209:) possess a large, robust plate at the back of the skull known as a postparietal shield. This plate consists mostly of the large postparietals along its midline, with smaller tabular bones and one or more supratemporal bones along its edge. The postparietal shield often articulates with the rest of the skull through a mobile joint. As sarcopterygians acquire more derived features and eventually evolve into tetrapods, the postparietals gradually shrink, losing their status as the largest midline elements of the skull and allowing the more anteriorly-situated parietal bones (and the newly acquired frontal bones) to acquire that status. The postparietals also becomes more solidly attached to the parietals. Most
248:
20:
118:
283:
fusion between paired postparietals and/or the adjacent tabulars is common among synapsids, meaning that many different lineages have one, three, or four bones in the region which makes up the mammalian interparietal. In rare cases there are two interparietal bones, formed when left and right postparietals each fuse to their corresponding tabular, but not each other.
391:
embryos, although they are incorporated into the supraoccipital by the time of hatching. One proposal used developmental data to argue that the "parietal" of birds was actually derived from postparietals. However, subsequent review provided evidence against that hypothesis by demonstrating that birds
277:
elements. The medial neural crest-derived pair are considered homologous to the postparietals of other vertebrates, while the lateral mesoderm bones are considered homologous to the tabular bones. In almost all mammals, all four bones are fused to each other by the time of birth, and in many cases
282:
in adulthood. Many non-mammalian synapsids have three bones in the interparietal region as adults: one midline bone and two lateral bones. In these situations, the midline bone (often also termed an interparietal) is a fused postparietal while the lateral bones are tabulars. Independently-derived
154:
ancestors. This latter interpretation has usurped the "orthodox" interpretation and is currently more widespread among paleontologists
Although the generally large size of fish postparietals are inconsistent with the smaller postparietals of tetrapods, there are many factors supporting the
392:
had inherited a consistent relationship between the skull roof and brain cavity; this relationship excluded the postparietals from the brain cavity (at least in reptiles) and supported the traditional interpretation that the parietal of birds was homologous to that of other reptiles.
711:
Fabbri, Matteo; Mongiardino Koch, Nicolás; Pritchard, Adam C.; Hanson, Michael; Hoffman, Eva; Bever, Gabriel S.; Balanoff, Amy M.; Morris, Zachary S.; Field, Daniel J.; Camacho, Jasmin; Rowe, Timothy B. (11 September 2017).
193:, which in fish typically occurs on extrascapular elements (plates at the back of the skull formed from enlarged neck scales). Proponents of the "orthodox" interpretation used this to argue that the unpaired postparietal of
197:
is a modified extrascapular element not homologous to what they identify as the "parietals" of fish. However, this is more easily explained by a simple shift in the position of the lateral line, as the postparietals of
234:
has a high degree of interspecific variation in regards to postparietal fusion; they may either fuse with each other, not at all, or with the adjacent tabulars but not with each other. Closer to the base of
141:
Watson & Day (1916)'s "orthodox" interpretation of fish skulls argued that fish lacked independent postparietals, with the elongated paired midline bones at the back of the skull being interpreted as
64:
bones. In fish, the postparietals are elongated, typically the largest components of the skull roof. Tetrapods possessed shorter postparietals, which were reduced further and shifted towards the
167:(i.e. the parietal bones), and how transitional taxa show apparent homology with tetrapod postparietals and the large posterior midline elements of fish. Studies of
279:
146:. On the other hand, Westoll (1938) proposed an alternative interpretation which identified the bones as postparietals based on comparisons between early
1665:
1675:
1640:
1276:
1113:
1328:
1204:
202:
are otherwise identical in proportion and position (and therefore considered homologous) to the large paired posterior midline elements of fish.
1398:
1338:
1138:
1098:
1041:
333:) briefly reacquired postparietals in the form of a single fused bone. As in synapsids, this bone has sometimes been termed an interparietal.
1378:
1165:
1524:
1519:
1118:
961:
897:
1373:
464:"Paleontological and developmental evidence resolve the homology and dual embryonic origin of a mammalian skull bone, the interparietal"
1383:
1225:
239:, the postparietal shifts from the dorsal portion of the skull to the occipital (braincase) portion, sloping downwards in the process.
44:. Although initially a pair of bones, many lineages possess postparietals which were fused into a single bone. The postparietals were
1133:
295:, no longer forming any contribution to the ceiling of the brain cavity. Small paired or fused postparietals are common in Permian
651:"The phylogenetic relationships of basal archosauromorphs, with an emphasis on the systematics of proterosuchian archosauriforms"
155:
identification of the large posterior midline elements as postparietals, rather than parietals. These include their contact with
185:
in particular have demonstrated this concept. One objection to this interpretation is that the single midline postparietal of
612:"Some cases of fused and concrescentexocranial bones in the Lower Permian seymouriamorph Tetrapod Discosauriscus Kuhn; 1933"
1177:
769:"Postparietal and prehatching ontogeny of the supraoccipital in Alligator mississippiensis (Archosauria, Crocodylia)"
890:
265:
inherited postparietals (sometimes paired) from their non-amniote ancestors. Embryological data indicates that the
381:. The only true archosaur generally considered to possess an interparietal as an adult is a single specimen of
824:"Homology of the cranial vault in birds: new insights based on embryonic fate-mapping and character analysis"
2096:
1259:
883:
573:"A re-examination of sarcopterygian interrelationships, with special reference to the Porolepiformes"
412:
Panchen, A. L.; Smithson, T. R. (1987). "Character
Diagnosis, Fossils and the Origin of Tetrapods".
714:"The skull roof tracks the brain during the evolution and development of reptiles including birds"
533:
1928:
1538:
130:
835:
478:
463:
269:
of mammals forms from the fusion of four bones during early development: a pair of medial
8:
839:
482:
1458:
1051:
968:
856:
823:
804:
749:
685:
650:
588:
549:
509:
437:
425:
266:
160:
81:
61:
627:
1958:
1935:
1851:
861:
796:
788:
741:
733:
713:
690:
672:
631:
592:
553:
514:
496:
429:
352:
808:
441:
1921:
1704:
1473:
1463:
1171:
1004:
851:
843:
822:
Maddin, Hillary C.; Piekarski, Nadine; Sefton, Elizabeth M.; Hanken, James (2016).
780:
753:
725:
680:
662:
623:
584:
545:
504:
486:
421:
324:
2048:
1623:
1547:
1019:
875:
338:
334:
309:
226:
1711:
1448:
1431:
1281:
1231:
1143:
1123:
978:
329:
230:
222:
134:
729:
2090:
1842:
1797:
1774:
1608:
1575:
1496:
1453:
1286:
1236:
1219:
1183:
1093:
1072:
1029:
999:
984:
792:
737:
676:
635:
596:
557:
500:
462:
Koyabu, Daisuke; Maier, Wolfgang; Sánchez-Villagra, Marcelo R. (2012-08-28).
433:
383:
351:
are all known to have possessed interparietals, while the bone was absent in
342:
247:
151:
143:
49:
30:
491:
323:, the expansive diapsid subgroup containing all living species of reptiles.
2074:
Parentheses denote bones that receive a different name in particular clades
1792:
1787:
1632:
1514:
1312:
1308:
1270:
1209:
1128:
1056:
1035:
955:
865:
800:
745:
694:
518:
369:
296:
291:
The postparietals continue to shrink and move further back in the skull in
270:
210:
190:
175:
169:
164:
156:
97:
65:
57:
25:
19:
1974:
1871:
1669:
1660:
1213:
1108:
1009:
257:(an early synapsid with a single midline postparietal) in occipital view.
76:
evolution, the postparietals fused to each other and the tabulars during
45:
847:
163:, the fact that they are positioned behind the bones which surround the
2053:
1992:
1962:
1746:
1654:
1393:
1388:
1355:
1344:
1024:
994:
947:
667:
363:
300:
253:
206:
77:
53:
784:
2043:
2037:
1997:
1968:
1880:
1751:
1565:
1487:
1440:
1318:
1159:
1046:
710:
378:
374:
357:
347:
89:
1876:
1807:
1718:
1680:
1644:
1595:
1570:
1555:
1350:
1300:
913:
910:
768:
611:
315:
274:
262:
147:
73:
41:
33:
amphibian. Postparietals are in deep pink, at the back of the skull
572:
2077:
Italics denote neomorphic bones present only in particular clades
2031:
1866:
1831:
1782:
1686:
1603:
1585:
1580:
1559:
1333:
1322:
1103:
989:
938:
304:
292:
236:
93:
69:
213:
lack postparietals, with the exception of a few anurans such as
2002:
1825:
1756:
1725:
1650:
1480:
1468:
1263:
320:
122:
101:
85:
56:, and the lateral edge of each postparietal often contacts the
1820:
1815:
1365:
1246:
1240:
974:
926:
618:. Premiers Vertandébrandés et Vertandébrandés Infandérieurs.
181:
1613:
1506:
906:
821:
461:
117:
137:. Skull bones are labelled based on tetrapod homologies.
319:. Postparietals were subsequently lost at the base of
534:"The identification of the dermal bones of the head"
48:
situated along the midline of the skull, behind the
905:
387:. Paired postparietals have also been observed in
104:) lack postparietal bones, with a few exceptions.
2088:
96:. However, most living amphibians (of the group
471:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
411:
1152:
1065:
1696:
891:
225:, the postparietals fuse to each other. The
278:they additionally fuse to the parietal and
205:Many sarcopterygian fish (including living
52:. They formed part of the rear edge of the
40:are cranial bones present in fish and many
1162:(Supraoccipital+Exoccipital+Basioccipital)
898:
884:
531:
855:
684:
666:
577:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
538:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
508:
490:
1420:
766:
609:
246:
116:
18:
648:
570:
2089:
112:
88:. Postparietals are common in extinct
80:development. This fusion produces the
1850:
1631:
1419:
924:
879:
1965:) (Tibiale+Intermedium+Centrale 3+4)
1622:
706:
704:
457:
455:
453:
451:
407:
405:
100:) and living reptiles (of the group
13:
1841:
589:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1991.tb00905.x
550:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1967.tb01406.x
426:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1987.tb01635.x
14:
2108:
1186:(Squamosal+Petrosal+Ectotympanic)
701:
649:Ezcurra, MartĂn D. (2016-04-28).
448:
402:
571:Ahlberg, Per Erik (1991-11-01).
532:Parrington, F. R. (1967-10-01).
815:
760:
718:Nature Ecology & Evolution
642:
610:Klembara, Jozef (1995-01-01).
603:
564:
525:
1:
628:10.1016/S0016-6995(95)80124-3
395:
189:has a transverse bend of the
242:
107:
7:
1174:(Parasphenoid+Basisphenoid)
286:
10:
2113:
828:Royal Society Open Science
389:Alligator mississippiensis
273:elements edged by lateral
2070:
2023:
1988:
1951:
1913:
1890:
1859:
1806:
1773:
1742:
1594:
1546:
1537:
1505:
1439:
1430:
1426:
1415:
1364:
1299:
1255:
1197:
1086:
946:
937:
933:
925:
920:
730:10.1038/s41559-017-0288-2
221:(fire-bellied toads). In
1168:(Exoccipital+Opisthotic)
767:Klembara, Jozef (2001).
327:(and their sister taxon
84:, which is inherited by
492:10.1073/pnas.1208693109
72:. At several points in
1929:Intermediate cuneiform
1075:(Postparietal+Tabular)
258:
217:(spadefoot toads) and
138:
34:
773:Journal of Morphology
250:
120:
22:
1421:Postcranial skeleton
1180:(Prootic+Opisthotic)
1977:(Distal tarsal 4+5)
848:10.1098/rsos.160356
840:2016RSOS....360356M
483:2012PNAS..10914075K
477:(35): 14075–14080.
129:), one of the most
113:Fish and amphibians
2097:Vertebrate anatomy
1459:Cervical vertebrae
668:10.7717/peerj.1778
414:Biological Reviews
303:, including early
267:interparietal bone
259:
139:
82:interparietal bone
35:
2084:
2083:
2066:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2019:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2010:
1984:
1983:
1952:Composite tarsals
1936:Lateral cuneiform
1934:Distal tarsal 3 (
1927:Distal tarsal 2 (
1920:Distal tarsal 1 (
1769:
1768:
1765:
1764:
1738:
1737:
1724:Distal carpal 4 (
1717:Distal carpal 3 (
1710:Distal carpal 2 (
1703:Distal carpal 1 (
1533:
1532:
1411:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1295:
1294:
1193:
1192:
1082:
1081:
785:10.1002/jmor.1046
724:(10): 1543–1550.
135:actinopterygiians
2104:
1922:Medial cuneiform
1860:Proximal tarsals
1857:
1856:
1848:
1847:
1839:
1838:
1694:
1693:
1666:Lateral centrale
1629:
1628:
1620:
1619:
1544:
1543:
1474:Caudal vertebrae
1464:Dorsal vertebrae
1437:
1436:
1428:
1427:
1417:
1416:
1172:Parabasisphenoid
1150:
1149:
1063:
1062:
944:
943:
935:
934:
922:
921:
900:
893:
886:
877:
876:
870:
869:
859:
819:
813:
812:
764:
758:
757:
708:
699:
698:
688:
670:
646:
640:
639:
607:
601:
600:
568:
562:
561:
544:(311): 231–239.
529:
523:
522:
512:
494:
468:
459:
446:
445:
409:
353:proterochampsids
165:parietal foramen
16:Fish skull bones
2112:
2111:
2107:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2080:
2058:
2049:Ossified tendon
2007:
1980:
1947:
1944:Distal tarsal 5
1941:Distal tarsal 4
1909:
1886:
1837:
1802:
1761:
1734:
1731:Distal carpal 5
1692:
1676:Medial centrale
1618:
1590:
1548:Pectoral girdle
1529:
1501:
1493:
1422:
1403:
1360:
1291:
1251:
1189:
1153:Composite bones
1148:
1078:
1066:Composite bones
1061:
929:
916:
904:
874:
873:
820:
816:
765:
761:
709:
702:
647:
643:
608:
604:
569:
565:
530:
526:
466:
460:
449:
410:
403:
398:
325:Archosauriforms
310:Petrolacosaurus
289:
245:
121:The skull of a
115:
110:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2110:
2100:
2099:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2078:
2075:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1972:
1971:(Centrale 1+2)
1966:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1932:
1925:
1917:
1915:
1914:Distal tarsals
1911:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1874:
1869:
1863:
1861:
1854:
1845:
1836:
1835:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1812:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1801:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1779:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1733:
1732:
1729:
1722:
1715:
1708:
1700:
1698:
1697:Distal carpals
1691:
1690:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1663:
1658:
1648:
1637:
1635:
1626:
1617:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1600:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1589:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1552:
1550:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1511:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1492:
1491:
1484:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1445:
1443:
1434:
1424:
1423:
1413:
1412:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1402:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1370:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1316:
1305:
1303:
1297:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1289:
1284:
1282:Sclerotic ring
1279:
1277:Extracolumella
1274:
1267:
1256:
1253:
1252:
1250:
1249:
1244:
1234:
1229:
1222:
1217:
1207:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1188:
1187:
1181:
1175:
1169:
1163:
1156:
1154:
1147:
1146:
1144:Supraoccipital
1141:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1124:Orbitosphenoid
1121:
1116:
1114:Laterosphenoid
1111:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1077:
1076:
1069:
1067:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
997:
992:
987:
982:
972:
965:
958:
952:
950:
941:
931:
930:
918:
917:
903:
902:
895:
888:
880:
872:
871:
814:
779:(2): 147–153.
759:
700:
641:
602:
583:(3): 241–287.
563:
524:
447:
420:(4): 341–436.
400:
399:
397:
394:
373:, most or all
339:erythrosuchids
335:Proterosuchids
330:Tasmaniosaurus
288:
285:
280:supraoccipital
244:
241:
231:Discosauriscus
227:seymouriamorph
223:diadectomorphs
211:lissamphibians
161:supratemporals
152:sarcopterygian
114:
111:
109:
106:
50:parietal bones
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2109:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2092:
2076:
2073:
2072:
2069:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2033:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2024:Miscellaneous
2022:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1987:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1882:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1805:
1799:
1798:Epipubic bone
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1775:Pelvic girdle
1772:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1730:
1727:
1723:
1720:
1716:
1713:
1709:
1706:
1702:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1609:Radius (bone)
1607:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1576:Interclavicle
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1498:
1497:Haemal arches
1495:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1483:
1482:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1418:
1414:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1354:
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1349:
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1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1288:
1287:Wormian bones
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1248:
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1242:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1205:Ectopterygoid
1203:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1094:Basioccipital
1092:
1091:
1089:
1085:
1074:
1073:Interparietal
1071:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1052:Supratemporal
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1037:
1033:
1031:
1030:Quadratojugal
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1001:
998:
996:
993:
991:
988:
986:
983:
980:
976:
973:
971:
970:
969:Intertemporal
966:
964:
963:
959:
957:
954:
953:
951:
949:
945:
942:
940:
936:
932:
928:
923:
919:
915:
912:
908:
901:
896:
894:
889:
887:
882:
881:
878:
867:
863:
858:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
834:(8): 160356.
833:
829:
825:
818:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
763:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
707:
705:
696:
692:
687:
682:
678:
674:
669:
664:
660:
656:
652:
645:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
606:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
567:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
528:
520:
516:
511:
506:
502:
498:
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488:
484:
480:
476:
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465:
458:
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443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
408:
406:
401:
393:
390:
386:
385:
384:Gracilisuchus
380:
376:
372:
371:
366:
365:
360:
359:
354:
350:
349:
344:
340:
336:
332:
331:
326:
322:
318:
317:
312:
311:
306:
302:
298:
294:
284:
281:
276:
272:
268:
264:
256:
255:
251:The skull of
249:
240:
238:
233:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
203:
201:
196:
192:
188:
184:
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178:
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172:
171:
166:
162:
158:
153:
149:
145:
136:
132:
128:
124:
119:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
78:embryological
75:
71:
67:
63:
62:supratemporal
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
38:Postparietals
32:
28:
27:
23:The skull of
21:
2036:
2030:
1830:
1685:
1539:Appendicular
1515:Cervical rib
1486:
1479:
1399:Tympanohyoid
1343:
1339:Prearticular
1313:Ectotympanic
1271:Entotympanic
1269:
1224:
1210:Epipterygoid
1139:Sphenethmoid
1129:Parasphenoid
1099:Basisphenoid
1042:Septomaxilla
1034:
1015:Postparietal
1014:
967:
960:
831:
827:
817:
776:
772:
762:
721:
717:
658:
654:
644:
619:
615:
605:
580:
576:
566:
541:
537:
527:
474:
470:
417:
413:
388:
382:
370:Litorosuchus
368:
362:
356:
346:
343:euparkeriids
328:
314:
308:
297:parareptiles
290:
271:neural crest
260:
252:
229:
218:
214:
204:
199:
194:
191:lateral line
187:Ichthyostega
186:
180:
176:Elpistostege
174:
170:Ichthyostega
168:
140:
126:
98:Lissamphibia
46:dermal bones
37:
36:
31:temnospondyl
26:Xenotosuchus
24:
1872:Intermedium
1661:Intermedium
1379:Ceratohyoid
1214:Alisphenoid
1166:Otoccipital
1109:Exoccipital
1010:Postorbital
1005:Postfrontal
622:: 263–267.
207:coelocanths
200:Icthyostega
195:Icthyostega
2054:Osteoderms
1993:Metatarsal
1959:Astragalus
1906:Centrale 4
1903:Centrale 3
1900:Centrale 2
1897:Centrale 1
1747:Metacarpal
1655:Triquetral
1525:Caudal rib
1520:Dorsal rib
1394:Thyrohyoid
1389:Stylohyoid
1356:Surangular
1345:Predentary
1119:Opisthotic
1025:Premaxilla
1020:Prefrontal
962:Internasal
948:Skull roof
396:References
379:archosaurs
375:phytosaurs
364:Vancleavea
301:eureptiles
254:Dimetrodon
150:and their
127:Amia calva
92:and early
90:amphibians
54:skull roof
2044:Gastralia
2038:Baubellum
1998:Phalanges
1969:Navicular
1891:Centralia
1881:Calcaneum
1752:Phalanges
1712:Trapezoid
1705:Trapezium
1566:Cleithrum
1488:Pygostyle
1441:Vertebrae
1374:Basihyoid
1319:Articular
1260:Columella
1232:Pterygoid
1160:Occipital
1087:Braincase
1047:Squamosal
979:Zygomatic
793:1097-4687
738:2397-334X
677:2167-8359
661:: e1778.
636:0016-6995
597:0024-4082
558:0024-4082
501:0027-8424
434:1469-185X
358:Doswellia
348:Asperoris
263:synapsids
243:Synapsids
148:tetrapods
144:parietals
108:Evolution
66:braincase
42:tetrapods
2091:Category
1877:Fibulare
1808:Hindlimb
1719:Capitate
1681:Pisiform
1645:Scaphoid
1596:Forelimb
1571:Coracoid
1556:Clavicle
1384:Epihyoid
1351:Splenial
1329:Coronoid
1301:Mandible
1237:Quadrate
1226:Prevomer
1220:Palatine
1184:Temporal
1178:Petrosal
1000:Parietal
985:Lacrimal
914:skeleton
911:tetrapod
866:27853617
809:22370661
801:11466742
746:29185519
695:27162705
519:22891324
442:83672017
316:Youngina
307:such as
305:diapsids
293:reptiles
287:Reptiles
275:mesoderm
237:amniotes
157:tabulars
94:reptiles
74:synapsid
70:amniotes
2032:Baculum
1867:Tibiale
1832:Patella
1783:Ischium
1687:Pteroid
1641:Radiale
1604:Humerus
1586:Sternum
1581:Scapula
1560:Furcula
1334:Dentary
1323:Malleus
1309:Angular
1134:Prootic
1104:Ethmoid
1057:Tabular
1036:Rostral
990:Maxilla
956:Frontal
939:Cranium
909:in the
857:5108967
836:Bibcode
754:3326766
686:4860341
616:Geobios
510:3435230
479:Bibcode
219:Bombina
215:Pelates
133:living
86:mammals
58:tabular
2003:Ungual
1975:Cuboid
1852:Tarsus
1826:Fibula
1757:Ungual
1726:Hamate
1670:Lunate
1651:Ulnare
1633:Carpus
1481:Coccyx
1469:Sacrum
1264:Stapes
1198:Palate
864:
854:
807:
799:
791:
752:
744:
736:
693:
683:
675:
634:
595:
556:
517:
507:
499:
440:
432:
377:, and
345:, and
321:Sauria
261:Early
179:, and
123:bowfin
102:Sauria
1963:Talus
1821:Tibia
1816:Femur
1793:Pubis
1788:Ilium
1624:Manus
1449:Atlas
1432:Axial
1366:Hyoid
1247:Vomer
1241:Incus
995:Nasal
975:Jugal
927:Skull
907:Bones
805:S2CID
750:S2CID
655:PeerJ
467:(PDF)
438:S2CID
182:Edops
131:basal
1614:Ulna
1507:Ribs
1454:Axis
862:PMID
797:PMID
789:ISSN
742:PMID
734:ISSN
691:PMID
673:ISSN
632:ISSN
593:ISSN
554:ISSN
515:PMID
497:ISSN
430:ISSN
313:and
299:and
159:and
60:and
29:, a
1843:Pes
852:PMC
844:doi
781:doi
777:249
726:doi
681:PMC
663:doi
624:doi
585:doi
581:103
546:doi
505:PMC
487:doi
475:109
422:doi
68:in
2093::
860:.
850:.
842:.
830:.
826:.
803:.
795:.
787:.
775:.
771:.
748:.
740:.
732:.
720:.
716:.
703:^
689:.
679:.
671:.
657:.
653:.
630:.
620:28
614:.
591:.
579:.
575:.
552:.
542:47
540:.
536:.
513:.
503:.
495:.
485:.
473:.
469:.
450:^
436:.
428:.
418:62
416:.
404:^
367:,
361:,
355:,
341:,
337:,
173:,
2035:/
1961:(
1938:)
1931:)
1924:)
1883:)
1879:(
1728:)
1721:)
1714:)
1707:)
1672:)
1668:(
1657:)
1653:(
1647:)
1643:(
1562:)
1558:(
1325:)
1321:(
1315:)
1311:(
1266:)
1262:(
1243:)
1239:(
1216:)
1212:(
981:)
977:(
899:e
892:t
885:v
868:.
846::
838::
832:3
811:.
783::
756:.
728::
722:1
697:.
665::
659:4
638:.
626::
599:.
587::
560:.
548::
521:.
489::
481::
444:.
424::
125:(
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