60...81L 6151:1965Sci...149..653L 6082:2008JAnEc..77..173O 6035:1972Ecol...53..375S 5827:2011EcolL..14..113G 5600:2012PLoSO...731619N 5413:2018NatSR...811828M 5290:National Geographic 5253:2013NatCo...4.1765V 5132:2014PLoSO...9k2884M 5085:2017NatEE...1.1230L 5039:1989Oikos..55..155F 4986:2015NatCo...6.8285S 4880:10.1038/ncomms11034 4672:Fishes of Australia 4349:2015PhLRv..14...59R 4306:1976TPBio...9..129C 4269:2000MEPS..195..269G 3955:1997LimOc..42..687H 3804:1964Sci...144..382P 3653:2016NatSR...622207P 3341:2017Ecogr..40..324K 3262:1985Oecol..66..511N 3092:(Suppl 1): S6–S15. 2923:ending of the world 2796:persistence hunting 2426:sexual reproduction 2346:functional response 2334:Paramecium caudatum 2247:Population dynamics 2241:Population dynamics 2164:metabolic processes 2119:(feed primarily on 2005:common garter snake 1976:Eastern coral snake 1918:shedding body parts 1680:disruptive patterns 1536:, attacking a snail 1478:with a speared fish 1156:Cooperative hunting 1015:parallel navigation 379:engulfing an insect 222:since at least the 121:; it overlaps with 12142:Outline of ecology 12091:Industrial ecology 12086:Functional ecology 11950:Ecological deficit 11895:Niche construction 11858:Ecosystem engineer 11635:Species–area curve 11556:Introduced species 11371:: Other components 11303:Deimatic behaviour 11205:Ecological network 11137:North Pacific Gyre 11122:hydrothermal vents 11061:Ecological pyramid 11008:Microbial food web 10819:Primary production 10764:Foundation species 10566:Cleaning symbiosis 10382:Carnivorous fungus 10032:Sexual cannibalism 10017:Animal cannibalism 9882:Feeding behaviours 9565:Gould, Stephen Jay 9530:The New York Times 9502:. pp. 15–44. 9496:Movie Blockbusters 9484:Movie Blockbusters 9462:Hollywood Reporter 9389:. 31 October 2002. 9374:"Food For Thought" 8302:, pp. 271–272 8110:. Academic Press. 7827:. 18 February 2023 7213:10.1007/bf01041590 7069:Behavioral Ecology 7053:, pp. 368–389 6896:, pp. 663–684 6764:, pp. 241–307 6605:, pp. vii–xii 6504:10.1038/ncomms9638 6407:10.1242/jeb.022566 5926:Journal of Zoology 5537:The New York Times 5453:"Ambush Predators" 5401:Scientific Reports 5363:10.7717/peerj.3701 5329:on 12 August 2009. 5262:10.1038/ncomms2781 5216:(Masters thesis). 4994:10.1038/ncomms9285 4840:10.1093/icb/ict072 4698:"Trapdoor spiders" 4642:"Pikes (Esocidae)" 4581:10.1242/jeb.075317 4537:10.1093/icb/icv074 4278:10.3354/meps195269 3641:Scientific Reports 3608:Behavioral Ecology 3349:10.1111/ecog.02817 3270:10.1007/BF00379342 2897:In Memoriam A.H.H. 2838: 2751: 2545:theropod dinosaurs 2319: 2273: 2214: 2015:Role in ecosystems 2009:rough-skinned newt 1980: 1944: 1782: 1687:aggressive mimicry 1641:aggressive mimicry 1598:Aggressive mimicry 1502:Diet and behaviour 1390:has large pointed 1205: 1185:can trap rabbits. 935: 789: 737: 661: 546: 271: 247: 196:warning coloration 181:aggressive mimicry 95:feeding behaviours 76: 57: 18:Predator (biology) 12148: 12147: 12031:Balance of nature 11788:Landscape ecology 11673:Community ecology 11615:Species diversity 11551:Indicator species 11546:Gradient analysis 11423:Logistic function 11331: 11330: 11288:Animal coloration 11265:Trophic mutualism 11003:Microbial ecology 10794:Photoheterotrophs 10779:Myco-heterotrophy 10691:Ecosystem ecology 10676:Carrying capacity 10641:Abiotic component 10584: 10583: 10400: 10399: 10377:Carnivorous plant 10253:Aquatic predation 10040: 10039: 10022:Human cannibalism 9843:Media related to 9795:Ruxton, Graeme D. 9726:978-0-226-09436-6 9611:on 5 October 2018 9509:978-0-415-25608-7 9411:978-0-520-21801-7 9210:978-1-61168-225-0 9158:978-0-85238-280-6 9104:(6250): 858–860. 8958:(19): R860–R861. 8948:"Anomalocaridids" 8924:978-1-4615-0161-9 8723:(4011): 825–827. 8642:978-0-521-82149-0 8621:Engel, Michael S. 8373:978-0-691-09291-1 8314:, p. 272–273 7882:978-0-471-38914-9 7806:978-0-7506-3384-0 7691:(5680): 542–544. 7568:10.1890/07-1131.1 7254:(1161): 489–511. 7144:, p. 413–414 7116:978-1-4020-6242-1 7006:(20): R931–R935. 6629:Cuthill, Innes C. 6617:, pp. 67–114 6554:978-3-437-25038-5 6545:10.5283/epub.2108 6323:978-0-470-33557-4 6296:978-0-8151-4387-1 6253:978-81-315-0104-7 6201:978-0-300-17896-8 6145:(3684): 653–654. 5906:978-3-319-22246-2 5879:978-985-463-456-2 5795:978-0-691-00080-0 5500:10.1093/cz/zow080 4966:Girguis, Peter R. 4934:10.1242/jeb.02135 4807:978-1-4398-9759-1 4757:(1559): 135–140. 4720:"Trapdoor spider" 4390:(7196): 714–716. 4241:, pp. 69–188 4088:978-1-4419-3186-3 4009:978-0-19-513154-3 3923:978-3-540-38577-6 3798:(3617): 382–388. 3661:10.1038/srep22207 3477:Australian Museum 3424:978-0-12-374144-8 3313:978-0-632-05267-7 3148:978-0-12-385897-9 3052:Trends Ecol. Evol 3029:978-1-118-23185-2 2962:Predation problem 2931:Romulus and Remus 2874:'s 1974 thriller 2868:great white shark 2861:its three sequels 2831:Romulus and Remus 2694:theropod dinosaur 2511:fish to have jaws 2363:great horned owls 2277:carrying capacity 2271:from 1845 to 1935 2113:primary producers 1814:polymer from the 1750:marbled sea snake 1637:Striated frogfish 1571:. Others such as 1567:only hunts small 1446:field digger wasp 1286:natural selection 1042:African wild dogs 1003:pursuit predators 960:Pursuit predation 818:pursuit predation 576:carnivorous fungi 373:Carnivorous plant 345:Carnivorous plant 159:. Many predatory 142:pursuit predation 16:(Redirected from 12180: 11848:Ecological niche 11820:selection theory 11640:Umbrella species 11625:Species richness 11561:Invasive species 11541:Flagship species 11448:Population cycle 11443:Overexploitation 11408:Ecological yield 11358: 11351: 11344: 11335: 11334: 11240:Mesotrophic soil 11180:Climax community 11112:Marine food webs 11051:Biomagnification 10852:Chemoorganotroph 10706:Keystone species 10666:Biotic component 10611: 10604: 10597: 10588: 10587: 10575: 10568: 10554: 10547: 10522:Kleptoparasitism 10507:Brood parasitism 10427: 10420: 10413: 10404: 10403: 10246:Pursuit predator 10048: 10027:Self-cannibalism 9895: 9894: 9875: 9868: 9861: 9852: 9851: 9842: 9830: 9816: 9799:Sherratt, Tom N. 9790: 9771: 9752: 9730: 9708: 9689: 9661: 9660: 9632: 9626: 9620: 9618: 9616: 9600: 9583: 9582: 9561: 9555: 9554: 9548:Esther's Tomcat, 9545:The Thought-Fox, 9539: 9537: 9520: 9514: 9513: 9491: 9479: 9473: 9472: 9470: 9468: 9453: 9447: 9446: 9422: 9416: 9415: 9397: 9391: 9390: 9378: 9370: 9364: 9363: 9338:(6): 1156–1159. 9327: 9321: 9320: 9318: 9316: 9305: 9299: 9298: 9288: 9278: 9246: 9240: 9239: 9221: 9215: 9214: 9194: 9188: 9187: 9169: 9163: 9162: 9144: 9138: 9137: 9093: 9087: 9086: 9058: 9052: 9051: 9035: 9029: 9028: 8992: 8986: 8985: 8975: 8943: 8937: 8936: 8910: 8904: 8903: 8893: 8868:(8): 1095–1104. 8853: 8844: 8843: 8806: 8800: 8799: 8763: 8757: 8756: 8712: 8706: 8705: 8653: 8647: 8646: 8630: 8613: 8604: 8603: 8583: 8577: 8576: 8540: 8534: 8533: 8505: 8499: 8498: 8462: 8456: 8455: 8427: 8421: 8420: 8395:(8): 2299–2314. 8384: 8378: 8377: 8357: 8351: 8350: 8348: 8324: 8315: 8309: 8303: 8297: 8291: 8285: 8279: 8273: 8267: 8266: 8256: 8246: 8214: 8208: 8207: 8189: 8183: 8182: 8164: 8158: 8157: 8141: 8131: 8122: 8121: 8103: 8097: 8096: 8094: 8092: 8074: 8068: 8067: 8065: 8063: 8056:Ecological rants 8047: 8041: 8040: 8038: 8028: 8004: 7998: 7997: 7972:(7): 1853–1858. 7963: 7954: 7948: 7947: 7929: 7923: 7922: 7920: 7896: 7887: 7886: 7868: 7862: 7861: 7843: 7837: 7836: 7834: 7832: 7817: 7811: 7810: 7784: 7778: 7777: 7759: 7723: 7717: 7716: 7705:10.1038/275542a0 7680: 7674: 7673: 7671: 7661: 7629: 7623: 7622: 7586: 7580: 7579: 7554:(9): 2416–2425. 7542: 7533: 7532: 7496: 7490: 7489: 7479: 7462:(6): 1302–1316. 7447: 7441: 7435: 7429: 7423: 7417: 7416: 7396: 7390: 7389: 7379: 7355: 7340: 7339: 7321: 7312:(6): 1229–1247. 7297: 7288: 7287: 7240:Dawkins, Richard 7236: 7225: 7224: 7196: 7190: 7189: 7173: 7163: 7157: 7151: 7145: 7139: 7133: 7127: 7121: 7120: 7093: 7087: 7086: 7084: 7075:(6): 1326–1331. 7060: 7054: 7048: 7042: 7041: 7023: 6991: 6985: 6984: 6967:(4): 1086–1088. 6952: 6946: 6945:, pp. 54–55 6940: 6934: 6933: 6920:Living in groups 6915: 6909: 6908:, pp. 83–88 6903: 6897: 6891: 6885: 6884:, pp. 70–81 6879: 6873: 6872: 6862: 6852: 6820: 6814: 6813: 6795: 6771: 6765: 6759: 6753: 6752: 6729:Animal Behaviour 6724: 6718: 6717: 6694:Animal Behaviour 6689: 6683: 6682:, pp. 13–15 6677: 6671: 6670: 6660: 6624: 6618: 6612: 6606: 6600: 6594: 6593: 6565: 6559: 6558: 6532: 6526: 6525: 6515: 6475: 6469: 6468: 6458: 6426: 6420: 6419: 6409: 6400:(9): 1351–1364. 6385: 6379: 6378: 6334: 6328: 6327: 6307: 6301: 6300: 6278: 6272: 6271: 6265: 6257: 6239: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6228: 6212: 6206: 6205: 6185: 6179: 6178: 6132: 6126: 6125:, pp. 12–13 6120: 6114: 6113: 6103: 6093: 6061: 6055: 6054: 6018: 6012: 6011: 5988:Animal Behaviour 5983: 5977: 5976: 5948: 5942: 5941: 5917: 5911: 5910: 5890: 5884: 5883: 5863: 5857: 5856: 5846: 5806: 5800: 5799: 5775: 5769: 5768: 5766: 5764: 5758: 5751: 5743: 5732: 5731: 5729: 5727: 5715: 5709: 5708: 5706: 5704: 5693: 5687: 5686: 5660: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5649: 5638: 5632: 5631: 5621: 5611: 5579: 5573: 5572: 5554: 5548: 5547: 5545: 5543: 5528: 5522: 5521: 5511: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5470: 5468: 5463:on 2 August 2021 5459:. Archived from 5449: 5443: 5442: 5432: 5392: 5386: 5385: 5375: 5365: 5341: 5332: 5331:ISBN R-105732-9. 5330: 5325:. Archived from 5312: 5306: 5305: 5303: 5301: 5292:. Archived from 5281: 5275: 5274: 5264: 5232: 5226: 5225: 5209: 5203: 5197: 5191: 5190: 5170: 5164: 5163: 5153: 5143: 5111: 5105: 5104: 5079:(9): 1230–1239. 5068: 5059: 5058: 5022: 5016: 5015: 5005: 4961: 4955: 4954: 4936: 4927:(7): 1231–1244. 4912: 4906: 4905: 4891: 4859: 4853: 4852: 4842: 4818: 4812: 4811: 4791: 4785: 4784: 4774: 4742: 4736: 4735: 4733: 4731: 4716: 4710: 4709: 4707: 4705: 4694: 4688: 4687: 4685: 4683: 4674:. Archived from 4663: 4657: 4656: 4654: 4652: 4646: 4638: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4618:. Archived from 4600: 4594: 4593: 4583: 4559: 4550: 4549: 4539: 4515: 4488: 4487: 4451: 4445: 4444: 4421:Animal Behaviour 4416: 4410: 4409: 4399: 4375: 4369: 4368: 4332: 4326: 4325: 4289: 4283: 4282: 4280: 4248: 4242: 4236: 4227: 4226: 4190: 4184: 4183: 4165: 4159: 4153: 4140: 4139: 4121: 4115: 4114: 4106: 4093: 4092: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4023: 4014: 4013: 3987: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3934: 3928: 3927: 3914:10.1007/7171_052 3903: 3893: 3884: 3883: 3865: 3841: 3832: 3831: 3787: 3781: 3780: 3754: 3730: 3724: 3723: 3717: 3712: 3710: 3702: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3672: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3623: 3599: 3593: 3592: 3582: 3572: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3446: 3429: 3428: 3402: 3396: 3395: 3377: 3371: 3370: 3360: 3324: 3318: 3317: 3299: 3290: 3289: 3245: 3239: 3238: 3218: 3209: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3198: 3191: 3180: 3161: 3160: 3126: 3120: 3119: 3109: 3074: 3068: 3067: 3047: 3034: 3033: 3013: 2996: 2993: 2872:Steven Spielberg 2749:hunter, Botswana 2732:In human society 2726:, reconstruction 2709: 2700:, reconstruction 2684: 2656: 2631: 2614:saw life on the 2607: 2578: 2480:Charnwood Forest 2465: 2450: 2430:multicellularity 2328:Didinium nasutum 2265:Lepus americanus 2206:keystone species 2187:keystone species 2177:Keystone species 2082:Trophic transfer 1871:Syrphid hoverfly 1867: 1852:Dead leaf mantis 1848: 1633: 1610: 1545: 1520: 1487: 1476:great blue heron 1471: 1456: 1434: 1407: 1383: 1321:binocular vision 1225:Napoleon wrasses 1221:giant moray eels 1197:social predators 1171:Spinner dolphins 1117: 1094: 1034:hunter-gatherers 991: 972: 904:trapdoor spiders 900:eastern frogfish 875: 853: 841:Ambush predation 824:ambush predation 751:optimal foraging 585:Many species of 465:(comb jellies), 388: 369: 245:, not predators. 188:selective effect 129:and destructive 64:Social predators 21: 12188: 12187: 12183: 12182: 12181: 12179: 12178: 12177: 12153: 12152: 12149: 12144: 12135: 12121:Systems ecology 12009: 11980:Extinction debt 11945:Ecological debt 11935:Bioluminescence 11916: 11909: 11878:marine habitats 11853:Ecological trap 11834: 11714: 11707: 11650: 11644: 11600:Rapoport's rule 11595:Priority effect 11536:Endemic species 11504: 11463:Population size 11379: 11372: 11362: 11332: 11327: 11280: 11274: 11260:Trophic cascade 11170:Bioaccumulation 11153: 11080: 11037: 10959: 10926: 10823: 10735: 10696:Ecosystem model 10629: 10615: 10585: 10580: 10571: 10564: 10550: 10543: 10443: 10431: 10401: 10396: 10363: 10354:Surplus killing 10226:Ambush predator 10209: 10133: 10112: 10049: 10036: 10005: 9969: 9884: 9879: 9823: 9813: 9787: 9768: 9727: 9705: 9686: 9670: 9665: 9664: 9633: 9629: 9614: 9612: 9601: 9586: 9579: 9562: 9558: 9535: 9533: 9521: 9517: 9510: 9480: 9476: 9466: 9464: 9454: 9450: 9443: 9433:Berg Publishers 9423: 9419: 9412: 9398: 9394: 9376: 9372: 9371: 9367: 9328: 9324: 9314: 9312: 9306: 9302: 9261:(4): e0174709. 9247: 9243: 9236: 9222: 9218: 9211: 9195: 9191: 9184: 9170: 9166: 9159: 9145: 9141: 9094: 9090: 9059: 9055: 9036: 9032: 9017:10.1666/08011.1 8993: 8989: 8952:Current Biology 8944: 8940: 8925: 8911: 8907: 8854: 8847: 8807: 8803: 8788:10.1666/07026.1 8764: 8760: 8713: 8709: 8654: 8650: 8643: 8617:Grimaldi, David 8614: 8607: 8584: 8580: 8541: 8537: 8506: 8502: 8463: 8459: 8428: 8424: 8385: 8381: 8374: 8358: 8354: 8325: 8318: 8310: 8306: 8298: 8294: 8286: 8282: 8274: 8270: 8215: 8211: 8204: 8190: 8186: 8179: 8165: 8161: 8154: 8132: 8125: 8118: 8104: 8100: 8090: 8088: 8076: 8075: 8071: 8061: 8059: 8048: 8044: 8005: 8001: 7986:10.1890/03-3109 7961: 7955: 7951: 7944: 7930: 7926: 7897: 7890: 7883: 7869: 7865: 7858: 7844: 7840: 7830: 7828: 7819: 7818: 7814: 7807: 7785: 7781: 7724: 7720: 7681: 7677: 7630: 7626: 7611:10.2307/1930126 7587: 7583: 7543: 7536: 7521:10.1890/04-0719 7497: 7493: 7448: 7444: 7436: 7432: 7424: 7420: 7397: 7393: 7377:10.2307/1313476 7356: 7343: 7298: 7291: 7237: 7228: 7197: 7193: 7186: 7164: 7160: 7152: 7148: 7140: 7136: 7128: 7124: 7117: 7094: 7090: 7061: 7057: 7049: 7045: 7000:Current Biology 6992: 6988: 6973:10.2307/1445113 6953: 6949: 6941: 6937: 6930: 6916: 6912: 6904: 6900: 6892: 6888: 6880: 6876: 6821: 6817: 6772: 6768: 6760: 6756: 6725: 6721: 6690: 6686: 6678: 6674: 6631:(22 May 2017). 6625: 6621: 6613: 6609: 6601: 6597: 6582:10.2307/1310825 6566: 6562: 6555: 6533: 6529: 6476: 6472: 6435:Biology Letters 6427: 6423: 6386: 6382: 6335: 6331: 6324: 6308: 6304: 6297: 6279: 6275: 6259: 6258: 6254: 6240: 6236: 6226: 6224: 6213: 6209: 6202: 6186: 6182: 6133: 6129: 6121: 6117: 6062: 6058: 6043:10.2307/1934223 6019: 6015: 5984: 5980: 5949: 5945: 5922:Panthera pardus 5918: 5914: 5907: 5891: 5887: 5880: 5864: 5860: 5815:Ecology Letters 5807: 5803: 5796: 5776: 5772: 5762: 5760: 5759:on 3 April 2018 5756: 5749: 5745: 5744: 5735: 5725: 5723: 5716: 5712: 5702: 5700: 5695: 5694: 5690: 5683: 5661: 5657: 5647: 5645: 5640: 5639: 5635: 5580: 5576: 5569: 5561:. Basic Books. 5555: 5551: 5541: 5539: 5529: 5525: 5488:Current Zoology 5480: 5476: 5466: 5464: 5451: 5450: 5446: 5393: 5389: 5342: 5335: 5314: 5313: 5309: 5299: 5297: 5282: 5278: 5233: 5229: 5210: 5206: 5202:, pp. 7–12 5198: 5194: 5175:African Zoology 5171: 5167: 5126:(11): e112884. 5112: 5108: 5069: 5062: 5047:10.2307/3565418 5023: 5019: 4962: 4958: 4913: 4909: 4860: 4856: 4819: 4815: 4808: 4792: 4788: 4743: 4739: 4729: 4727: 4718: 4717: 4713: 4703: 4701: 4696: 4695: 4691: 4681: 4679: 4664: 4660: 4650: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4639: 4635: 4625: 4623: 4602: 4601: 4597: 4560: 4553: 4516: 4491: 4452: 4448: 4417: 4413: 4397:10.1038/453714a 4376: 4372: 4333: 4329: 4290: 4286: 4249: 4245: 4237: 4230: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4166: 4162: 4154: 4143: 4136: 4122: 4118: 4107: 4096: 4089: 4067: 4063: 4024: 4017: 4010: 3988: 3973: 3935: 3931: 3924: 3894: 3887: 3842: 3835: 3788: 3784: 3731: 3727: 3715: 3713: 3704: 3703: 3690: 3686: 3633: 3629: 3600: 3596: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3495: 3491: 3481: 3479: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3447: 3432: 3425: 3403: 3399: 3392: 3378: 3374: 3325: 3321: 3314: 3300: 3293: 3246: 3242: 3219: 3212: 3202: 3200: 3196: 3189: 3181: 3164: 3149: 3127: 3123: 3075: 3071: 3058:(11): 507–513. 3048: 3037: 3030: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2985: 2957:Ecology of fear 2953: 2940:The Jungle Book 2935:Rudyard Kipling 2846:science fiction 2827:Capitoline Wolf 2819: 2756: 2740: 2734: 2727: 2710: 2701: 2685: 2676: 2661:Meganeura monyi 2657: 2648: 2632: 2623: 2608: 2599: 2579: 2503:anomalocaridids 2460: 2445: 2408: 2406:History of life 2402: 2253: 2243: 2222:trophic pyramid 2179: 2173: 2090: 2084: 2036: 2026: 2017: 1932: 1926: 1890: 1889: 1888: 1887: 1886: 1868: 1860: 1859: 1849: 1838: 1832: 1826:in their diet. 1808: 1792: 1778:Torpediniformes 1766: 1764:Electric fields 1730: 1720: 1700:Flower mantises 1654:Members of the 1652: 1651: 1650: 1649: 1648: 1634: 1626: 1625: 1611: 1600: 1590: 1561: 1560: 1559: 1558: 1557: 1546: 1538: 1537: 1528:, a specialist 1521: 1510: 1504: 1497: 1488: 1479: 1472: 1463: 1460:Red-tailed hawk 1457: 1448: 1442:ambush predator 1435: 1426: 1424:jack jumper ant 1408: 1399: 1384: 1317:jumping spiders 1282: 1277: 1179:colobus monkeys 1158: 1152: 1128: 1127: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1118: 1110: 1109: 1095: 1084: 1010: 1009: 1008: 1007: 1006: 999:common clubtail 992: 984: 983: 976:Humpback whales 973: 962: 956: 948:colubrid snakes 923: 887: 886: 885: 884: 883: 880:trapdoor spider 876: 868: 867: 854: 843: 837: 813: 774: 690:widely foraging 678: 649: 643: 615:dinoflagellates 611:nanoflagellates 447:planarian worms 403: 402: 401: 400: 399: 389: 381: 380: 370: 359: 341: 339:Taxonomic range 232: 133:are predators. 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12186: 12176: 12175: 12170: 12165: 12146: 12145: 12140: 12137: 12136: 12134: 12133: 12128: 12123: 12118: 12113: 12108: 12103: 12101:Microecosystem 12098: 12093: 12088: 12083: 12078: 12073: 12068: 12063: 12058: 12053: 12048: 12043: 12038: 12033: 12028: 12023: 12017: 12015: 12011: 12010: 12008: 12007: 12002: 12000:Thorson's rule 11997: 11992: 11987: 11982: 11977: 11972: 11967: 11962: 11957: 11952: 11947: 11942: 11937: 11932: 11927: 11925:Assembly rules 11921: 11919: 11911: 11910: 11908: 11907: 11902: 11897: 11892: 11887: 11882: 11881: 11880: 11870: 11865: 11860: 11855: 11850: 11844: 11842: 11836: 11835: 11833: 11832: 11827: 11822: 11810: 11808:Patch dynamics 11805: 11803:Metapopulation 11800: 11795: 11790: 11785: 11780: 11775: 11770: 11765: 11760: 11755: 11750: 11745: 11740: 11735: 11730: 11725: 11719: 11717: 11709: 11708: 11706: 11705: 11700: 11698:Storage effect 11695: 11690: 11685: 11680: 11675: 11670: 11665: 11660: 11654: 11652: 11646: 11645: 11643: 11642: 11637: 11632: 11627: 11622: 11617: 11612: 11607: 11602: 11597: 11592: 11587: 11582: 11580:Neutral theory 11577: 11572: 11567: 11565:Native species 11558: 11553: 11548: 11543: 11538: 11533: 11528: 11523: 11518: 11512: 11510: 11506: 11505: 11503: 11502: 11497: 11496: 11495: 11490: 11480: 11475: 11470: 11465: 11460: 11455: 11450: 11445: 11440: 11438:Overpopulation 11435: 11430: 11425: 11420: 11415: 11410: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11390: 11384: 11382: 11374: 11373: 11361: 11360: 11353: 11346: 11338: 11329: 11328: 11326: 11325: 11320: 11315: 11310: 11305: 11300: 11295: 11290: 11284: 11282: 11276: 11275: 11273: 11272: 11267: 11262: 11257: 11252: 11247: 11245:Nutrient cycle 11242: 11237: 11235:Feeding frenzy 11232: 11227: 11222: 11217: 11215:Energy quality 11212: 11207: 11202: 11197: 11192: 11187: 11182: 11177: 11175:Cascade effect 11172: 11167: 11161: 11159: 11155: 11154: 11152: 11151: 11150: 11149: 11144: 11139: 11134: 11129: 11124: 11119: 11109: 11104: 11099: 11094: 11088: 11086: 11082: 11081: 11079: 11078: 11073: 11068: 11063: 11058: 11053: 11047: 11045: 11039: 11038: 11036: 11035: 11030: 11025: 11020: 11018:Microbial loop 11015: 11010: 11005: 11000: 10995: 10990: 10985: 10983:Lithoautotroph 10980: 10975: 10969: 10967: 10965:Microorganisms 10961: 10960: 10958: 10957: 10952: 10947: 10942: 10936: 10934: 10928: 10927: 10925: 10924: 10922:Prey switching 10919: 10914: 10909: 10904: 10899: 10894: 10889: 10884: 10879: 10874: 10869: 10864: 10859: 10854: 10849: 10844: 10839: 10833: 10831: 10825: 10824: 10822: 10821: 10816: 10811: 10806: 10801: 10799:Photosynthesis 10796: 10791: 10786: 10781: 10776: 10771: 10766: 10761: 10756: 10754:Chemosynthesis 10751: 10745: 10743: 10737: 10736: 10734: 10733: 10728: 10723: 10718: 10713: 10708: 10703: 10698: 10693: 10688: 10683: 10678: 10673: 10668: 10663: 10658: 10653: 10648: 10646:Abiotic stress 10643: 10637: 10635: 10631: 10630: 10614: 10613: 10606: 10599: 10591: 10582: 10581: 10579: 10578: 10577: 10576: 10569: 10557: 10556: 10555: 10548: 10536: 10535: 10534: 10529: 10524: 10519: 10514: 10509: 10504: 10494: 10489: 10484: 10479: 10474: 10469: 10464: 10459: 10454: 10448: 10445: 10444: 10430: 10429: 10422: 10415: 10407: 10398: 10397: 10395: 10394: 10389: 10384: 10379: 10374: 10368: 10365: 10364: 10362: 10361: 10356: 10351: 10346: 10341: 10336: 10331: 10329:Hypercarnivore 10326: 10325: 10324: 10323: 10322: 10312: 10305:Cattle feeding 10302: 10297: 10296: 10295: 10290: 10288:Feeding frenzy 10285: 10280: 10275: 10273:Suction feeder 10270: 10265: 10260: 10250: 10249: 10248: 10243: 10238: 10233: 10228: 10217: 10215: 10211: 10210: 10208: 10207: 10202: 10197: 10192: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10172: 10167: 10162: 10157: 10152: 10147: 10141: 10139: 10135: 10134: 10132: 10131: 10126: 10120: 10118: 10114: 10113: 10111: 10110: 10105: 10100: 10095: 10090: 10085: 10083:Seed predation 10080: 10075: 10070: 10065: 10059: 10057: 10051: 10050: 10043: 10041: 10038: 10037: 10035: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10019: 10013: 10011: 10007: 10006: 10004: 10003: 9998: 9993: 9988: 9983: 9977: 9975: 9971: 9970: 9968: 9967: 9962: 9957: 9952: 9947: 9942: 9937: 9932: 9927: 9922: 9917: 9912: 9907: 9901: 9899: 9892: 9886: 9885: 9878: 9877: 9870: 9863: 9855: 9849: 9848: 9836: 9822: 9821:External links 9819: 9818: 9817: 9811: 9791: 9785: 9772: 9766: 9753: 9731: 9725: 9709: 9703: 9690: 9684: 9669: 9666: 9663: 9662: 9643:(4): 977–990. 9627: 9584: 9578:978-0517703939 9577: 9556: 9515: 9508: 9474: 9448: 9441: 9435:. p. 98. 9417: 9410: 9392: 9365: 9322: 9300: 9241: 9235:978-0713484076 9234: 9216: 9209: 9189: 9183:978-0300145458 9182: 9164: 9157: 9139: 9088: 9069:(2): 469–472. 9053: 9030: 9003:(2): 251–269. 8987: 8938: 8923: 8905: 8845: 8818:(2): 247–255. 8801: 8758: 8707: 8648: 8641: 8605: 8578: 8535: 8516:(1): 192–196. 8500: 8457: 8422: 8379: 8372: 8352: 8339:(4): 501–506. 8316: 8304: 8292: 8280: 8268: 8209: 8202: 8184: 8177: 8159: 8152: 8123: 8117:978-0122874505 8116: 8098: 8069: 8042: 7999: 7949: 7942: 7924: 7888: 7881: 7863: 7857:978-3642580017 7856: 7838: 7812: 7805: 7779: 7734:(2): 258–270. 7718: 7675: 7624: 7597:(4): 399–417. 7581: 7534: 7507:(2): 501–509. 7491: 7442: 7430: 7418: 7407:(1): 219–236. 7391: 7370:(7): 557–568. 7341: 7289: 7226: 7207:(2): 103–125. 7191: 7184: 7158: 7146: 7134: 7122: 7115: 7088: 7055: 7043: 6986: 6947: 6935: 6928: 6910: 6906:Beauchamp 2012 6898: 6886: 6874: 6815: 6766: 6754: 6735:(2): 397–402. 6719: 6700:(3): 535–543. 6684: 6672: 6619: 6607: 6595: 6576:(9): 602–611. 6560: 6553: 6527: 6470: 6441:(2): 225–228. 6421: 6380: 6329: 6322: 6302: 6295: 6273: 6252: 6234: 6221:Florida Museum 6207: 6200: 6180: 6127: 6115: 6076:(1): 173–183. 6056: 6029:(3): 375–386. 6013: 5994:(2): 379–390. 5978: 5965:10.1086/282885 5959:(959): 59–74. 5943: 5932:(2): 298–313. 5912: 5905: 5885: 5878: 5858: 5801: 5794: 5770: 5733: 5710: 5688: 5681: 5655: 5633: 5574: 5568:978-0465052998 5567: 5549: 5523: 5494:(4): 357–362. 5474: 5444: 5387: 5333: 5307: 5276: 5227: 5204: 5200:Beauchamp 2012 5192: 5165: 5106: 5060: 5033:(2): 155–158. 5017: 4956: 4907: 4854: 4833:(5): 787–798. 4813: 4806: 4786: 4737: 4711: 4689: 4666:Bray, Dianne. 4658: 4633: 4622:on 18 May 2007 4595: 4551: 4530:(6): 1188–97. 4489: 4468:10.1086/506921 4462:(3): 350–357. 4446: 4427:(4): 883–890. 4411: 4370: 4327: 4300:(2): 129–136. 4284: 4243: 4228: 4207:10.1086/303145 4185: 4178: 4160: 4158:, pp. 4–5 4141: 4134: 4116: 4094: 4087: 4061: 4040:10.1086/283666 4034:(5): 743–752. 4015: 4008: 3971: 3949:(4): 687–704. 3929: 3922: 3885: 3856:(2): R55–R56. 3833: 3782: 3725: 3716:|journal= 3684: 3627: 3614:(2): 564–569. 3594: 3543: 3536: 3518: 3511: 3489: 3464: 3430: 3423: 3397: 3391:978-0226455082 3390: 3372: 3335:(2): 324–334. 3319: 3312: 3291: 3256:(4): 511–515. 3240: 3210: 3162: 3147: 3121: 3078:Poulin, Robert 3069: 3035: 3028: 3007: 3006: 3004: 3001: 2998: 2997: 2987: 2986: 2984: 2981: 2980: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2952: 2949: 2895:'s 1849 poem " 2818: 2815: 2755: 2754:Practical uses 2752: 2733: 2730: 2729: 2728: 2711: 2704: 2702: 2686: 2679: 2677: 2664:, a predatory 2658: 2651: 2649: 2636:anomalocaridid 2633: 2626: 2624: 2609: 2602: 2600: 2580: 2573: 2444:period—around 2401: 2398: 2293:boreal forests 2242: 2239: 2172: 2169: 2147:which combine 2102:organic matter 2083: 2080: 2056:apex predators 2025: 2022: 2016: 2013: 1925: 1922: 1912:the predator, 1869: 1862: 1861: 1850: 1843: 1842: 1841: 1840: 1839: 1834:Main article: 1831: 1828: 1807: 1804: 1765: 1762: 1719: 1716: 1635: 1628: 1627: 1612: 1605: 1604: 1603: 1602: 1601: 1589: 1586: 1547: 1540: 1539: 1522: 1515: 1514: 1513: 1512: 1511: 1503: 1500: 1499: 1498: 1489: 1482: 1480: 1474:Specialist: a 1473: 1466: 1464: 1458: 1451: 1449: 1436: 1429: 1427: 1409: 1402: 1400: 1385: 1378: 1297:detecting prey 1281: 1278: 1276: 1275:Specialization 1273: 1265:microorganisms 1261:solitary wasps 1151: 1148: 1119: 1112: 1111: 1096: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1083: 1080: 993: 986: 985: 974: 967: 966: 965: 964: 963: 958:Main article: 955: 952: 922: 919: 912:mantis shrimps 877: 870: 869: 855: 848: 847: 846: 845: 844: 839:Main article: 836: 833: 812: 809: 773: 770: 677: 674: 642: 639: 564:Venus fly trap 537:, a predatory 392:Seed predation 390: 383: 382: 371: 364: 363: 362: 361: 360: 353:Seed predation 340: 337: 300:seed predation 275:Micropredators 256:ichneumon wasp 231: 228: 127:seed predators 103:micropredation 97:that includes 55:it has killed. 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12185: 12174: 12171: 12169: 12166: 12164: 12161: 12160: 12158: 12151: 12143: 12138: 12132: 12129: 12127: 12126:Urban ecology 12124: 12122: 12119: 12117: 12114: 12112: 12109: 12107: 12104: 12102: 12099: 12097: 12094: 12092: 12089: 12087: 12084: 12082: 12079: 12077: 12074: 12072: 12069: 12067: 12064: 12062: 12059: 12057: 12054: 12052: 12049: 12047: 12044: 12042: 12039: 12037: 12034: 12032: 12029: 12027: 12024: 12022: 12019: 12018: 12016: 12012: 12006: 12003: 12001: 11998: 11996: 11993: 11991: 11988: 11986: 11985:Kleiber's law 11983: 11981: 11978: 11976: 11973: 11971: 11968: 11966: 11963: 11961: 11958: 11956: 11953: 11951: 11948: 11946: 11943: 11941: 11938: 11936: 11933: 11931: 11928: 11926: 11923: 11922: 11920: 11918: 11912: 11906: 11903: 11901: 11898: 11896: 11893: 11891: 11888: 11886: 11883: 11879: 11876: 11875: 11874: 11871: 11869: 11866: 11864: 11861: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11845: 11843: 11841: 11837: 11831: 11828: 11826: 11823: 11821: 11819: 11815: 11811: 11809: 11806: 11804: 11801: 11799: 11796: 11794: 11791: 11789: 11786: 11784: 11781: 11779: 11776: 11774: 11771: 11769: 11766: 11764: 11761: 11759: 11758:Foster's rule 11756: 11754: 11751: 11749: 11746: 11744: 11741: 11739: 11736: 11734: 11731: 11729: 11726: 11724: 11721: 11720: 11718: 11716: 11710: 11704: 11701: 11699: 11696: 11694: 11691: 11689: 11686: 11684: 11681: 11679: 11676: 11674: 11671: 11669: 11666: 11664: 11661: 11659: 11656: 11655: 11653: 11647: 11641: 11638: 11636: 11633: 11631: 11628: 11626: 11623: 11621: 11618: 11616: 11613: 11611: 11608: 11606: 11603: 11601: 11598: 11596: 11593: 11591: 11588: 11586: 11583: 11581: 11578: 11576: 11573: 11571: 11568: 11566: 11562: 11559: 11557: 11554: 11552: 11549: 11547: 11544: 11542: 11539: 11537: 11534: 11532: 11529: 11527: 11524: 11522: 11519: 11517: 11514: 11513: 11511: 11507: 11501: 11498: 11494: 11491: 11489: 11486: 11485: 11484: 11481: 11479: 11476: 11474: 11471: 11469: 11466: 11464: 11461: 11459: 11456: 11454: 11451: 11449: 11446: 11444: 11441: 11439: 11436: 11434: 11431: 11429: 11426: 11424: 11421: 11419: 11416: 11414: 11411: 11409: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11399: 11396: 11394: 11391: 11389: 11386: 11385: 11383: 11381: 11375: 11370: 11366: 11359: 11354: 11352: 11347: 11345: 11340: 11339: 11336: 11324: 11321: 11319: 11316: 11314: 11311: 11309: 11306: 11304: 11301: 11299: 11296: 11294: 11291: 11289: 11286: 11285: 11283: 11277: 11271: 11268: 11266: 11263: 11261: 11258: 11256: 11253: 11251: 11248: 11246: 11243: 11241: 11238: 11236: 11233: 11231: 11228: 11226: 11223: 11221: 11218: 11216: 11213: 11211: 11208: 11206: 11203: 11201: 11198: 11196: 11193: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11178: 11176: 11173: 11171: 11168: 11166: 11163: 11162: 11160: 11156: 11148: 11145: 11143: 11140: 11138: 11135: 11133: 11130: 11128: 11125: 11123: 11120: 11118: 11115: 11114: 11113: 11110: 11108: 11105: 11103: 11100: 11098: 11095: 11093: 11090: 11089: 11087: 11083: 11077: 11076:Trophic level 11074: 11072: 11069: 11067: 11064: 11062: 11059: 11057: 11054: 11052: 11049: 11048: 11046: 11044: 11040: 11034: 11033:Phage ecology 11031: 11029: 11026: 11024: 11023:Microbial mat 11021: 11019: 11016: 11014: 11011: 11009: 11006: 11004: 11001: 10999: 10996: 10994: 10991: 10989: 10986: 10984: 10981: 10979: 10978:Bacteriophage 10976: 10974: 10971: 10970: 10968: 10966: 10962: 10956: 10953: 10951: 10948: 10946: 10945:Decomposition 10943: 10941: 10938: 10937: 10935: 10933: 10929: 10923: 10920: 10918: 10915: 10913: 10910: 10908: 10905: 10903: 10900: 10898: 10895: 10893: 10892:Mesopredators 10890: 10888: 10885: 10883: 10880: 10878: 10875: 10873: 10870: 10868: 10865: 10863: 10860: 10858: 10855: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10837:Apex predator 10835: 10834: 10832: 10830: 10826: 10820: 10817: 10815: 10812: 10810: 10807: 10805: 10802: 10800: 10797: 10795: 10792: 10790: 10787: 10785: 10782: 10780: 10777: 10775: 10772: 10770: 10767: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10755: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10746: 10744: 10742: 10738: 10732: 10729: 10727: 10724: 10722: 10719: 10717: 10714: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10672: 10671:Biotic stress 10669: 10667: 10664: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10649: 10647: 10644: 10642: 10639: 10638: 10636: 10632: 10627: 10623: 10619: 10612: 10607: 10605: 10600: 10598: 10593: 10592: 10589: 10574: 10570: 10567: 10563: 10562: 10561: 10558: 10553: 10549: 10546: 10542: 10541: 10540: 10537: 10533: 10530: 10528: 10525: 10523: 10520: 10518: 10517:Hyperparasite 10515: 10513: 10510: 10508: 10505: 10503: 10500: 10499: 10498: 10495: 10493: 10490: 10488: 10485: 10483: 10480: 10478: 10475: 10473: 10470: 10468: 10465: 10463: 10460: 10458: 10455: 10453: 10450: 10449: 10446: 10442: 10438: 10435: 10434:Inter-species 10428: 10423: 10421: 10416: 10414: 10409: 10408: 10405: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10385: 10383: 10380: 10378: 10375: 10373: 10370: 10369: 10366: 10360: 10357: 10355: 10352: 10350: 10347: 10345: 10342: 10340: 10339:Mesocarnivore 10337: 10335: 10334:Hypocarnivore 10332: 10330: 10327: 10321: 10318: 10317: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10307: 10306: 10303: 10301: 10298: 10294: 10293:Filter feeder 10291: 10289: 10286: 10284: 10283:Bottom feeder 10281: 10279: 10276: 10274: 10271: 10269: 10266: 10264: 10261: 10259: 10256: 10255: 10254: 10251: 10247: 10244: 10242: 10239: 10237: 10234: 10232: 10231:Apex predator 10229: 10227: 10224: 10223: 10222: 10219: 10218: 10216: 10212: 10206: 10203: 10201: 10198: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10183: 10181: 10178: 10176: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10166: 10163: 10161: 10158: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10148: 10146: 10143: 10142: 10140: 10136: 10130: 10127: 10125: 10122: 10121: 10119: 10115: 10109: 10106: 10104: 10101: 10099: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10079: 10076: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10060: 10058: 10056: 10052: 10047: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10018: 10015: 10014: 10012: 10010:cannibalistic 10008: 10002: 9999: 9997: 9996:Breastfeeding 9994: 9992: 9991:Placentophagy 9989: 9987: 9984: 9982: 9979: 9978: 9976: 9972: 9966: 9963: 9961: 9958: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9948: 9946: 9943: 9941: 9938: 9936: 9933: 9931: 9928: 9926: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9910:Egg predation 9908: 9906: 9903: 9902: 9900: 9896: 9893: 9891: 9887: 9883: 9876: 9871: 9869: 9864: 9862: 9857: 9856: 9853: 9846: 9841: 9837: 9834: 9829: 9825: 9824: 9814: 9812:9780198528593 9808: 9804: 9800: 9796: 9792: 9788: 9786:9781444309102 9782: 9778: 9773: 9769: 9767:9783319324920 9763: 9759: 9754: 9750: 9746: 9742: 9741: 9736: 9735:Cott, Hugh B. 9732: 9728: 9722: 9718: 9714: 9710: 9706: 9704:9789401130981 9700: 9696: 9691: 9687: 9685:9780124076549 9681: 9677: 9672: 9671: 9658: 9654: 9650: 9646: 9642: 9638: 9631: 9624: 9610: 9606: 9599: 9597: 9595: 9593: 9591: 9589: 9580: 9574: 9570: 9566: 9560: 9553: 9552: 9549: 9546: 9532: 9531: 9526: 9519: 9511: 9505: 9501: 9497: 9489: 9485: 9478: 9463: 9459: 9452: 9444: 9442:9780857850560 9438: 9434: 9430: 9429: 9421: 9413: 9407: 9403: 9396: 9388: 9384: 9383: 9375: 9369: 9361: 9357: 9353: 9349: 9345: 9341: 9337: 9333: 9326: 9311: 9304: 9296: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9268: 9264: 9260: 9256: 9252: 9245: 9237: 9231: 9227: 9220: 9212: 9206: 9202: 9201: 9193: 9185: 9179: 9175: 9168: 9160: 9154: 9151:. Blackwell. 9150: 9143: 9135: 9131: 9127: 9123: 9119: 9115: 9111: 9107: 9103: 9099: 9092: 9084: 9080: 9076: 9072: 9068: 9064: 9057: 9049: 9045: 9041: 9034: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9014: 9010: 9006: 9002: 8998: 8991: 8983: 8979: 8974: 8969: 8965: 8961: 8957: 8953: 8949: 8942: 8934: 8930: 8926: 8920: 8916: 8909: 8901: 8897: 8892: 8887: 8883: 8879: 8875: 8871: 8867: 8863: 8859: 8852: 8850: 8841: 8837: 8833: 8829: 8825: 8821: 8817: 8813: 8805: 8797: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8773: 8769: 8762: 8754: 8750: 8746: 8742: 8738: 8734: 8730: 8726: 8722: 8718: 8711: 8703: 8699: 8695: 8691: 8687: 8683: 8679: 8675: 8671: 8667: 8663: 8659: 8652: 8644: 8638: 8634: 8629: 8628: 8622: 8618: 8612: 8610: 8601: 8597: 8593: 8589: 8582: 8574: 8570: 8566: 8562: 8558: 8554: 8551:(4): 248–57. 8550: 8546: 8539: 8531: 8527: 8523: 8519: 8515: 8511: 8504: 8496: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8461: 8453: 8449: 8445: 8441: 8437: 8433: 8426: 8418: 8414: 8410: 8406: 8402: 8398: 8394: 8390: 8383: 8375: 8369: 8365: 8364: 8356: 8347: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8330: 8323: 8321: 8313: 8312:Rockwood 2009 8308: 8301: 8300:Rockwood 2009 8296: 8290:, p. 246 8289: 8288:Rockwood 2009 8284: 8278:, p. 281 8277: 8276:Rockwood 2009 8272: 8264: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8245: 8240: 8236: 8232: 8228: 8224: 8220: 8213: 8205: 8203:9780191588518 8199: 8195: 8188: 8180: 8178:9781400847259 8174: 8170: 8163: 8155: 8153:9781400833023 8149: 8145: 8140: 8139: 8130: 8128: 8119: 8113: 8109: 8102: 8087: 8083: 8079: 8073: 8057: 8053: 8046: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8018: 8014: 8010: 8003: 7995: 7991: 7987: 7983: 7979: 7975: 7971: 7967: 7960: 7953: 7945: 7943:9780521532235 7939: 7935: 7928: 7919: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7895: 7893: 7884: 7878: 7874: 7867: 7859: 7853: 7849: 7842: 7826: 7822: 7816: 7808: 7802: 7798: 7794: 7790: 7783: 7775: 7771: 7767: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7749: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7729: 7722: 7714: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7698: 7694: 7690: 7686: 7679: 7670: 7669:11250/2492589 7665: 7660: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7628: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7604: 7600: 7596: 7592: 7585: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7541: 7539: 7530: 7526: 7522: 7518: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7502: 7495: 7487: 7483: 7478: 7473: 7469: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7446: 7440:, p. 107 7439: 7434: 7427: 7422: 7414: 7410: 7406: 7402: 7395: 7387: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7354: 7352: 7350: 7348: 7346: 7337: 7333: 7329: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7311: 7307: 7303: 7296: 7294: 7285: 7281: 7277: 7273: 7269: 7265: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7241: 7235: 7233: 7231: 7222: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7195: 7187: 7185:9780199874545 7181: 7177: 7172: 7171: 7162: 7155: 7150: 7143: 7138: 7131: 7126: 7118: 7112: 7108: 7104: 7100: 7092: 7083: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7059: 7052: 7047: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7013: 7009: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6990: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6951: 6944: 6939: 6931: 6929:9780198508182 6925: 6921: 6914: 6907: 6902: 6895: 6890: 6883: 6878: 6870: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6826: 6819: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6786:(1): 93–103. 6785: 6781: 6777: 6770: 6763: 6758: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6723: 6715: 6711: 6707: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6688: 6681: 6676: 6668: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6623: 6616: 6611: 6604: 6599: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6564: 6556: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6531: 6523: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6474: 6466: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6425: 6417: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6399: 6395: 6391: 6384: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6333: 6325: 6319: 6315: 6314: 6306: 6298: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6277: 6269: 6263: 6255: 6249: 6245: 6238: 6222: 6218: 6211: 6203: 6197: 6193: 6192: 6184: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6139: 6131: 6124: 6119: 6111: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6060: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6017: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5982: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5947: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5916: 5908: 5902: 5898: 5897: 5889: 5881: 5875: 5871: 5870: 5862: 5854: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5836: 5832: 5828: 5824: 5821:(2): 113–24. 5820: 5816: 5812: 5805: 5797: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5782: 5774: 5755: 5748: 5742: 5740: 5738: 5721: 5714: 5698: 5697:"Zooplankton" 5692: 5684: 5682:9780123741448 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5659: 5643: 5637: 5629: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5594:(2): e31619. 5593: 5589: 5585: 5578: 5570: 5564: 5560: 5553: 5538: 5534: 5527: 5519: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5478: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5448: 5440: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5391: 5383: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5340: 5338: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5319: 5311: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5280: 5272: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5231: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5208: 5201: 5196: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5169: 5161: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5110: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5067: 5065: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5021: 5013: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4960: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4911: 4904: 4899: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4858: 4850: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4817: 4809: 4803: 4799: 4798: 4790: 4782: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4741: 4725: 4721: 4715: 4699: 4693: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4662: 4643: 4637: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4599: 4591: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4558: 4556: 4547: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4514: 4512: 4510: 4508: 4506: 4504: 4502: 4500: 4498: 4496: 4494: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4450: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4415: 4407: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4374: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4331: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4288: 4279: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4247: 4240: 4235: 4233: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4201:(1): 98–109. 4200: 4196: 4189: 4181: 4179:9780199797066 4175: 4171: 4164: 4157: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4146: 4137: 4135:9780691023823 4131: 4127: 4120: 4112: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4090: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4065: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4022: 4020: 4011: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3965: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3933: 3925: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3902: 3901: 3892: 3890: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3838: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3786: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3753: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3729: 3721: 3708: 3700: 3696: 3688: 3680: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3631: 3622: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3598: 3590: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3547: 3539: 3537:9781429223188 3533: 3529: 3522: 3514: 3512:9780520251182 3508: 3504: 3500: 3493: 3478: 3474: 3468: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3445: 3443: 3441: 3439: 3437: 3435: 3426: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3401: 3393: 3387: 3383: 3376: 3368: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3323: 3315: 3309: 3305: 3298: 3296: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3244: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3215: 3195: 3188: 3187: 3179: 3177: 3175: 3173: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3125: 3117: 3113: 3108: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3073: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3040: 3031: 3025: 3021: 3020: 3012: 3008: 2992: 2988: 2978: 2975: 2973: 2970: 2968: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2958: 2955: 2954: 2948: 2946: 2942: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2911: 2906: 2900: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2879: 2878: 2873: 2869: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2857: 2853: 2850: 2847: 2843: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2823: 2817:Symbolic uses 2814: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2748: 2744: 2739: 2725: 2724:superpredator 2721: 2718: 2714: 2708: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2690: 2689:Tyrannosaurus 2683: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2667: 2666:Carboniferous 2663: 2662: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2641: 2637: 2630: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2606: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2584: 2577: 2572: 2571: 2570: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2551: 2550:Tyrannosaurus 2546: 2542: 2541:Carboniferous 2538: 2534: 2530: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2491:fossil record 2487: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2472: 2467: 2463: 2458: 2454: 2453:calcification 2448: 2443: 2437: 2435: 2434:insect flight 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2414: 2407: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2382:age structure 2379: 2375: 2371: 2366: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2350: 2347: 2343: 2338: 2336: 2335: 2330: 2329: 2324: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2303: 2299: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2285:snowshoe hare 2281: 2278: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2261:snowshoe hare 2257: 2252: 2248: 2238: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2211: 2210:apex predator 2207: 2203: 2198: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2178: 2168: 2165: 2161: 2156: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2121:phytoplankton 2118: 2114: 2109: 2107: 2104:from another 2103: 2099: 2098:trophic level 2095: 2089: 2079: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2046:that feed on 2045: 2041: 2040:trophic level 2035: 2034:Apex predator 2031: 2030:Trophic level 2024:Trophic level 2021: 2012: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1996: 1994: 1988: 1984: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1949: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1884: 1881:, but has no 1880: 1876: 1872: 1866: 1857: 1853: 1847: 1837: 1827: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1812:peptidoglycan 1803: 1801: 1797: 1791: 1787: 1779: 1775: 1770: 1761: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1734:box jellyfish 1729: 1725: 1715: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1688: 1683: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1632: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1609: 1599: 1595: 1585: 1583: 1577: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1565:Eurasian lynx 1555: 1551: 1544: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1526: 1519: 1509: 1496: 1492: 1491:Indian python 1486: 1481: 1477: 1470: 1465: 1461: 1455: 1450: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1433: 1428: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1412:compound eyes 1406: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1382: 1377: 1376: 1375: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1356: 1355:of molluscs. 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1340:birds of prey 1337: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1293: 1291: 1287: 1272: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1240: 1238: 1237:baleen whales 1234: 1233:Killer whales 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1167: 1163: 1157: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1122: 1116: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1093: 1079: 1077: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1059:, especially 1058: 1054: 1053:baleen whales 1050: 1049:lunge feeding 1045: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1026: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1004: 1000: 996: 990: 981: 977: 971: 961: 951: 949: 945: 941: 932: 927: 918: 916: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 896:northern pike 893: 881: 874: 865: 861: 858: 852: 842: 832: 830: 826: 825: 820: 819: 808: 806: 802: 797: 793: 786: 782: 778: 769: 767: 763: 758: 756: 752: 747: 742: 734: 729: 725: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 698:Insectivorous 695: 691: 687: 683: 673: 671: 666: 658: 653: 648: 638: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 607:phytoplankton 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 583: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 560:pitcher plant 556: 554: 551: 544: 541:, feeding on 540: 536: 535: 530: 526: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 483:sea cucumbers 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 415:scorpionflies 412: 408: 397: 393: 387: 378: 374: 368: 358: 357:Egg predation 354: 350: 346: 336: 334: 333:yellowjackets 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 312: 311: 310:egg predation 306: 302: 301: 296: 295:phytoplankton 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 267: 263: 261: 257: 254:, such as an 253: 244: 240: 236: 227: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 184: 182: 178: 174: 171:, have sharp 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 145: 143: 139: 134: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 111:parasitoidism 108: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 73: 69: 65: 61: 54: 50: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 12150: 12111:Regime shift 12096:Macroecology 11817: 11813: 11753:Edge effects 11723:Biogeography 11668:Commensalism 11516:Biodiversity 11393:Allee effect 11132:kelp forests 11085:Example webs 10950:Detritivores 10916: 10789:Organotrophs 10769:Kinetotrophs 10721:Productivity 10538: 10457:Commensalism 10359:Trophallaxis 10263:Pivot feeder 10258:Lunge feeder 10236:Egg predator 10220: 10124:Phagocytosis 9974:reproductive 9945:Myrmecophagy 9935:Molluscivore 9835:at Wikiquote 9802: 9776: 9760:. Springer. 9757: 9739: 9716: 9694: 9678:. Elsevier. 9675: 9640: 9636: 9630: 9622: 9613:. Retrieved 9609:the original 9568: 9559: 9550: 9547: 9544: 9541: 9534:. Retrieved 9528: 9518: 9495: 9483: 9477: 9465:. Retrieved 9461: 9451: 9427: 9420: 9401: 9395: 9380: 9368: 9335: 9331: 9325: 9313:. Retrieved 9303: 9258: 9254: 9244: 9228:. Batsford. 9225: 9219: 9199: 9192: 9173: 9167: 9148: 9142: 9101: 9097: 9091: 9066: 9062: 9056: 9047: 9043: 9033: 9000: 8997:Paleobiology 8996: 8990: 8955: 8951: 8941: 8914: 8908: 8865: 8861: 8815: 8811: 8804: 8771: 8768:Paleobiology 8767: 8761: 8720: 8716: 8710: 8661: 8657: 8651: 8626: 8591: 8587: 8581: 8548: 8544: 8538: 8513: 8509: 8503: 8473:(1): 38–63. 8470: 8466: 8460: 8435: 8431: 8425: 8392: 8389:Nonlinearity 8388: 8382: 8362: 8355: 8336: 8332: 8307: 8295: 8283: 8271: 8229:(3): e9774. 8226: 8222: 8212: 8193: 8187: 8168: 8162: 8137: 8107: 8101: 8089:. Retrieved 8082:BBC Bitesize 8081: 8072: 8060:. Retrieved 8055: 8045: 8016: 8012: 8002: 7969: 7965: 7952: 7933: 7927: 7908: 7904: 7872: 7866: 7847: 7841: 7829:. Retrieved 7824: 7815: 7788: 7782: 7731: 7727: 7721: 7688: 7684: 7678: 7641: 7637: 7627: 7594: 7590: 7584: 7551: 7547: 7504: 7500: 7494: 7459: 7455: 7445: 7433: 7421: 7404: 7400: 7394: 7367: 7363: 7309: 7305: 7251: 7247: 7244:Krebs, J. R. 7204: 7200: 7194: 7169: 7161: 7149: 7137: 7125: 7098: 7091: 7072: 7068: 7058: 7046: 7003: 6999: 6989: 6964: 6960: 6956: 6950: 6938: 6919: 6913: 6901: 6889: 6877: 6832: 6828: 6818: 6783: 6779: 6769: 6757: 6732: 6728: 6722: 6697: 6693: 6687: 6675: 6640: 6636: 6622: 6610: 6598: 6573: 6569: 6563: 6536: 6530: 6487: 6483: 6473: 6438: 6434: 6424: 6397: 6393: 6383: 6345:(1): 81–89. 6342: 6338: 6332: 6312: 6305: 6286: 6276: 6243: 6237: 6225:. Retrieved 6220: 6210: 6190: 6183: 6142: 6136: 6130: 6118: 6073: 6069: 6059: 6026: 6022: 6016: 5991: 5987: 5981: 5956: 5952: 5946: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5915: 5895: 5888: 5868: 5861: 5818: 5814: 5804: 5780: 5773: 5761:. Retrieved 5754:the original 5724:. Retrieved 5713: 5701:. Retrieved 5691: 5664: 5658: 5646:. Retrieved 5636: 5591: 5587: 5577: 5558: 5552: 5542:17 September 5540:. Retrieved 5536: 5526: 5491: 5487: 5477: 5467:17 September 5465:. Retrieved 5461:the original 5456: 5447: 5407:(1): 11828. 5404: 5400: 5390: 5353: 5349: 5327:the original 5317: 5310: 5300:17 September 5298:. Retrieved 5294:the original 5289: 5279: 5244: 5240: 5230: 5222:10150/276864 5213: 5207: 5195: 5181:(1): 36–44. 5178: 5174: 5168: 5123: 5119: 5109: 5076: 5072: 5030: 5026: 5020: 4977: 4973: 4959: 4924: 4920: 4910: 4901: 4871: 4867: 4857: 4830: 4826: 4816: 4796: 4789: 4754: 4750: 4740: 4728:. Retrieved 4714: 4702:. Retrieved 4692: 4682:14 September 4680:. Retrieved 4676:the original 4671: 4661: 4649:. Retrieved 4636: 4624:. Retrieved 4620:the original 4607: 4598: 4571: 4567: 4527: 4523: 4459: 4455: 4449: 4424: 4420: 4414: 4387: 4383: 4373: 4340: 4336: 4330: 4297: 4293: 4287: 4260: 4256: 4246: 4198: 4194: 4188: 4169: 4163: 4125: 4119: 4110: 4070: 4064: 4031: 4027: 3991: 3946: 3942: 3932: 3899: 3853: 3849: 3795: 3791: 3785: 3742: 3738: 3728: 3707:cite journal 3687: 3647:(1): 22207. 3644: 3640: 3630: 3611: 3607: 3597: 3560: 3556: 3546: 3527: 3521: 3498: 3492: 3482:19 September 3480:. Retrieved 3476: 3467: 3458: 3454: 3406: 3400: 3381: 3375: 3332: 3328: 3322: 3303: 3253: 3249: 3243: 3226: 3222: 3201:. Retrieved 3194:the original 3185: 3130: 3124: 3089: 3086:Parasitology 3085: 3072: 3055: 3051: 3018: 3011: 2991: 2945:grizzly bear 2938: 2908: 2901: 2888: 2882: 2875: 2855: 2839: 2804: 2757: 2687: 2659: 2638: 2581: 2563:ceratopsians 2548: 2528:Dunkleosteus 2526: 2488: 2469: 2468: 2438: 2409: 2394:refuge areas 2367: 2351: 2339: 2332: 2326: 2320: 2282: 2274: 2264: 2215: 2183:biodiversity 2180: 2157: 2153:heterotrophy 2133:Detritivores 2110: 2091: 2037: 2018: 1997: 1992: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1948:echolocation 1945: 1940:echolocation 1914:playing dead 1891: 1809: 1796:electric ray 1793: 1774:electric ray 1742:rattlesnakes 1731: 1690: 1684: 1660:snow leopard 1658:such as the 1653: 1619:snow leopard 1578: 1562: 1554:Cape buffalo 1552:attacking a 1532:predator of 1523: 1414:, sensitive 1357: 1333: 1326:echolocating 1294: 1283: 1257:wolf spiders 1241: 1206: 1183:Harris hawks 1159: 1134:such as the 1129: 1073: 1046: 1027: 1018: 1011: 997:, like this 936: 917: 910:on land and 888: 828: 822: 816: 814: 798: 794: 790: 759: 740: 738: 689: 685: 682:sit-and-wait 681: 679: 669: 662: 627:meroplankton 584: 557: 547: 532: 479:sand dollars 404: 398:eating seeds 329:social wasps 315: 308: 304: 298: 272: 248: 239:Spider wasps 185: 169:invertebrate 146: 135: 90: 86: 78: 77: 53:bearded seal 40: 11748:Disturbance 11651:interaction 11473:Recruitment 11403:Depensation 11195:Copiotrophs 11066:Energy flow 10988:Lithotrophy 10932:Decomposers 10912:Planktivore 10887:Insectivore 10877:Heterotroph 10842:Bacterivore 10809:Phototrophs 10759:Chemotrophs 10731:Restoration 10681:Competition 10492:Synnecrosis 10472:Inquilinism 10462:Competition 10180:Planktivore 10165:Detritivore 10160:Coprophagia 10150:Bacterivore 10145:Microbivory 10129:Myzocytosis 10088:Nectarivore 10078:Graminivore 9925:Lepidophagy 9920:Insectivore 9915:Hematophagy 9743:. Methuen. 9467:7 September 8774:(1): 1–21. 8664:(1): 1–18. 8438:(1): 1–12. 7831:18 February 7757:10261/54628 7644:: 128–133. 7428:, p. 8 7156:, p. 4 6490:(1): 8638. 5726:7 September 5703:5 September 5648:5 September 5247:(1): 1765. 4730:12 December 4704:12 December 4651:3 September 3229:: 465–492. 2977:Cannibalism 2852:action film 2758:Humans, as 2673:dragonflies 2671:related to 2596:nematocysts 2567:ankylosaurs 2507:exoskeleton 2484:nematocysts 2298:fur hunters 2259:Numbers of 2131:/animals); 2129:zooplankton 2001:coral snake 1957:coevolution 1930:Coevolution 1924:Coevolution 1758:nucleotides 1672:fishing cat 1615:camouflaged 1534:land snails 1438:Crab spider 1290:adaptations 1269:zooplankton 1217:coral trout 1209:coral reefs 1175:chimpanzees 1136:Ictaluridae 1023:dragonflies 995:Dragonflies 892:angel shark 864:grasshopper 635:cladocerans 603:zooplankton 599:prokaryotes 513:(including 511:cephalopods 491:crustaceans 475:sea urchins 467:echinoderms 407:dragonflies 307:) or eggs ( 243:parasitoids 200:alarm calls 51:feeds on a 12157:Categories 12116:Sexecology 11693:Parasitism 11658:Antibiosis 11493:Resistance 11488:Resilience 11378:Population 11298:Camouflage 11250:Oligotroph 11165:Ascendency 11127:intertidal 11117:cold seeps 11071:Food chain 10872:Herbivores 10847:Carnivores 10774:Mixotrophs 10749:Autotrophs 10628:components 10573:Mycorrhiza 10552:Intraguild 10532:Parasitoid 10497:Parasitism 10487:Neutralism 10452:Amensalism 10344:Parasitism 10278:Bait balls 10268:Ram feeder 10200:Plastivore 10195:Lithotroph 10185:Saprophagy 10108:Osteophagy 10098:Palynivore 10055:Herbivores 9986:Paedophagy 9960:Spongivore 9950:Ophiophagy 9890:Carnivores 9486:. p. 9044:Kirtlandia 8594:: 79–105. 8013:BioScience 7911:(8): 755. 7905:BioScience 7364:BioScience 6835:(1): 2–8. 6570:BioScience 6227:31 January 4263:: 69–280. 3358:10468/3213 3003:References 2927:werewolves 2885:Ted Hughes 2865:man-eating 2811:pesticides 2780:cormorants 2698:Cretaceous 2692:, a large 2622:predators. 2559:hadrosaurs 2555:Cretaceous 2533:vertebrate 2515:placoderms 2422:eukaryotes 2413:eukaryotic 2149:autotrophy 2145:Mixotrophs 2125:Carnivores 2117:Herbivores 2072:gray foxes 2052:food chain 2048:herbivores 2044:Carnivores 1993:escalation 1894:camouflage 1856:camouflage 1820:amino acid 1816:cell walls 1806:Physiology 1708:Frogfishes 1670:(forest), 1656:cat family 1617:predator: 1594:Camouflage 1396:carnassial 1388:brown bear 1352:cormorants 1177:can catch 1154:See also: 1100:has sharp 944:chameleons 940:archerfish 772:Assessment 749:feed. The 714:shorebirds 712:and other 700:birds and 645:See also: 591:eukaryotes 534:Paramecium 523:cuttlefish 463:ctenophora 451:cnidarians 427:centipedes 317:Scavengers 283:mosquitoes 260:parasitism 252:parasitoid 230:Definition 208:camouflage 202:and other 165:vertebrate 131:frugivores 115:scavenging 99:parasitism 49:polar bear 12168:Predation 12021:Allometry 11975:Emergence 11703:Symbiosis 11688:Mutualism 11483:Stability 11388:Abundance 11200:Dominance 11158:Processes 11147:tide pool 11043:Food webs 10917:Predation 10902:Omnivores 10829:Consumers 10784:Mycotroph 10741:Producers 10686:Ecosystem 10651:Behaviour 10560:Symbiosis 10545:Carnivore 10539:Predation 10482:Mutualism 10349:Scavenger 10221:Predation 10190:Xenophagy 10170:Geophagia 10155:Fungivore 10103:Xylophagy 10093:Mellivory 10073:Frugivore 10068:Florivore 9965:Vermivore 9955:Piscivore 9940:Mucophagy 9930:Man-eater 9845:Predation 9833:Predation 9749:974070031 9713:Caro, Tim 9615:5 October 9536:5 October 9500:Routledge 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