95:. The exposure of information to which only a few people are privileged may directly implicate some of the people in the disclosure. An example is if an official is traveling secretly, and only one aide knows the specific travel plans. If that official is assassinated during his travels, and the circumstances of the assassination strongly suggest that the assassin had foreknowledge of the official's travel plans, the probable conclusion is that his aide has betrayed the official. There may be no direct evidence linking the aide to the assassin, but collaboration can be inferred from the facts alone, thus making the aide's denial implausible.
320:
record the committee found was shot through with references to "removal," "the magic button" and "the resort beyond the last resort." Thus the agency might at times have misread instructions from on high, but it seemed more often to be easing the burden of presidents who knew there were things they didn't want to know. As former CIA director
Richard Helms told the committee: "The difficulty with this kind of thing, as you gentlemen are all painfully aware, is that nobody wants to embarrass a President of the United States."
109:
303:) testified that he did not want to "embarrass a President" or sit around an official table talking about "killing or murdering." The report found this "circumlocution" reprehensible, saying: "Failing to call dirty business by its rightful name may have increased the risk of dirty business being done." The committee also suggested that the system of command and control may have been deliberately ambiguous, to give Presidents a chance for "plausible denial."
383:: "Among the documents found in the training files of Operation PBSuccess and declassified by the Agency is a CIA document titled 'A Study of Assassination.' A how-to guide book in the art of political killing, the 19-page manual offers detailed descriptions of the procedures, instruments, and implementation of assassination." The manual states that to provide plausible denial, "no assassination instructions should ever be written or recorded."
524:, every user on the network keeps a copy of every message, but is only able to decrypt their own and that can only be done by trying to decrypt every single message. Using this approach it is impossible to determine who sent a message to whom without being able to decrypt it. As everyone receives everything and the outcome of the decryption process is kept private.
1312:
difficult to be certain at what level assassination activity was known and authorized. This creates the disturbing prospect that assassination activity might have been undertaken by officials of the United States
Government without its having been incontrovertibly clear that there was explicit authorization from the President of the United States.
593:, which nest encrypted data. The owner of the encrypted data may reveal one or more keys to decrypt certain information from it, and then deny that more keys exist, a statement which cannot be disproven without knowledge of all encryption keys involved. The existence of "hidden" data within the overtly encrypted data is then
319:
What made the responsibility difficult to pin down in retrospect was a sophisticated system of institutionalized vagueness and circumlocution whereby no official - and particularly a
President - had to officially endorse questionable activities. Unsavory orders were rarely committed to paper and what
981:
I recall during my days as a Senate investigator finding a piece of yellow note pad with jottings from a meeting with White House officials during the
Kennedy Administration that discussed an "Executive Action" or, in plain English, an assassination capability. The notes referred to it as the "magic
174:
Paper 10/2 of June 18, 1948, which defined "covert operations" as "all activities (except as noted herein) which are conducted or sponsored by this
Government against hostile foreign states or groups or in support of friendly foreign states or groups but which are so planned and executed that any US
1335:
It was naive for policymakers to assume that sponsorship of actions as big as the invasion could be concealed. The
Committee's investigation of assassination and the public disclosures which preceded the inquiry demonstrate that when the United States resorted to cloak-and-dagger tactics, its hand
228:
Non-attribution to the United States for covert operations was the original and principal purpose of the so-called doctrine of "plausible denial." Evidence before the
Committee clearly demonstrates that this concept, designed to protect the United States and its operatives from the consequences of
1311:
An additional possibility is that the
President may, in fact, not be fully and accurately informed about a sensitive operation because he failed to receive the "circumlocutious" message.... The Committee finds that the system of Executive command and control was so inherently ambiguous that it is
71:
by secretly arranging for an action to be taken on its behalf by a third party that is ostensibly unconnected with the major player. In political campaigns, plausible deniability enables candidates to stay clean and denounce third-party advertisements that use unethical approaches or potentially
509:
That is sometimes done by setting the computer to relay certain types of broadcasts automatically in such a way that the original transmitter of a file is indistinguishable from those who are merely relaying it. In that way, those who first transmitted the file can claim that their computer had
278:
The (Church
Committee) conceded that to provide the United States with "plausible denial" in the event that the anti-Castro plots were discovered, Presidential authorization might have been subsequently "obscured". (The Church Committee) also declared that, whatever the extent of the knowledge,
87:
Arguably, the key concept of plausible deniability is plausibility. It is relatively easy for a government official to issue a blanket denial of an action, and it is possible to destroy or cover up evidence after the fact, that might be sufficient to avoid a criminal prosecution, for instance.
191:
described the importance of having "a few simply honest men" on a committee who could be temporarily removed from the deliberations when "a peculiarly delicate question arises" so that one of them could "declare truly, if necessary, that he never was present at any meeting at which even a
239:
Plausible denial involves the creation of power structures and chains of command loose and informal enough to be denied if necessary. The idea was that the CIA and later other bodies could be given controversial instructions by powerful figures, including the
367:
CIA and White House documents on covert political intervention in the 1964 Chilean election have been declassified. The CIA's Chief of
Western Hemisphere Division, J.C. King, recommended for funds for the campaign to "be provided in a fashion causing
39:
onto the agents who carried out the acts, as they are confident that their doubters will be unable to prove otherwise. The lack of evidence to the contrary ostensibly makes the denial plausible (credible), but sometimes, it makes any accusations only
30:
knowledge of or responsibility for actions committed by or on behalf of members of their organizational hierarchy. They may do so because of a lack of evidence that can confirm their participation, even if they were personally involved in or at least
244:
himself, but that the existence and true source of those instructions could be denied if necessary if, for example, an operation went disastrously wrong and it was necessary for the administration to disclaim responsibility.
852:
Reports United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Senate, Nov. 20, 1975, II. Section B Covert Action as a Vehicle for Foreign Policy Implementation. p.
179:, NSC 10/2 was incorporated into the more-specific NSC 5412/2 "Covert Operations." NSC 5412 was declassified in 1977 and is located at the National Archives. The expression "plausibly deniable" was first used publicly by
88:
However, the public might well disbelieve the denial, particularly if there is strong circumstantial evidence or if the action is believed to be so unlikely that the only logical explanation is that the denial is false.
47:
The term typically implies forethought, such as intentionally setting up the conditions for the plausible avoidance of responsibility for one's future actions or knowledge. In some organizations, legal doctrines such as
456:
It is an open door to the abuse of authority by requiring that the parties in question to be said to be able to have acted independently, which, in the end, is tantamount to giving them license to act independently.
414:. Publications in third-party countries were then cited as the originators of the claims. Meanwhile, Soviet intelligence obtained plausible deniability by utilising the German Stasi in the disinformation operation.
1359:"Plausible denial" increases the risk of misunderstanding. Subordinate officials should describe their proposals in clear, precise, and brutally frank language; superiors are entitled to, and should demand, no less
573:
in which the very existence of an encrypted file or message is deniable in the sense that an adversary cannot prove that an encrypted message exists. In that case, the system is said to be "fully undetectable".
478:
may suspect that facts exist that would hurt his case but decide not to investigate the issue because if he has actual knowledge, the rules of ethics might require him to reveal the facts to the opposing side.
912:
Definition: Using or having ambiguous or allegorical meanings, especially to elude political censorship: "They could express their views only in a diluted form, resorting to Aesopian hints and allusions"
269:. Indeed, the members of Congress are in a dilemma since when they are informed, they are in no position to stop the action, unless they leak its existence and thereby foreclose the option of covertness.
1514:
Vukušić, Iva (2019). "Plausible Deniability: The Challenges in Prosecuting Paramilitary Violence in the Former Yugoslavia". In Smeulers, Alette; Weerdesteijn, Maartje; Hola, Barbora (eds.).
347:
stated: "I made a deliberate decision not to ask the President, so that I could insulate him from the decision and provide some future deniability for the President if it ever leaked out."
549:
network is another application of the idea by obfuscating data sources and flows to protect operators and users of the network by preventing them and, by extension, observers such as
404:
and Soviet-affiliated press to spread the idea that HIV/AIDS was an engineered bioweapon. The Stasi acquired plausible deniability on the operation by covertly supporting biologist
224:, but the president himself, who clearly supported such actions, was not to be directly involved so that he could deny knowledge of it. That was given the term "plausible denial."
79:
in the early 1960s to describe the withholding of information from senior officials to protect them from repercussions if illegal or unpopular activities became public knowledge.
52:
exist to hold major parties responsible for the actions of subordinates who are involved in actions and nullify any legal protection that their denial of involvement would carry.
35:
of the actions. If illegal or otherwise disreputable and unpopular activities become public, high-ranking officials may deny any awareness of such acts to insulate themselves and
175:
Government responsibility for them is not evident to unauthorized persons and that if uncovered the US Government can plausibly disclaim any responsibility for them." During the
1373:
609:
is an annual programming contest involving the creation of carefully crafted defects, which have to be both very hard to find and plausibly deniable as mistakes once found.
506:
In computer networks, plausible deniability often refers to a situation in which people can deny transmitting a file, even when it is proven to come from their computer.
1376:
Finding America's voice: a strategy for reinvigorating U.S. public diplomacy: report of an independent task force sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations
265:. Both laws, however, are full of enough vague terms and escape hatches to allow the executive branch to thwart their authors' intentions, as was shown by the
471:
Another example of plausible deniability is someone who actively avoids gaining certain knowledge of facts because it benefits that person not to know.
447:, has been described as an attempt at plausible deniability for Kremlin-backed interventions in Ukraine, Syria, and in various interventions in Africa.
1374:
Peterson, Peter G.; Bloomgarden, Kathy F. (Kathy Finn); Grunwald, Henry A. (Henry Anatole); Morey, David E.; Telhami, Shibley; Sieg, Jennifer (2003).
937:
257:
of 1974 sought to put an end to plausible denial by requiring a presidential finding for each operation to be important to national security, and the
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1569:
119:
92:
1034:
926:
Definition: The use of unnecessarily wordy and indirect language, Evasion in speech or writing, An indirect way of expressing something
208:, in 1974–1975 conducted an investigation of the intelligence agencies. In the course of the investigation, it was revealed that the
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1260:
879:
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171:
1144:"Operation "Denver": The East German Ministry for State Security and the KGB's AIDS Disinformation Campaign, 1986–1989 (Part 2)"
423:
1523:
1549:
1539:
279:
Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy and Johnson should bear the "ultimate responsibility" for the actions of their subordinates.
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689:
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1471:
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1383:
1018:
834:
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153:
488:...the U.S. government may at times require a certain deniability. Private activities can provide that deniability.
1090:"Chile 1964: CIA covert support in Frei election detailed; operational and policy records released for first time"
1211:
1574:
241:
1035:"Cable from Ambassador Lodge to McGeorge Bundy on US Options With Respect to a Possible Coup, 25 October 1963"
1579:
408:, whose stories were picked up by international press, including "numerous bourgeois newspapers" such as the
1285:
462:
Plausible deniability increases the risk of misunderstanding between senior officials and their employees.
459:
The denials are sometimes seen as plausible but sometimes seen through by both the media and the populace.
534:
In any case, that claim cannot be disproven without a complete decrypted log of all network connections.
180:
258:
131:
770:
755:
739:
1482:
380:
176:
91:
The concept is even more important in espionage. Intelligence may come from many sources, including
694:
444:
135:
1064:
1589:
426:"—troops without insignia carrying modern Russian military equipment—emerged at the start of the
68:
1544:
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president of Chile) to infer United States origin of funds and yet permitting plausible denial."
340:
266:
229:
disclosures, has been expanded to mask decisions of the president and his senior staff members.
213:
127:
49:
714:
1042:
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75:
Although plausible deniability has existed throughout history, the term was coined by the
8:
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427:
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187:. The idea, on the other hand, is considerably older. For example, in the 19th century,
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1401:
976:
Article: The Search for a 'Magic Button' In American Foreign Policy; October 18, 1987;
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884:
310:
286:
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1389:
1379:
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II. Section B Page 11; IV. Findings and Conclusions Section C Subsection 1 Page 261:
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1007:
972:
947:
889:
830:
788:
679:
674:
296:
262:
32:
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Covert Action: The CIA and the Limits of American Intervention in the Postwar World
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849:
634:
432:
410:
205:
63:, deniability refers to the ability of a powerful player or intelligence agency to
23:
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809:
379:" for the 1954 coup in Guatemala describe plausible deniability. According to the
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Department Of State: Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs.
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344:
188:
41:
862:
669:
361:
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Original 255 pages of Church Committee "Findings and Conclusions" in pdf file
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951:
893:
865:
Under Cover, or Out of Control? November 29, 1987 Section 7; p. 3, Column 1
570:
300:
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is the ability of people, typically senior officials in a formal or informal
1393:
740:
National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects (NSC 10/2)
495:
Finding America's Voice: A Strategy for Reinvigorating U.S. Public Diplomacy
36:
649:
629:
562:
546:
440:
221:
184:
167:
64:
216:, had plotted the assassination of a number of foreign leaders, including
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Sections of the Church Committee about plausible denial on wikisource.org
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511:
405:
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on US options with respect to a possible coup, mentions plausible denial.
201:
550:
521:
514:
1261:"The Wagner Group: Untangling the Purpose behind a Russian Power Tool"
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Church Report: Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973 (U.S. Dept. of State)
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Church Committee reports (Assassination Archives and Research Center)
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Perpetrators of International Crimes: Theories, Methods, and Evidence
590:
586:
578:
60:
992:
619:
582:
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56:
814:. Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green. pp. 261–262.
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Death Squads in Global Perspective : Murder With Deniability
771:
Records of the National Security Council (NSC), Record Group 273.
543:
400:(also called "OPERATION DENVER"), which utilised the East German
510:
merely relayed it from elsewhere. This principle is used in the
1329:
IV. Findings and Conclusions Section C Subsection 5 Page 277:
867:(Book Review of 2 books: The Perfect Failure and Covert Action)
827:
Declarations of Independence: Cross Examining American Ideology
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implementation by including random IP addresses in peer lists.
475:
27:
401:
339:
In his testimony to the congressional committee studying the
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deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
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in talking to the President and others outside the agency. (
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from knowing where data comes from and where it is stored.
217:
1442:
528:
393:
209:
76:
1212:"Russian Private Military Companies in Syria and Beyond"
715:"Plausible Deniability Definition, Examples, & Laws"
1445:
Silent Warfare: Understanding the World of Intelligence
1119:"CIA and Assassinations: The Guatemala 1954 Documents"
1009:
Dirty Politics: Deception, Distraction, and Democracy
360:, to Special Assistant for National Security Affairs
1286:"The Grisly Cult of the Wagner Group's Sledgehammer"
417:
350:
261:
of 1980 required for Congress to be notified of all
1006:
978:(Review by David Aaron of the book Covert Action)
785:The Complete Idiot's Guide to Spies and Espionage
1561:
1378:. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press.
1185:"Baltic Russians Aren't Pawns in Strategic Game"
880:"Castro Plot Study Finds No Role by White House"
597:in the sense that it cannot be proven to exist.
436:described as a tactic of plausible deniability.
482:
1237:"Russia's Wagner Group Doesn't Actually Exist"
753:Office of the Historian, Department of State.
737:Office of the Historian, Department of State.
1443:Shulsky, Abram N; Gary James Schmitt (2002).
938:"How Fantasies Became Policy, Out of Control"
248:
116:The examples and perspective in this article
1406:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
824:
995:The CIA'S Hit List, December 1, 1975, p. 28
501:
1447:. Potomac Books. pp. 93–94, 130–132.
1013:. Oxford University Press US. p. 86.
970:Definition of the "Magic Button" from the
520:In encrypted messaging protocols, such as
356:A telegram from the Ambassador in Vietnam
1480:
1461:
1159:
1082:
166:The term's roots go back to US President
154:Learn how and when to remove this message
1423:
1111:
1004:
877:
782:
577:Some systems take this further, such as
192:questionable course had been proposed."
1513:
1283:
1141:
811:Passages from the Life of a Philosopher
807:
537:
1570:Central Intelligence Agency operations
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1353:IV. Section C Subsection 5 Page 277:
1182:
556:
1284:Hussain, Murtaza (February 2, 2023).
1234:
1206:
1204:
935:
334:
387:
375:Training files of the CIA's covert "
102:
1481:Poznansky, Michael (2 March 2020).
195:
13:
1483:"Revisiting plausible deniability"
1417:
1201:
856:
690:List of established military terms
685:Glossary of military abbreviations
14:
1601:
1533:
466:
418:Little green men and Wagner Group
351:Declassified government documents
1005:Jamieson, Kathleen Hall (1993).
878:Crewdson, John M. (1975-11-21).
295:CIA officials deliberately used
272:
107:
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1344:
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1176:
1142:Selvage, Douglas (2021-08-09).
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920:
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1462:Treverton, Gregory F. (1988).
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818:
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756:Covert Operations (NSC 5412/2)
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707:
600:
585:and (to a much lesser extent)
493:Council on Foreign Relations,
16:Ability to deny responsibility
1:
1499:10.1080/01402390.2020.1734570
1183:Person, Robert (2015-10-26).
936:Lewis, Anthony (1975-11-23).
701:
1487:Journal of Strategic Studies
787:. Alpha Books. p. 213.
483:Council on Foreign Relations
7:
1518:. Oxford University Press.
1424:Campbell, Bruce B. (2000).
1148:Journal of Cold War Studies
783:Carlisle, Rodney P (2003).
612:
181:Central Intelligence Agency
130:, discuss the issue on the
82:
10:
1606:
744:Washington, June 18, 1948.
531:if the host is not known.
259:Intelligence Oversight Act
249:Later legislative barriers
98:
1123:National Security Archive
1094:National Security Archive
829:. Perennial. p. 16.
808:Babbage, Charles (1864).
571:steganographic techniques
527:It can also be done by a
392:In the 1980s, the Soviet
381:National Security Archive
177:Eisenhower administration
172:National Security Council
695:List of military tactics
569:may be used to describe
502:Use in computer networks
450:
445:private military company
1336:was ultimately exposed.
1466:. Palgrave Macmillan.
1428:. Palgrave Macmillan.
1265:cisac.fsi.stanford.edu
1071:. p. Telegram 216
499:
332:
316:
292:
237:
214:Kennedy administration
50:command responsibility
1575:Political terminology
825:Zinn, Howard (1991).
665:Lone wolf (terrorism)
655:Leaderless resistance
640:Clandestine operation
607:Underhanded C Contest
486:
370:Eduardo Frei Montalva
358:Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.
317:
293:
276:
226:
20:Plausible deniability
1580:Military terminology
1161:10.1162/jcws_a_01024
760:Washington, undated.
660:Malicious compliance
625:Blue wall of silence
538:Freenet file sharing
212:, going back to the
136:create a new article
128:improve this article
1069:2001-2009.state.gov
1065:"Documents 209-244"
645:Deniable encryption
567:deniable encryption
557:Use in cryptography
428:Russo-Ukrainian War
398:OPERATION INFEKTION
377:Operation PBSuccess
72:libelous innuendo.
943:The New York Times
885:The New York Times
719:The Law Dictionary
341:Iran–Contra affair
335:Iran–Contra affair
311:The New York Times
287:The New York Times
284:John M. Crewdson,
267:Iran–Contra affair
33:willfully ignorant
1525:978-0-19-882999-7
1039:www.mtholyoke.edu
973:Los Angeles Times
915:(Isaac Deutscher)
680:Willful violation
675:Willful blindness
474:As an example, a
388:Soviet operations
297:Aesopian language
263:covert operations
164:
163:
156:
138:, as appropriate.
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1096:. Archived from
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1041:. Archived from
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433:The Moscow Times
424:Little green men
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234:Church Committee
206:Church Committee
196:Church Committee
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24:chain of command
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255:Hughes–Ryan Act
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204:committee, the
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189:Charles Babbage
183:(CIA) Director
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59:and especially
37:shift the blame
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1534:External links
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1493:(4): 511–533.
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601:Programming
512:opentracker
406:Jakob Segal
202:U.S. Senate
1585:Euphemisms
1564:Categories
1270:2021-09-18
1246:2021-09-18
1221:2021-09-28
1194:2021-09-28
1128:2006-07-08
1104:2006-07-08
1075:2020-06-07
1049:2020-06-07
957:2020-06-07
899:2020-06-07
724:2022-03-24
702:References
522:bitmessage
515:bittorrent
422:In 2014, "
1507:216460728
1402:cite book
1170:1520-3972
952:0362-4331
894:0362-4331
591:VeraCrypt
587:TrueCrypt
579:MaruTukku
242:president
132:talk page
61:espionage
1394:53166707
993:Newsweek
982:button."
620:Black op
613:See also
595:deniable
583:FreeOTFE
491:—
430:, which
327:Newsweek
323:—
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282:—
232:—
144:May 2015
126:You may
83:Overview
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551:censors
544:Freenet
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