67:
3407:
2693:
47:
2795:
2700:
3207:. Such systems lie in some sense on the boundary between ordered and disordered behaviour and cannot typically be described either by simple, smooth, mathematical functions, or by pure randomness. The spontaneous formation of interesting spatial features on a wide range of length scales is one manifestation of plasma complexity. The features are interesting, for example, because they are very sharp, spatially intermittent (the distance between features is much larger than the features themselves), or have a
3361:
87:
3373:
2803:
78:
6479:
3328:
3388:
2786:, where collisions between electrons and neutral gas atoms create more ions and electrons (as can be seen in the figure on the right). The first impact of an electron on an atom results in one ion and two electrons. Therefore, the number of charged particles increases rapidly (in the millions) only "after about 20 successive sets of collisions", mainly due to a small mean free path (average distance travelled between collisions).
1644:
2168:
58:
3342:
38:
1248:
3149:
2818:. With ample current density, the discharge forms a luminous arc, where the inter-electrode material (usually, a gas) undergoes various stages — saturation, breakdown, glow, transition, and thermal arc. The voltage rises to its maximum in the saturation stage, and thereafter it undergoes fluctuations of the various stages, while the current progressively increases throughout.
282:
1659:, electric potentials play an important role. The average potential in the space between charged particles, independent of how it can be measured, is called the "plasma potential", or the "space potential". If an electrode is inserted into a plasma, its potential will generally lie considerably below the plasma potential due to what is termed a
3347:
3346:
3343:
3348:
3002:
for vehicle drag reduction. It is also widely used in the web treatment of fabrics. The application of the discharge to synthetic fabrics and plastics functionalizes the surface and allows for paints, glues and similar materials to adhere. The dielectric barrier discharge was used in the mid-1990s to
1039:
Plasma is distinct from the other states of matter. In particular, describing a low-density plasma as merely an "ionized gas" is wrong and misleading, even though it is similar to the gas phase in that both assume no definite shape or volume. The following table summarizes some principal differences:
2185:
To completely describe the state of a plasma, all of the particle locations and velocities that describe the electromagnetic field in the plasma region would need to be written down. However, it is generally not practical or necessary to keep track of all the particles in a plasma. Therefore, plasma
1203:
The strength and range of the electric force and the good conductivity of plasmas usually ensure that the densities of positive and negative charges in any sizeable region are equal ("quasineutrality"). A plasma with a significant excess of charge density, or, in the extreme case, is composed of a
3258:
becomes important and causes a higher index of refraction in the center of the laser beam, where the laser is brighter than at the edges, causing a feedback that focuses the laser even more. The tighter focused laser has a higher peak brightness (irradiance) that forms a plasma. The plasma has an
2997:
this is a non-thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltages across small gaps wherein a non-conducting coating prevents the transition of the plasma discharge into an arc. It is often mislabeled "Corona" discharge in industry and has similar application to corona discharges. A
3345:
4092:
1663:. The good electrical conductivity of plasmas makes their electric fields very small. This results in the important concept of "quasineutrality", which says the density of negative charges is approximately equal to the density of positive charges over large volumes of the plasma (
2067:, meaning that their properties in the direction parallel to the magnetic field are different from those perpendicular to it. While electric fields in plasmas are usually small due to the plasma high conductivity, the electric field associated with a plasma moving with velocity
1923:. Plasma with a magnetic field strong enough to influence the motion of the charged particles is said to be magnetized. A common quantitative criterion is that a particle on average completes at least one gyration around the magnetic-field line before making a collision, i.e.,
245:, with the dynamics of individual particles and macroscopic plasma motion governed by collective electromagnetic fields and very sensitive to externally applied fields. The response of plasma to electromagnetic fields is used in many modern devices and technologies, such as
2230:. A kinetic description is often necessary for collisionless plasmas. There are two common approaches to kinetic description of a plasma. One is based on representing the smoothed distribution function on a grid in velocity and position. The other, known as the
272:
between the other three states of matter, the transition to plasma is not well defined and is a matter of interpretation and context. Whether a given degree of ionization suffices to call a substance "plasma" depends on the specific phenomenon being considered.
1234:
contains tiny charged particles of dust (typically found in space). The dust particles acquire high charges and interact with each other. A plasma that contains larger particles is called grain plasma. Under laboratory conditions, dusty plasmas are also called
287:
286:
283:
1906:
It is possible to produce a plasma that is not quasineutral. An electron beam, for example, has only negative charges. The density of a non-neutral plasma must generally be very low, or it must be very small, otherwise, it will be dissipated by the repulsive
4009:
1650:
as an example of plasma present at Earth's surface: Typically, lightning discharges 30 kiloamperes at up to 100 megavolts, and emits radio waves, light, X- and even gamma rays. Plasma temperatures can approach 30000 K and electron densities may exceed 10
288:
3107:
in the sense that only a tiny fraction of the gas molecules are ionized. These kinds of weakly ionized gases are also nonthermal "cold" plasmas. In the presence of magnetics fields, the study of such magnetized nonthermal weakly ionized gases involves
1616:
fields. However, because of the large difference in mass between electrons and ions, their temperatures may be different, sometimes significantly so. This is especially common in weakly ionized technological plasmas, where the ions are often near the
3691:
1176:
is much smaller than the physical size of the plasma. This criterion means that interactions in the bulk of the plasma are more important than those at its edges, where boundary effects may take place. When this criterion is satisfied, the plasma is
5191:
4383:
4178:
2806:
Avalanche effect between two electrodes. The original ionization event liberates one electron, and each subsequent collision liberates a further electron, so two electrons emerge from each collision: the ionizing electron and the liberated
2910:. These differ from glow discharges in that the sheaths are much less intense. These are widely used in the microfabrication and integrated circuit manufacturing industries for plasma etching and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition.
4319:
2210:. A more general description is the two-fluid plasma, where the ions and electrons are described separately. Fluid models are often accurate when collisionality is sufficiently high to keep the plasma velocity distribution close to a
285:
3275:
Impermeable plasma is a type of thermal plasma which acts like an impermeable solid with respect to gas or cold plasma and can be physically pushed. Interaction of cold gas and thermal plasma was briefly studied by a group led by
1902:
2893:: non-thermal plasmas generated by the application of DC or low frequency RF (<100 kHz) electric field to the gap between two metal electrodes. Probably the most common plasma; this is the type of plasma generated within
2710:
Just like the many uses of plasma, there are several means for its generation. However, one principle is common to all of them: there must be energy input to produce and sustain it. For this case, plasma is generated when an
3259:
index of refraction lower than one, and causes a defocusing of the laser beam. The interplay of the focusing index of refraction, and the defocusing plasma makes the formation of a long filament of plasma that can be
1259:, showing oxygen, helium, and hydrogen ions that gush into space from regions near the Earth's poles. The faint yellow area shown above the north pole represents gas lost from Earth into space; the green area is the
3003:
show that low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma is effective in inactivating bacterial cells. This work and later experiments using mammalian cells led to the establishment of a new field of research known as
1187:
of the electrons) is much larger than the electron–neutral collision frequency. When this condition is valid, electrostatic interactions dominate over the processes of ordinary gas kinetics. Such plasmas are called
3202:
Although the underlying equations governing plasmas are relatively simple, plasma behaviour is extraordinarily varied and subtle: the emergence of unexpected behaviour from a simple model is a typical feature of a
1581:, is a measure of the thermal kinetic energy per particle. High temperatures are usually needed to sustain ionization, which is a defining feature of a plasma. The degree of plasma ionization is determined by the
3299:
using only an ultrahigh-pressure blanket of cold gas. While spectroscopic data on the characteristics of plasma were claimed to be difficult to obtain due to the high pressure, the passive effect of plasma on
2678:
by the magnetic field), partially magnetized (the electrons but not the ions are trapped by the magnetic field), non-magnetized (the magnetic field is too weak to trap the particles in orbits but may generate
3035:
generated at the high-side of a piezoelectric transformer (PT). This generation variant is particularly suited for high efficient and compact devices where a separate high voltage power supply is not desired.
3007:. The dielectric barrier discharge configuration was also used in the design of low temperature plasma jets. These plasma jets are produced by fast propagating guided ionization waves known as plasma bullets.
1166:
is much higher than unity. It can be readily shown that this criterion is equivalent to smallness of the ratio of the plasma electrostatic and thermal energy densities. Such plasmas are called weakly coupled.
1985:
2544:
Most artificial plasmas are generated by the application of electric and/or magnetic fields through a gas. Plasma generated in a laboratory setting and for industrial use can be generally categorized by:
2153:
3344:
1807:
5699:
Leroux, F. D. R.; Campagne, C.; Perwuelz, A.; Gengembre, L. O. (2008). "Polypropylene film chemical and physical modifications by dielectric barrier discharge plasma treatment at atmospheric pressure".
2234:(PIC) technique, includes kinetic information by following the trajectories of a large number of individual particles. Kinetic models are generally more computationally intensive than fluid models. The
3024:) to one powered electrode, with a grounded electrode held at a small separation distance on the order of 1 cm. Such discharges are commonly stabilized using a noble gas such as helium or argon.
3211:
form. Many of these features were first studied in the laboratory, and have subsequently been recognized throughout the universe. Examples of complexity and complex structures in plasmas include:
1388:
2214:. Because fluid models usually describe the plasma in terms of a single flow at a certain temperature at each spatial location, they can neither capture velocity space structures like beams or
1526:
1024:(i.e., the overall charge of a plasma is roughly zero). Although these particles are unbound, they are not "free" in the sense of not experiencing forces. Moving charged particles generate
2666:
1710:
414:
2613:
350:. Mott-Smith recalls, in particular, that the transport of electrons from thermionic filaments reminded Langmuir of "the way blood plasma carries red and white corpuscles and germs."
3263:
to kilometers in length. One interesting aspect of the filamentation generated plasma is the relatively low ion density due to defocusing effects of the ionized electrons. (See also
2059:
3088:. Research was also conducted in the field of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics to study plasma interaction with magnetic fields to eventually achieve passive and even active
1559:
2017:
3312:
at the plasma-gas interface could give rise to a strong secondary mode of heating (known as viscous heating) leading to different kinetics of reactions and formation of complex
1814:
284:
2109:
2087:
335:
containing very few electrons, the ionized gas contains ions and electrons in about equal numbers so that the resultant space charge is very small. We shall use the name
5431:
1470:
5252:
Gomez, E.; Rani, D. A.; Cheeseman, C. R.; Deegan, D.; Wise, M.; Boccaccini, A. R. (2009). "Thermal plasma technology for the treatment of wastes: A critical review".
2556:
The pressure they operate at—vacuum pressure (< 10 mTorr or 1 Pa), moderate pressure (≈1 Torr or 100 Pa), atmospheric pressure (760 Torr or 100 kPa)
1321:
1444:
1417:
1301:
6169:
Talebpour, A.; Abdel-Fattah, M.; Chin, S. L. (2000). "Focusing limits of intense ultrafast laser pulses in a high pressure gas: Road to new spectroscopic source".
3011:
1600:
In most cases, the electrons and heavy plasma particles (ions and neutral atoms) separately have a relatively well-defined temperature; that is, their energy
6053:
3853:"Find in a Library: On radiant matter a lecture delivered to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at Sheffield, Friday, August 22, 1879"
3450:
2931:
5512:
4794:. National Research Council (U.S.). Panel on Opportunities in Plasma Science and Technology. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 1995. p. 51.
320:
3813:
2959:
this is a high power thermal discharge of very high temperature (≈10,000 K). It can be generated using various power supplies. It is commonly used in
5068:
5957:"Monte Carlo model for analysis of thermal runaway electrons in streamer tips in transient luminous events and streamer zones of lightning leaders"
3856:
1736:
6354:
6344:
4076:
4935:
7163:
3308:
clearly suggested the effective confinement. They also showed that upon maintaining the impermeability for a few tens of seconds, screening of
6933:
963:
1328:
2238:
may be used to describe the dynamics of a system of charged particles interacting with an electromagnetic field. In magnetized plasmas, a
7252:
5609:
5007:
2927:: similar to a CCP and with similar applications but the electrode consists of a coil wrapped around the chamber where plasma is formed.
6416:
4144:
2226:
Kinetic models describe the particle velocity distribution function at each point in the plasma and therefore do not need to assume a
2061:
is the electron collision rate. It is often the case that the electrons are magnetized while the ions are not. Magnetized plasmas are
1926:
6031:
1136:
and vastly different masses, so that they behave differently in many circumstances, with various types of plasma-specific waves and
346:
and Harold Mott-Smith, both of whom worked with
Langmuir in the 1920s, recall that Langmuir first used the term by analogy with the
3443:
2117:
4664:"Experimental determination of the thermal, turbulent, and rotational ion motion and magnetic field profiles in imploding plasmas"
5489:
3584:
1597:. At low temperatures, ions and electrons tend to recombine into bound states—atoms—and the plasma will eventually become a gas.
1010:
6371:
5664:
Leroux, F.; Perwuelz, A.; Campagne, C.; Behary, N. (2006). "Atmospheric air-plasma treatments of polyester textile structures".
256:
Depending on temperature and density, a certain number of neutral particles may also be present, in which case plasma is called
7131:
5438:
3167:
6133:
5371:
5185:
5158:
5105:
5078:
4964:
4945:
4631:
4451:
4422:
4416:
4342:
4313:
4260:
4235:
4114:
4003:
3836:
3793:
3768:
3743:
3714:
3685:
3650:
3619:
3028:
2984:
this is a non-thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltage to sharp electrode tips. It is commonly used in
4212:
2194:
Fluid models describe plasmas in terms of smoothed quantities, like density and averaged velocity around each position (see
66:
3295:
In 2013, a group of materials scientists reported that they have successfully generated stable impermeable plasma with no
3171:
3159:
4303:
3436:
2842:
Plasmas find applications in many fields of research, technology and industry, for example, in industrial and extractive
5863:
4369:
2476:
Above the Earth's surface, the ionosphere is a plasma, and the magnetosphere contains plasma. Within our Solar System,
2227:
2211:
1605:
3254:
Filamentation also refers to the self-focusing of a high power laser pulse. At high powers, the nonlinear part of the
3243:. They are sometimes associated with larger current densities, and the interaction with the magnetic field can form a
1475:
6926:
5916:"Interferometric observations of filamentary structures associated with plasma instability in the auroral ionosphere"
5603:
5039:
4990:
4799:
4206:
4172:
4138:
4086:
3874:
3189:
956:
327:
and his colleagues in the 1920s. Langmuir also introduced the term "plasma" as a description of ionized gas in 1928:
165:
3109:
2618:
3656:
3406:
1725:
The magnitude of the potentials and electric fields must be determined by means other than simply finding the net
1666:
6683:
3671:
1601:
370:
6104:
2830:
is given to electrons, which, due to their great mobility and large numbers, are able to disperse it rapidly by
2565:
7298:
7079:
6753:
6678:
6409:
3503:
2269:
Plasmas can appear in nature in various forms and locations, with a few examples given in the following table:
929:
17:
6865:
6693:
5387:
Nemchinsky, V. A.; Severance, W. S. (2006). "What we know and what we do not know about plasma arc cutting".
5175:
4359:
4162:
3534:
3069:
3065:
3049:
3045:
630:
467:
5778:
Lu, X.; Naidis, G.V.; Laroussi, M.; Ostrikov, K. (2014). "Guided ionization waves: Theory and experiments".
2026:
6919:
6875:
6748:
6493:
5543:
3809:
2992:
2940:
1531:
949:
670:
556:
230:. Plasma can be artificially generated, for example, by heating a neutral gas or subjecting it to a strong
6363:
1990:
7216:
4474:
2901:
2379:
2207:
1036:
created by the other charges. In turn, this governs collective behaviour with many degrees of variation.
625:
534:
417:
125:
5305:"Metals Recovery from Artificial Ore in Case of Printed Circuit Boards, Using Plasmatron Plasma Reactor"
7273:
7047:
7020:
4823:
4072:
3852:
3677:
3132:
3059:
2922:
2914:
2674:
The magnetization of the particles within the plasma—magnetized (both ion and electrons are trapped in
6341:
1114:: All gas particles behave in a similar way, largely influenced by collisions with one another and by
7288:
7283:
7278:
6402:
4838:
3103:
Such ionized gases used in "plasma technology" ("technological" or "engineered" plasmas) are usually
3053:
2906:: similar to glow discharge plasmas, but generated with high frequency RF electric fields, typically
2859:
2692:
541:
6155:
5470:
4228:
Plasma
Physics: An Introduction to the Theory of Astrophysical, Geophysical & Laboratory Plasmas
7153:
6900:
6799:
6429:
4889:
Roy, Subrata; Pandey, B. P. (September 2002). "Numerical investigation of a Hall thruster plasma".
3113:
1446:
the neutral density (in number of particles per unit volume). In the case of fully ionized matter,
836:
831:
620:
613:
446:
323:, in Sheffield, on Friday, 22 August 1879. Systematic studies of plasma began with the research of
4712:
3360:
2092:
2070:
6794:
5743:
Laroussi, M. (1996). "Sterilization of contaminated matter with an atmospheric pressure plasma".
4562:
Morfill, G. E.; Ivlev, Alexei V. (2009). "Complex plasmas: An interdisciplinary research field".
1811:
Differentiating this relation provides a means to calculate the electric field from the density:
1303:, that is, the number of charge-contributing electrons per unit volume. The degree of ionization
1094:
899:
894:
563:
242:
6284:"Tunable synthesis and in situ growth of silicon-carbon mesostructures using impermeable plasma"
3372:
2704:
7237:
7099:
6819:
6809:
6559:
6554:
5513:"Electrical optimization of plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition chamber cleaning plasmas"
3421:
2771:
2485:
2203:
1449:
451:
158:
115:
6068:
Zhang, Y. A.; Song, M. T.; Ji, H. S. (2002). "A rope-shaped solar filament and a IIIb flare".
5853:
5593:
5095:
5045:
4954:
3327:
7293:
7242:
7211:
7074:
6995:
5457:
4527:
Greaves, R. G.; Tinkle, M. D.; Surko, C. M. (1994). "Creation and uses of positron plasmas".
2875:
2819:
2755:
2497:
2435:
2421:
2327:
2215:
1718:
1306:
874:
492:
231:
227:
6081:
5996:
Doherty, Lowell R.; Menzel, Donald H. (1965). "Filamentary
Structure in Solar Prominences".
5887:
Dickel, J. R. (1990). "The
Filaments in Supernova Remnants: Sheets, Strings, Ribbons, or?".
4398:
4128:
3991:
3636:
7201:
7025:
6985:
6738:
6498:
6295:
6256:
6213:
6178:
6113:
6077:
6005:
5968:
5927:
5896:
5826:
5787:
5752:
5709:
5636:
5527:
5396:
5364:
Plasma
Processing of Materials : Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
5316:
5261:
5221:
5019:
4898:
4675:
4649:
Advanced Non-Classical
Materials with Complex Behavior: Modeling and Applications, Volume 1
4571:
4536:
4036:
3964:
3909:
3560:
3333:
3296:
3264:
3089:
2775:
2763:
2735:
2720:
2501:
2477:
2464:
2263:
2242:
approach can substantially reduce the computational expense of a fully kinetic simulation.
2199:
1656:
1582:
1422:
1395:
1279:
712:
529:
509:
497:
441:
1472:. Because of the quasineutrality of plasma, the electron and ion densities are related by
8:
7176:
7035:
7030:
7015:
6990:
6967:
6943:
6713:
6605:
6595:
6508:
6463:
5815:"Discharge phenomena of an atmospheric pressure radio-frequency capacitive plasma source"
3387:
3255:
3121:
2867:
2759:
2493:
2428:
1908:
1633:
1618:
1590:
1276:
is necessary. The term "plasma density" by itself usually refers to the electron density
1205:
1198:
1020:
Plasma is typically an electrically quasineutral medium of unbound positive and negative
914:
762:
655:
361:
312:
300:
223:
121:
6299:
6260:
6217:
6182:
6117:
6009:
5972:
5931:
5900:
5830:
5791:
5756:
5713:
5640:
5531:
5400:
5320:
5265:
5225:
5149:
Hippler, R.; Kersten, H.; Schmidt, M.; Schoenbach, K.M., eds. (2008). "Plasma
Sources".
5023:
4902:
4679:
4575:
4540:
4040:
3968:
3913:
2171:
The complex self-constricting magnetic field lines and current paths in a field-aligned
7232:
7109:
7104:
7057:
6860:
6789:
6623:
6316:
6283:
6229:
6143:
5681:
5412:
5339:
5304:
5285:
4817:
4766:
4597:
4502:
4277:
3932:
3897:
3301:
3224:
2826:, which dissociates more gas molecules and ionizes the resulting atoms. Therefore, the
2783:
2525:
2389:
2383:
2374:
2186:
physicists commonly use less detailed descriptions, of which there are two main types:
1897:{\displaystyle {\vec {E}}={\frac {k_{\text{B}}T_{e}}{e}}{\frac {\nabla n_{e}}{n_{e}}}.}
1730:
1252:
1184:
934:
568:
524:
519:
6190:
6089:
5485:
5408:
2798:
Cascade process of ionization. Electrons are "e−", neutral atoms "o", and cations "+".
1919:
The existence of charged particles causes the plasma to generate, and be affected by,
7247:
7196:
7141:
7121:
7007:
6890:
6885:
6855:
6814:
6703:
6655:
6640:
6533:
6503:
6368:
6321:
6129:
6047:
5869:
5859:
5725:
5685:
5599:
5416:
5367:
5344:
5289:
5277:
5181:
5154:
5101:
5074:
5035:
4986:
4960:
4941:
4805:
4795:
4770:
4758:
4693:
4627:
4506:
4494:
4412:
4375:
4365:
4338:
4309:
4256:
4231:
4202:
4168:
4134:
4110:
4082:
4054:
3999:
3937:
3832:
3789:
3764:
3739:
3710:
3681:
3646:
3615:
3292:
in the plasma and subsequently lead to an unexpectedly high heat loss to the walls.
3260:
3240:
3032:
3017:
2936:
2935:: similar to CCP and ICP in that it is typically RF (or microwave). Examples include
2894:
2831:
2827:
2323:
2195:
2172:
1629:
1586:
1562:
551:
502:
257:
6233:
6103:
Chin, S. L. (2006). "Some
Fundamental Concepts of Femtosecond Laser Filamentation".
5625:"Dielectric barrier discharge actuator for vehicle drag reduction at highway speeds"
5234:
5209:
4490:
7186:
7126:
7052:
6845:
6358:
6311:
6303:
6264:
6221:
6186:
6121:
6085:
6013:
5976:
5935:
5834:
5795:
5760:
5717:
5673:
5644:
5573:
5535:
5404:
5334:
5324:
5269:
5229:
5027:
4914:
4906:
4750:
4683:
4579:
4544:
4486:
4404:
4044:
3972:
3927:
3917:
3429:
3289:
2979:
2863:
2712:
2299:
2231:
1159:
1029:
1025:
1014:
889:
864:
752:
747:
702:
269:
238:
195:
46:
5799:
5273:
4443:
3277:
7206:
7116:
7062:
6962:
6835:
6688:
6425:
6375:
6348:
6125:
5855:
Plasma
Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation: Theory and Measurement Techniques
5148:
4196:
3735:
3642:
3285:
3004:
2999:
2847:
2550:
2292:
2235:
2180:
2156:
1260:
1256:
1133:
1079:
989:
879:
803:
767:
717:
648:
637:
582:
484:
324:
207:
179:
5070:
The High Energy
Universe: Ultra-High Energy Events in Astrophysics and Cosmology
2794:
7303:
7136:
7091:
7069:
6957:
6633:
6628:
6585:
6518:
6513:
6268:
5858:(1st ed., 2nd ed.). Burlington, MA: Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 273.
5721:
5677:
4864:
4583:
3412:
3305:
3281:
3204:
3097:
3073:
2888:
2767:
2739:
2728:
2724:
2716:
2505:
2470:
2442:
2408:
2251:
1920:
1726:
1613:
1609:
1208:. In such a plasma, electric fields play a dominant role. Examples are charged
1078:: Collective motion of particles is ubiquitous in plasma, resulting in various
1033:
884:
742:
707:
608:
514:
293:
250:
246:
137:
3870:
2559:
The degree of ionization within the plasma—fully, partially, or weakly ionized
1103:: For many purposes, the conductivity of a plasma may be treated as infinite.
7267:
7146:
6870:
6850:
6773:
6733:
6668:
6600:
6523:
5873:
4762:
4697:
4498:
4444:"Quasi-neutrality - The Plasma Universe theory (Knowledge-like Encyclopedia)"
3313:
3284:
plasma from the reactor walls. However, later it was found that the external
3244:
3117:
2954:
2680:
2361:
2348:-produced plasmas (LPP), found when high power lasers interact with materials
2333:
2112:
2020:
1594:
1209:
924:
757:
141:
112:
6911:
4809:
2549:
The type of power source used to generate the plasma—DC, AC (typically with
7171:
6895:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6723:
6673:
6590:
6325:
6247:
Braams, C.M. (1966). "Stability of Plasma Confined by a Cold-Gas Blanket".
5813:
Park, J.; Henins, I.; Herrmann, H. W.; Selwyn, G. S.; Hicks, R. F. (2001).
5729:
5429:
5348:
5281:
5121:
4379:
4058:
3941:
3539:
3522:
3248:
3236:
3232:
3220:
3081:
2811:
2533:
2513:
2339:
2309:
2239:
1713:
1660:
1578:
1231:
1225:
1213:
1173:
1163:
909:
904:
869:
601:
347:
104:
6394:
5578:
5561:
3922:
339:
to describe this region containing balanced charges of ions and electrons.
6804:
6698:
6610:
6385:
OpenPIC3D – 3D Hybrid Particle-In-Cell simulation of plasma dynamics
5981:
5956:
5940:
5915:
4919:
3128:
3124:
3077:
2521:
2517:
2509:
2319:
2063:
1722:
are formed, the charge separation can extend some tens of Debye lengths.
1137:
919:
822:
132:
in a fire pit; fires may produce plasma if hot enough. Bottom right: The
6389:
3638:
Plasma Physics: An Introduction to Laboratory, Space, and Fusion Plasmas
3219:
Striations or string-like structures are seen in many plasmas, like the
2918:: a device to produce low temperature (≈1eV) high density plasmas (HDP).
7191:
7181:
6743:
6718:
6645:
6615:
6549:
6528:
5031:
4792:
Plasma science: from fundamental research to technological applications
4754:
3546:
3093:
3085:
2960:
2843:
2699:
2675:
2481:
2415:
2368:
2315:
1273:
841:
737:
343:
304:
86:
6307:
5852:
Sheffield, J.; Froula, D.; Glenzer, S. H.; Luhmann, N. C. Jr. (2011).
5838:
5764:
5649:
5624:
5329:
4937:
Introduction to Plasma Physics: With Space and Laboratory Applications
4910:
4688:
4663:
3976:
2814:
is a continuous electric discharge between two electrodes, similar to
7042:
6225:
5539:
4738:
4713:"Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning"
4548:
4049:
4024:
3228:
3072:
to market with commercial power plants of a new kind, converting the
2972:
2815:
2802:
2355:
2303:
1647:
1069:
813:
808:
642:
265:
261:
171:
100:
96:
77:
6478:
5814:
4107:
The Fourth State of Matter: An Introduction to the Physics of Plasma
1621:
while electrons reach thousands of kelvin. The opposite case is the
1097:
up to electric field strengths of tens of kilovolts per centimetre.
107:, illustrating some of the more complex plasma phenomena, including
6880:
6708:
6369:
How to make a glowing ball of plasma in your microwave with a grape
6017:
5151:
Low Temperature Plasmas: Fundamentals, Technologies, and Techniques
3515:
3116:, a challenging field of plasma physics where calculations require
3021:
2907:
2871:
2528:, which have been observed with accreting black holes or in active
2202:, treats the plasma as a single fluid governed by a combination of
1643:
1125:
1021:
792:
697:
677:
663:
211:
203:
6112:. Springer Series in Chemical Physics. Vol. 49. p. 281.
4364:. Chen, Francis F., 1929- (2nd ed.). New York: Plenum Press.
3280:
in 1960s and 1970s for its possible applications in insulation of
2963:
processes. For example, it is used to smelt minerals containing Al
1247:
6840:
6728:
6663:
6580:
6575:
4408:
4190:
4188:
3498:
3379:
3208:
2855:
2851:
2779:
2751:
2747:
1622:
1115:
1006:
546:
316:
6204:
Alfvén, H.; Smårs, E. (1960). "Gas-Insulation of a Hot Plasma".
3092:
around vehicles or projectiles, in order to soften and mitigate
2562:
The temperature relationships within the plasma—thermal plasma (
2167:
1980:{\displaystyle \nu _{\mathrm {ce} }/\nu _{\mathrm {coll} }>1}
57:
6449:
5698:
5511:
Sobolewski, M.A.; Langan & Felker, J.G. & B.S. (1997).
4250:
3476:
2529:
2448:
1729:. A common example is to assume that the electrons satisfy the
1625:
plasma where the ion temperature may exceed that of electrons.
1574:
998:
687:
297:
187:
145:
4332:
4185:
2723:
material) as can be seen in the adjacent image, which shows a
1323:
is defined as fraction of neutral particles that are ionized:
6458:
6444:
6379:
5851:
5510:
3471:
2985:
2743:
2345:
2148:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =-\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} }
994:
591:
303:. Note the fast moving electrons and slow ions, resembling a
183:
37:
6032:"Hubble views the Crab Nebula M1: The Crab Nebula Filaments"
5663:
4156:
4154:
2364:
contains plasma in the Earth's surrounding space environment
1802:{\displaystyle n_{e}\propto \exp(e\Phi /k_{\text{B}}T_{e}).}
194:) characterized by the presence of a significant portion of
3786:
Low Temperature Plasma Technology: Methods and Applications
3612:
Low Temperature Plasma Technology: Methods and Applications
3309:
2823:
2524:
systems. Plasma is associated with ejection of material in
2489:
2404:
2394:
215:
129:
6384:
4983:
The Earth's Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics
2500:
is also filled with plasma, albeit at very low densities.
1716:, there can be charge imbalance. In the special case that
6454:
6168:
5361:
4151:
3481:
1162:Λ, representing the number of charge carriers within the
1129:
1002:
727:
219:
199:
191:
133:
5995:
5955:
Moss, G. D.; Pasko, V. P.; Liu, N.; Veronis, G. (2006).
5812:
5777:
5251:
2671:
The electrode configuration used to generate the plasma
178: 'moldable substance') is one of four fundamental
268:
are examples of partially ionized plasmas. Unlike the
5562:"Inductively Coupled Plasma Sources and Applications"
5432:"Plasma torch power control for scramjet application"
5207:
4397:
Fortov, Vladimir E; Iakubov, Igor T (November 1999).
4194:
2621:
2568:
2120:
2095:
2073:
2029:
1993:
1929:
1817:
1739:
1669:
1534:
1478:
1452:
1425:
1398:
1383:{\displaystyle \alpha ={\frac {n_{i}}{n_{i}+n_{n}}},}
1331:
1309:
1282:
1263:, where plasma energy pours back into the atmosphere.
373:
103:
are commonplace generators of plasma. Center left: A
5430:
Peretich, M.A.; O'Brien, W.F.; Schetz, J.A. (2007).
4952:
4934:
Gurnett, D. A.; Bhattacharjee, A. (6 January 2005).
4933:
4361:
Introduction to plasma physics and controlled fusion
4164:
Introduction to Plasma Physics and controlled fusion
3402:
5954:
5622:
5386:
4167:. Springer International Publishing. pp. 2–3.
3992:"Chapter 1: A Short History of Gaseous Electronics"
3064:A world effort was triggered in the 1960s to study
5623:Roy, S.; Zhao, P.; Dasgupta, A.; Soni, J. (2016).
4710:
4526:
2687:
2660:
2607:
2147:
2103:
2081:
2053:
2011:
1979:
1896:
1801:
1704:
1553:
1520:
1464:
1438:
1411:
1382:
1315:
1295:
408:
321:British Association for the Advancement of Science
5598:. Cambridge University Press. 2008. p. 229.
5437:. Virginia Space Grant Consortium. Archived from
4126:
4071:
3989:
2754:increases, the current stresses the material (by
2386:, blue jets, blue starters, gigantic jets, ELVESs
7265:
6052:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
4357:
4160:
3135:which limited these technological developments.
3020:generated by the application of RF power (e.g.,
2837:
2536:that possibly extends out to 5,000 light-years.
2245:
1521:{\displaystyle n_{e}=\langle Z_{i}\rangle n_{i}}
1267:
6281:
6106:Progress in Ultrafast Intense Laser Science III
4862:
3902:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2750:(negative electrode) pulls the nucleus. As the
2742:pull the bound electrons (negative) toward the
2342:(sometimes called plasma sphere or plasma ball)
1032:plasma particle affects and is affected by the
6034:. Archived from the original on 5 October 2009
5203:
5201:
5122:"APOD: 2004 December 11 - M87's Energetic Jet"
5094:Raine, Derek J.; Thomas, Edwin George (2010).
4333:Hastings, Daniel & Garrett, Henry (2000).
2770:, where the material transforms from being an
2484:, extending from the Sun's surface out to the
6941:
6927:
6410:
5889:Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society
5886:
5302:
5296:
4953:Scherer, K.; Fichtner, H.; Heber, B. (2005).
4396:
3955:Tonks, Lewi (1967). "The birth of "plasma"".
3729:
3698:
3583:Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940).
3444:
2661:{\displaystyle T_{e}\gg T_{i}=T_{\text{gas}}}
2473:in the universe, both by mass and by volume.
981:
957:
311:Plasma was first identified in laboratory by
6355:Graduate course given by Richard Fitzpatrick
5486:"The Fluorescent Lamp: A plasma you can use"
5210:"Plasma Processing of Municipal Solid Waste"
4561:
4472:
4301:
3889:
3707:Physics of the Solar Corona. An Introduction
3582:
3131:, a critical value triggers the problematic
2262:, including several sub-disciplines such as
2162:
1705:{\displaystyle n_{e}=\langle Z\rangle n_{i}}
1689:
1683:
1548:
1535:
1505:
1492:
1242:
1158:: The plasma approximation applies when the
331:Except near the electrodes, where there are
6424:
6203:
6102:
6067:
5483:
5198:
5093:
4201:. Cambridge University Press. p. 121.
3994:. In Hirsh, Merle N.; Oskam, H. J. (eds.).
3663:
3138:
2480:is filled with the plasma expelled via the
1561:is the average ion charge (in units of the
1183:: The electron plasma frequency (measuring
409:{\displaystyle J=-D{\frac {d\varphi }{dx}}}
6934:
6920:
6417:
6403:
5666:Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology
5520:Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B
5380:
5144:
5142:
4956:Space Weather: The Physics Behind a Slogan
4863:Alfven, H.; Arrhenius, G. (January 1976).
4251:Hazeltine, R.D.; Waelbroeck, F.L. (2004).
4022:
3704:
3603:
3451:
3437:
2881:
2608:{\displaystyle T_{e}=T_{i}=T_{\text{gas}}}
964:
950:
319:on what he called "radiant matter" to the
6315:
5980:
5939:
5913:
5648:
5577:
5338:
5328:
5233:
4918:
4888:
4687:
4621:
4615:
4295:
4048:
3931:
3921:
3777:
3190:Learn how and when to remove this message
2458:
1573:Plasma temperature, commonly measured in
1082:and other types of collective phenomena.
5742:
5702:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
5423:
5247:
5245:
5066:
4276:Hong, Alice (2000). Elert, Glenn (ed.).
4225:
4219:
4081:(3rd ed.). New York: Plenum Press.
3895:
3820:
3752:
3669:
3166:Relevant discussion may be found on the
2801:
2793:
2698:
2691:
2166:
1642:
1246:
280:
111:. Center right: A plasma trail from the
5559:
5139:
5005:
4836:
4646:
4473:Klimontovich, Yu L. (31 January 1997).
3826:
3758:
3723:
3628:
3127:. When used in combination with a high
2998:common usage of this discharge is in a
2947:
2854:in microelectronics, metal cutting and
2703:Artificial plasma produced in air by a
14:
7266:
7132:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
6246:
4980:
4215:from the original on 24 December 2016.
2988:generators and particle precipitators.
2054:{\displaystyle \nu _{\mathrm {coll} }}
1151:Three factors define an ideal plasma:
1005:. It is a state of matter in which an
6915:
6398:
6359:M.I.T. Introduction by I.H.Hutchinson
5612:from the original on 2 February 2017.
5389:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
5242:
5194:from the original on 15 January 2018.
5067:Mészáros, Péter (16 September 2010).
4736:
4661:
4386:from the original on 15 January 2018.
4322:from the original on 15 January 2018.
4181:from the original on 15 January 2018.
4147:from the original on 2 February 2017.
4095:from the original on 15 January 2018.
4012:from the original on 23 October 2017.
3954:
3783:
3694:from the original on 15 January 2018.
3609:
3576:
3270:
3029:Piezoelectric direct discharge plasma
2539:
2508:around stars or compact objects like
2218:, nor resolve wave-particle effects.
1589:(and more weakly by the density). In
1554:{\displaystyle \langle Z_{i}\rangle }
1192:
5177:Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion
5173:
5167:
4454:from the original on 26 October 2017
4275:
3659:from the original on 5 January 2016.
3634:
3142:
3096:, lower thermal transfer and reduce
2012:{\displaystyle \nu _{\mathrm {ce} }}
222:), but also dominating the rarefied
6342:Plasmas: the Fourth State of Matter
5745:IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science
5355:
4335:Spacecraft-Environment Interactions
3288:in this configuration could induce
2469:Plasmas are by far the most common
1638:
1593:, the relationship is given by the
24:
6282:Yaghoubi, A.; Mélinon, P. (2013).
6070:Chinese Astronomy and Astrophysics
5362:National Research Council (1991).
4711:NASA Administrator (7 June 2013).
3816:from the original on 7 April 2014.
3158:tone or style may not reflect the
2870:lamps, fuel ignition, and even in
2762:(termed strength) into a stage of
2045:
2042:
2039:
2036:
2003:
2000:
1965:
1962:
1959:
1956:
1939:
1936:
1865:
1765:
206:. It is the most abundant form of
108:
25:
7315:
6335:
4959:. Berlin: Springer. p. 138.
4475:"Physics of collisionless plasma"
4078:Plasma-The Fourth State of Matter
3877:from the original on 13 June 2006
3039:
2782:). The underlying process is the
2615:), non-thermal or "cold" plasma (
6477:
6353:Introduction to Plasma Physics:
5492:from the original on 30 May 2010
5014:. Geophysical Monograph Series.
4985:(2nd ed.). Academic Press.
4198:Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy
4109:, Publisher: Adam Hilger, 1989,
3859:from the original on 9 July 2006
3730:Chiuderi, C.; Velli, M. (2015).
3557:
3555:
3526:
3507:
3405:
3386:
3371:
3359:
3340:
3326:
3214:
3172:guide to writing better articles
3147:
2284:Space and astrophysical plasmas
2250:Plasmas are studied by the vast
2221:
2141:
2133:
2122:
2097:
2075:
1914:
276:
85:
76:
65:
56:
45:
36:
7253:Timeline of physics discoveries
6275:
6240:
6197:
6162:
6096:
6061:
6024:
5989:
5961:Journal of Geophysical Research
5948:
5907:
5880:
5845:
5806:
5771:
5736:
5692:
5657:
5616:
5586:
5553:
5504:
5477:
5235:10.1590/S0103-97332004000800015
5114:
5087:
5060:
4999:
4974:
4927:
4882:
4856:
4830:
4784:
4730:
4704:
4655:
4640:
4590:
4555:
4520:
4491:10.1070/PU1997v040n01ABEH000200
4466:
4436:
4400:The Physics of Non-Ideal Plasma
4390:
4351:
4326:
4269:
4253:The Framework of Plasma Physics
4244:
4120:
4105:Yaffa Eliezer, Shalom Eliezer,
4099:
4065:
4016:
3998:. Vol. 1. Academic Press.
3983:
3948:
3898:"Oscillations in Ionized Gases"
3845:
3829:Introduction to Plasma Dynamics
3761:Introduction to Plasma Dynamics
3076:of a high velocity plasma into
2789:
2746:(positive electrode) while the
2688:Generation of artificial plasma
2488:. Furthermore, all the distant
1608:even in the presence of strong
1219:
1146:
5566:Physics Research International
5254:Journal of Hazardous Materials
5208:Leal-Quirós, Edbertho (2004).
5073:. Cambridge University Press.
5012:Physics of Magnetic Flux Ropes
4940:. Cambridge University Press.
4843:Introduction to Plasma Physics
4743:Astrophysics and Space Science
4662:Maron, Yitzhak (1 June 2020).
4337:. Cambridge University Press.
4230:. Cambridge University Press.
4195:Freidberg, Jeffrey P. (2008).
4130:Fundamentals of Plasma Physics
4023:Mott-Smith, Harold M. (1971).
3802:
3784:Chu, P.K.; Lu, XinPel (2013).
3610:Chu, P.K.; Lu, XinPel (2013).
3110:resistive magnetohydrodynamics
3066:magnetohydrodynamic converters
2228:Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
2212:Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
2189:
1824:
1793:
1759:
1568:
976:
13:
1:
6866:Macroscopic quantum phenomena
6191:10.1016/S0030-4018(00)00903-2
6090:10.1016/S0275-1062(02)00095-4
5800:10.1016/j.physrep.2014.02.006
5274:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.04.017
4624:Introduction to Plasma Theory
4622:Nicholson, Dwight R. (1983).
3812:. HowStuffWorks. April 2000.
3732:Basics of Plasma Astrophysics
3570:
3050:magnetohydrodynamic generator
3046:magnetohydrodynamic converter
2872:supersonic combustion engines
2846:, surface treatments such as
2838:Examples of industrial plasma
2246:Plasma science and technology
2175:that can develop in a plasma.
1268:Density and ionization degree
1108:Independently acting species
1013:to the point that long-range
6876:Order and disorder (physics)
6390:Plasma Formulary Interactive
6126:10.1007/978-3-540-73794-0_12
5920:Geophysical Research Letters
5366:. National Academies Press.
5214:Brazilian Journal of Physics
5097:Black Holes: An Introduction
4278:"Dielectric Strength of Air"
2993:Dielectric barrier discharge
2941:electron cyclotron resonance
2778:(as it becomes increasingly
2431:(space between star systems)
2104:{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} }
2082:{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }
1655:Since plasmas are very good
1204:single species, is called a
1015:electric and magnetic fields
7:
7217:Quantum information science
6364:Plasma Material Interaction
6058:. The University of Arizona
5409:10.1088/0022-3727/39/22/R01
5153:(2nd ed.). Wiley-VCH.
4308:. Oxford University Press.
4226:Sturrock, Peter A. (1994).
4073:Frank-Kamenetskii, David A.
3957:American Journal of Physics
3670:Phillips, K. J. H. (1995).
3398:
2902:Capacitively coupled plasma
2380:Upper-atmospheric lightning
2198:). One simple fluid model,
1712:), but on the scale of the
126:International Space Station
10:
7320:
7048:Classical electromagnetism
6269:10.1103/PhysRevLett.17.470
5819:Journal of Applied Physics
5722:10.1016/j.jcis.2008.09.062
5678:10.1163/156856106777657788
5303:Szałatkiewicz, J. (2016).
5100:. Imperial College Press.
4584:10.1103/RevModPhys.81.1353
4127:Bittencourt, J.A. (2004).
3990:Brown, Sanborn C. (1978).
3831:. CRC Press. p. 4−5.
3705:Aschwanden, M. J. (2004).
3678:Cambridge University Press
3319:
3133:electrothermal instability
3060:Electrothermal instability
3057:
3043:
2923:Inductively coupled plasma
2915:Cascaded arc plasma source
2719:or fluid (an electrically
2462:
2178:
1627:
1223:
1196:
982:The fourth state of matter
164:
7225:
7162:
7090:
7006:
6978:
6950:
6828:
6782:
6654:
6568:
6542:
6486:
6475:
6437:
6347:30 September 2019 at the
5998:The Astrophysical Journal
5174:Chen, Francis F. (1984).
4626:. John Wiley & Sons.
4564:Reviews of Modern Physics
4358:Chen, Francis F. (1984).
4161:Chen, Francis F. (1984).
3763:. CRC Press. p. 30.
3054:magnetohydrodynamic drive
2858:; as well as in everyday
2163:Mathematical descriptions
2155:, and is not affected by
1465:{\displaystyle \alpha =1}
1243:Properties and parameters
1212:, an electron cloud in a
1009:substance becomes highly
7154:Condensed matter physics
6901:Thermo-dielectric effect
6800:Enthalpy of vaporization
6494:Bose–Einstein condensate
6374:6 September 2005 at the
4651:. CRC Press. p. 10.
3614:. CRC Press. p. 3.
3139:Complex plasma phenomena
3114:magnetic Reynolds number
2834:to the heavy particles.
2471:phase of ordinary matter
2439:(space between galaxies)
1156:The plasma approximation
1087:Electrical conductivity
1068:: Two-particle (binary)
1028:, and any movement of a
1017:dominate its behaviour.
468:Clausius–Duhem (entropy)
418:Fick's laws of diffusion
6795:Enthalpy of sublimation
6249:Physical Review Letters
6082:2002ChA&A..26..442Z
4739:"A double layer review"
4737:Block, Lars P. (1978).
4647:Hamrang, Abbas (2014).
4448:www.plasma-universe.com
4133:. Springer. p. 1.
3589:A Greek-English Lexicon
2882:Low-pressure discharges
2860:vehicle exhaust cleanup
2424:(space between planets)
2314:The area in front of a
2302:(low energy lighting),
2295:, including TV screens.
2273:Common forms of plasma
2208:Navier–Stokes equations
1419:is the ion density and
1316:{\displaystyle \alpha }
1011:electrically conductive
626:Navier–Stokes equations
564:Material failure theory
243:electrically conductive
182:(the other three being
7238:Nobel Prize in Physics
7100:Relativistic mechanics
6810:Latent internal energy
6560:Color-glass condensate
5914:Grydeland, T. (2003).
5465:Cite journal requires
5006:Russell, C.T. (1990).
4981:Kelley, M. C. (2009).
4837:Fitzpatrick, Richard.
4822:: CS1 maint: others (
4025:"History of "plasmas""
3827:Morozov, A.I. (2012).
3759:Morozov, A.I. (2012).
2822:along the arc creates
2808:
2799:
2731:used for simplicity).
2707:
2696:
2662:
2609:
2459:Space and astrophysics
2278:Artificially produced
2176:
2149:
2111:is given by the usual
2105:
2089:in the magnetic field
2083:
2055:
2013:
1981:
1898:
1803:
1706:
1652:
1555:
1522:
1466:
1440:
1413:
1384:
1317:
1297:
1264:
1216:and positron plasmas.
1140:emerging as a result.
1093:: Gases are excellent
410:
341:
315:. Crookes presented a
308:
198:in any combination of
7299:Electrical conductors
7243:Philosophy of physics
6620:Magnetically ordered
6171:Optics Communications
4302:Dendy, R. O. (1990).
3923:10.1073/pnas.14.8.627
3896:Langmuir, I. (1928).
3810:"How Lightning Works"
3709:. Praxis Publishing.
3247:structure. (See also
2876:aerospace engineering
2820:Electrical resistance
2805:
2797:
2756:electric polarization
2727:as a simple example (
2702:
2695:
2663:
2610:
2504:are also observed in
2502:Astrophysical plasmas
2463:Further information:
2422:interplanetary medium
2397:(if sufficiently hot)
2170:
2150:
2106:
2084:
2056:
2014:
1982:
1899:
1804:
1707:
1657:electrical conductors
1646:
1602:distribution function
1556:
1523:
1467:
1441:
1439:{\displaystyle n_{n}}
1414:
1412:{\displaystyle n_{i}}
1385:
1318:
1298:
1296:{\displaystyle n_{e}}
1272:For plasma to exist,
1250:
986:Plasma is called the
621:Bernoulli's principle
614:Archimedes' principle
411:
329:
291:
232:electromagnetic field
120:during re-entry into
7202:Mathematical physics
6499:Fermionic condensate
5982:10.1029/2005JA011350
5941:10.1029/2002GL016362
5560:Okumura, T. (2010).
4839:"Magnetized Plasmas"
4403:. WORLD SCIENTIFIC.
4282:The Physics Factbook
3334:Hall-effect thruster
3297:magnetic confinement
3265:Filament propagation
3105:weakly ionized gases
3070:MHD power conversion
3012:Capacitive discharge
2948:Atmospheric pressure
2764:electrical breakdown
2736:potential difference
2715:is applied across a
2619:
2566:
2478:interplanetary space
2465:Astrophysical plasma
2436:Intergalactic medium
2281:Terrestrial plasmas
2264:space plasma physics
2200:magnetohydrodynamics
2118:
2093:
2071:
2027:
1991:
1927:
1815:
1737:
1667:
1583:electron temperature
1532:
1476:
1450:
1423:
1396:
1329:
1307:
1280:
713:Cohesion (chemistry)
535:Infinitesimal strain
371:
228:intergalactic medium
7177:Atmospheric physics
7016:Classical mechanics
6944:branches of physics
6714:Chemical ionization
6606:Programmable matter
6596:Quantum spin liquid
6464:Supercritical fluid
6300:2013NatSR...3E1083Y
6261:1966PhRvL..17..470B
6218:1960Natur.188..801A
6183:2000OptCo.183..479T
6118:2008pui3.book..243C
6010:1965ApJ...141..251D
5973:2006JGRA..111.2307M
5932:2003GeoRL..30.1338G
5901:1990BAAS...22..832D
5831:2001JAP....89...20P
5792:2014PhR...540..123L
5757:1996ITPS...24.1188L
5714:2008JCIS..328..412L
5641:2016AIPA....6b5322R
5579:10.1155/2010/164249
5549:on 18 January 2009.
5532:1998JVSTB..16..173S
5401:2006JPhD...39R.423N
5321:2016Mate....9..683S
5266:2009JHzM..161..614G
5226:2004BrJPh..34.1587L
5024:1990GMS....58..439R
4903:2002PhPl....9.4052R
4680:2020PhPl...27f0901M
4576:2009RvMP...81.1353M
4541:1994PhPl....1.1439G
4117:, 226 pages, page 5
4041:1971Natur.233..219M
3996:Gaseous Electronics
3969:1967AmJPh..35..857T
3914:1928PNAS...14..627L
3459:
3256:index of refraction
2553:(RF)) and microwave
2498:intergalactic space
2429:interstellar medium
2407:(plasmas heated by
2308:Rocket exhaust and
2274:
2204:Maxwell's equations
1909:electrostatic force
1634:Anisothermal plasma
1619:ambient temperature
1591:thermal equilibrium
1199:Non-neutral plasmas
1185:plasma oscillations
631:Poiseuille equation
362:Continuum mechanics
356:Part of a series on
313:Sir William Crookes
224:intracluster medium
124:, as seen from the
7233:History of physics
6861:Leidenfrost effect
6790:Enthalpy of fusion
6555:Quark–gluon plasma
6288:Scientific Reports
5032:10.1029/GM058p0439
5008:"The Magnetopause"
4891:Physics of Plasmas
4755:10.1007/BF00642580
4668:Physics of Plasmas
4529:Physics of Plasmas
4255:. Westview Press.
3428:
3422:Quark-gluon plasma
3290:kink instabilities
3271:Impermeable plasma
3241:supernova remnants
3170:. See Knowledge's
3068:in order to bring
2932:Wave heated plasma
2832:elastic collisions
2809:
2800:
2784:Townsend avalanche
2708:
2697:
2658:
2605:
2540:Artificial plasmas
2526:astrophysical jets
2494:interstellar space
2272:
2177:
2145:
2101:
2079:
2051:
2009:
1977:
1894:
1799:
1731:Boltzmann relation
1702:
1653:
1551:
1518:
1462:
1436:
1409:
1380:
1313:
1293:
1265:
1206:non-neutral plasma
1193:Non-neutral plasma
1132:possess different
837:Magnetorheological
832:Electrorheological
569:Fracture mechanics
406:
309:
247:plasma televisions
122:Earth's atmosphere
7274:Phase transitions
7261:
7260:
7248:Physics education
7197:Materials science
7164:Interdisciplinary
7122:Quantum mechanics
6909:
6908:
6891:Superheated vapor
6886:Superconductivity
6856:Equation of state
6704:Flash evaporation
6656:Phase transitions
6641:String-net liquid
6534:Photonic molecule
6504:Degenerate matter
6308:10.1038/srep01083
6212:(4753): 801–802.
6135:978-3-540-73793-3
5839:10.1063/1.1323753
5765:10.1109/27.533129
5650:10.1063/1.4942979
5373:978-0-309-04597-1
5330:10.3390/ma9080683
5220:(4B): 1587–1593.
5187:978-0-306-41332-2
5160:978-3-527-40673-9
5107:978-1-84816-382-9
5080:978-1-139-49072-6
4966:978-3-540-22907-0
4947:978-0-521-36483-6
4911:10.1063/1.1498261
4689:10.1063/5.0009432
4633:978-0-471-09045-8
4602:pwg.gsfc.nasa.gov
4598:"Plasma Fountain"
4423:978-981-281-554-5
4418:978-981-02-3305-1
4344:978-0-521-47128-2
4315:978-0-19-852041-2
4262:978-0-7382-0047-7
4237:978-0-521-44810-9
4115:978-0-85274-164-1
4005:978-0-12-349701-7
3977:10.1119/1.1974266
3838:978-1-4398-8132-3
3795:978-1-4665-0990-0
3770:978-1-4398-8132-3
3745:978-88-470-5280-2
3716:978-3-540-22321-4
3687:978-0-521-39788-9
3652:978-3-642-10491-6
3635:Piel, A. (2010).
3621:978-1-4665-0990-0
3591:. Clarendon Press
3568:
3567:
3430:Phase transitions
3393:Laboratory plasma
3349:
3200:
3199:
3192:
3162:used on Knowledge
3160:encyclopedic tone
3033:nonthermal plasma
3018:nonthermal plasma
2937:helicon discharge
2895:fluorescent light
2828:electrical energy
2655:
2602:
2456:
2455:
2300:fluorescent lamps
2196:Plasma parameters
2173:Birkeland current
1889:
1860:
1843:
1827:
1780:
1630:Nonthermal plasma
1587:ionization energy
1563:elementary charge
1375:
1181:Collisionlessness
1170:Bulk interactions
1144:
1143:
1026:electric currents
974:
973:
849:
848:
783:
782:
552:Contact mechanics
475:
474:
404:
296:calculated by an
289:
270:phase transitions
258:partially ionized
239:charged particles
196:charged particles
128:. Bottom left: A
16:(Redirected from
7311:
7289:Electromagnetism
7284:Phases of matter
7279:Plasma (physics)
7187:Chemical physics
7127:Particle physics
7053:Classical optics
6936:
6929:
6922:
6913:
6912:
6846:Compressed fluid
6481:
6426:States of matter
6419:
6412:
6405:
6396:
6395:
6330:
6329:
6319:
6279:
6273:
6272:
6244:
6238:
6237:
6226:10.1038/188801a0
6201:
6195:
6194:
6177:(5–6): 479–484.
6166:
6160:
6159:
6153:
6149:
6147:
6139:
6111:
6100:
6094:
6093:
6065:
6059:
6057:
6051:
6043:
6041:
6039:
6028:
6022:
6021:
5993:
5987:
5986:
5984:
5952:
5946:
5945:
5943:
5911:
5905:
5904:
5884:
5878:
5877:
5849:
5843:
5842:
5810:
5804:
5803:
5775:
5769:
5768:
5751:(3): 1188–1191.
5740:
5734:
5733:
5696:
5690:
5689:
5661:
5655:
5654:
5652:
5620:
5614:
5613:
5595:Plasma Chemistry
5590:
5584:
5583:
5581:
5557:
5551:
5550:
5548:
5542:. Archived from
5540:10.1116/1.589774
5517:
5508:
5502:
5501:
5499:
5497:
5484:Stern, David P.
5481:
5475:
5474:
5468:
5463:
5461:
5453:
5451:
5449:
5443:
5436:
5427:
5421:
5420:
5384:
5378:
5377:
5359:
5353:
5352:
5342:
5332:
5300:
5294:
5293:
5260:(2–3): 614–626.
5249:
5240:
5239:
5237:
5205:
5196:
5195:
5180:. Plenum Press.
5171:
5165:
5164:
5146:
5137:
5136:
5134:
5132:
5118:
5112:
5111:
5091:
5085:
5084:
5064:
5058:
5057:
5055:
5053:
5044:. Archived from
5003:
4997:
4996:
4978:
4972:
4970:
4951:
4931:
4925:
4924:
4922:
4897:(9): 4052–4060.
4886:
4880:
4879:
4877:
4875:
4869:history.nasa.gov
4860:
4854:
4853:
4851:
4849:
4834:
4828:
4827:
4821:
4813:
4788:
4782:
4781:
4779:
4777:
4734:
4728:
4727:
4725:
4723:
4708:
4702:
4701:
4691:
4659:
4653:
4652:
4644:
4638:
4637:
4619:
4613:
4612:
4610:
4608:
4594:
4588:
4587:
4570:(4): 1353–1404.
4559:
4553:
4552:
4549:10.1063/1.870693
4524:
4518:
4517:
4515:
4513:
4470:
4464:
4463:
4461:
4459:
4440:
4434:
4433:
4431:
4429:
4394:
4388:
4387:
4355:
4349:
4348:
4330:
4324:
4323:
4299:
4293:
4292:
4290:
4288:
4273:
4267:
4266:
4248:
4242:
4241:
4223:
4217:
4216:
4192:
4183:
4182:
4158:
4149:
4148:
4124:
4118:
4103:
4097:
4096:
4069:
4063:
4062:
4052:
4050:10.1038/233219a0
4020:
4014:
4013:
3987:
3981:
3980:
3952:
3946:
3945:
3935:
3925:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3882:
3871:"Radiant Matter"
3868:
3866:
3864:
3849:
3843:
3842:
3824:
3818:
3817:
3806:
3800:
3799:
3781:
3775:
3774:
3756:
3750:
3749:
3727:
3721:
3720:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3673:Guide to the Sun
3667:
3661:
3660:
3645:. pp. 4–5.
3632:
3626:
3625:
3607:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3580:
3460:
3453:
3446:
3439:
3427:
3415:
3410:
3409:
3390:
3375:
3363:
3351:
3350:
3330:
3195:
3188:
3184:
3181:
3175:
3174:for suggestions.
3151:
3150:
3143:
2980:Corona discharge
2760:dielectric limit
2713:electric current
2667:
2665:
2664:
2659:
2657:
2656:
2653:
2644:
2643:
2631:
2630:
2614:
2612:
2611:
2606:
2604:
2603:
2600:
2591:
2590:
2578:
2577:
2275:
2271:
2232:particle-in-cell
2154:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2144:
2136:
2125:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2100:
2088:
2086:
2085:
2080:
2078:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2048:
2019:is the electron
2018:
2016:
2015:
2010:
2008:
2007:
2006:
1986:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1949:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1903:
1901:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1888:
1887:
1878:
1877:
1876:
1863:
1861:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1845:
1844:
1841:
1834:
1829:
1828:
1820:
1808:
1806:
1805:
1800:
1792:
1791:
1782:
1781:
1778:
1772:
1749:
1748:
1711:
1709:
1708:
1703:
1701:
1700:
1679:
1678:
1639:Plasma potential
1585:relative to the
1560:
1558:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1546:
1527:
1525:
1524:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1504:
1503:
1488:
1487:
1471:
1469:
1468:
1463:
1445:
1443:
1442:
1437:
1435:
1434:
1418:
1416:
1415:
1410:
1408:
1407:
1389:
1387:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1374:
1373:
1372:
1360:
1359:
1349:
1348:
1339:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1314:
1302:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1292:
1291:
1160:plasma parameter
1043:
1042:
966:
959:
952:
798:
797:
763:Gay-Lussac's law
753:Combined gas law
703:Capillary action
588:
587:
431:
430:
415:
413:
412:
407:
405:
403:
395:
387:
353:
352:
290:
237:The presence of
180:states of matter
175:
168:
89:
80:
69:
60:
49:
40:
21:
7319:
7318:
7314:
7313:
7312:
7310:
7309:
7308:
7264:
7263:
7262:
7257:
7221:
7207:Medical physics
7158:
7117:Nuclear physics
7086:
7080:Non-equilibrium
7002:
6974:
6946:
6940:
6910:
6905:
6836:Baryonic matter
6824:
6778:
6749:Saturated fluid
6689:Crystallization
6650:
6624:Antiferromagnet
6564:
6538:
6482:
6473:
6433:
6423:
6376:Wayback Machine
6349:Wayback Machine
6338:
6333:
6280:
6276:
6245:
6241:
6202:
6198:
6167:
6163:
6151:
6150:
6141:
6140:
6136:
6109:
6101:
6097:
6066:
6062:
6045:
6044:
6037:
6035:
6030:
6029:
6025:
5994:
5990:
5953:
5949:
5912:
5908:
5885:
5881:
5866:
5850:
5846:
5811:
5807:
5780:Physics Reports
5776:
5772:
5741:
5737:
5697:
5693:
5662:
5658:
5621:
5617:
5606:
5592:
5591:
5587:
5558:
5554:
5546:
5515:
5509:
5505:
5495:
5493:
5482:
5478:
5466:
5464:
5455:
5454:
5447:
5445:
5444:on 29 June 2010
5441:
5434:
5428:
5424:
5385:
5381:
5374:
5360:
5356:
5301:
5297:
5250:
5243:
5206:
5199:
5188:
5172:
5168:
5161:
5147:
5140:
5130:
5128:
5120:
5119:
5115:
5108:
5092:
5088:
5081:
5065:
5061:
5051:
5049:
5042:
5004:
5000:
4993:
4979:
4975:
4967:
4948:
4932:
4928:
4887:
4883:
4873:
4871:
4861:
4857:
4847:
4845:
4835:
4831:
4815:
4814:
4802:
4790:
4789:
4785:
4775:
4773:
4735:
4731:
4721:
4719:
4709:
4705:
4660:
4656:
4645:
4641:
4634:
4620:
4616:
4606:
4604:
4596:
4595:
4591:
4560:
4556:
4525:
4521:
4511:
4509:
4479:Physics-Uspekhi
4471:
4467:
4457:
4455:
4442:
4441:
4437:
4427:
4425:
4419:
4395:
4391:
4372:
4356:
4352:
4345:
4331:
4327:
4316:
4305:Plasma Dynamics
4300:
4296:
4286:
4284:
4274:
4270:
4263:
4249:
4245:
4238:
4224:
4220:
4209:
4193:
4186:
4175:
4159:
4152:
4141:
4125:
4121:
4104:
4100:
4089:
4070:
4066:
4021:
4017:
4006:
3988:
3984:
3953:
3949:
3894:
3890:
3880:
3878:
3869:
3862:
3860:
3851:
3850:
3846:
3839:
3825:
3821:
3808:
3807:
3803:
3796:
3782:
3778:
3771:
3757:
3753:
3746:
3728:
3724:
3717:
3703:
3699:
3688:
3680:. p. 295.
3668:
3664:
3653:
3633:
3629:
3622:
3608:
3604:
3594:
3592:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3468:
3465:
3457:
3426:
3411:
3404:
3401:
3394:
3391:
3382:
3376:
3367:
3366:Plasma spraying
3364:
3355:
3352:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3322:
3286:magnetic fields
3273:
3217:
3196:
3185:
3179:
3176:
3165:
3156:This section's
3152:
3148:
3141:
3062:
3056:
3044:Main articles:
3042:
3005:plasma medicine
3000:plasma actuator
2970:
2966:
2950:
2884:
2848:plasma spraying
2840:
2792:
2766:, marked by an
2738:and subsequent
2690:
2652:
2648:
2639:
2635:
2626:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2599:
2595:
2586:
2582:
2573:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2551:radio frequency
2542:
2506:accretion disks
2467:
2461:
2443:Accretion disks
2438:
2390:St. Elmo's fire
2293:plasma displays
2248:
2236:Vlasov equation
2224:
2192:
2183:
2181:Plasma modeling
2165:
2157:Debye shielding
2140:
2132:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2113:Lorentz formula
2096:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2035:
2034:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2024:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1921:magnetic fields
1917:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1862:
1850:
1846:
1840:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1812:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1773:
1768:
1744:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1734:
1696:
1692:
1674:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1641:
1636:
1571:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1530:
1529:
1512:
1508:
1499:
1495:
1483:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1430:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1403:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1368:
1364:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1344:
1340:
1338:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1287:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1277:
1270:
1261:aurora borealis
1257:plasma fountain
1255:of the Earth's
1245:
1237:complex plasmas
1228:
1222:
1201:
1195:
1149:
1051:
1048:
990:state of matter
984:
979:
970:
941:
940:
939:
859:
851:
850:
804:Viscoelasticity
795:
785:
784:
772:
722:
718:Surface tension
682:
585:
583:Fluid mechanics
575:
574:
573:
487:
485:Solid mechanics
477:
476:
428:
420:
396:
388:
386:
372:
369:
368:
325:Irving Langmuir
281:
279:
218:(including the
208:ordinary matter
152:
151:
150:
149:
140:as seen from a
92:
91:
90:
82:
81:
72:
71:
70:
62:
61:
52:
51:
50:
42:
41:
28:
27:State of matter
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7317:
7307:
7306:
7301:
7296:
7291:
7286:
7281:
7276:
7259:
7258:
7256:
7255:
7250:
7245:
7240:
7235:
7229:
7227:
7223:
7222:
7220:
7219:
7214:
7209:
7204:
7199:
7194:
7189:
7184:
7179:
7174:
7168:
7166:
7160:
7159:
7157:
7156:
7151:
7150:
7149:
7144:
7139:
7129:
7124:
7119:
7114:
7113:
7112:
7107:
7096:
7094:
7088:
7087:
7085:
7084:
7083:
7082:
7077:
7070:Thermodynamics
7067:
7066:
7065:
7060:
7050:
7045:
7040:
7039:
7038:
7033:
7028:
7023:
7012:
7010:
7004:
7003:
7001:
7000:
6999:
6998:
6988:
6982:
6980:
6976:
6975:
6973:
6972:
6971:
6970:
6960:
6954:
6952:
6948:
6947:
6939:
6938:
6931:
6924:
6916:
6907:
6906:
6904:
6903:
6898:
6893:
6888:
6883:
6878:
6873:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6853:
6848:
6843:
6838:
6832:
6830:
6826:
6825:
6823:
6822:
6817:
6815:Trouton's rule
6812:
6807:
6802:
6797:
6792:
6786:
6784:
6780:
6779:
6777:
6776:
6771:
6766:
6761:
6756:
6751:
6746:
6741:
6736:
6731:
6726:
6721:
6716:
6711:
6706:
6701:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6684:Critical point
6681:
6676:
6671:
6666:
6660:
6658:
6652:
6651:
6649:
6648:
6643:
6638:
6637:
6636:
6631:
6626:
6618:
6613:
6608:
6603:
6598:
6593:
6588:
6586:Liquid crystal
6583:
6578:
6572:
6570:
6566:
6565:
6563:
6562:
6557:
6552:
6546:
6544:
6540:
6539:
6537:
6536:
6531:
6526:
6521:
6519:Strange matter
6516:
6514:Rydberg matter
6511:
6506:
6501:
6496:
6490:
6488:
6484:
6483:
6476:
6474:
6472:
6471:
6466:
6461:
6452:
6447:
6441:
6439:
6435:
6434:
6422:
6421:
6414:
6407:
6399:
6393:
6392:
6387:
6382:
6366:
6361:
6351:
6337:
6336:External links
6334:
6332:
6331:
6274:
6255:(9): 470–471.
6239:
6196:
6161:
6152:|journal=
6134:
6095:
6076:(4): 442–450.
6060:
6023:
6018:10.1086/148107
5988:
5967:(A2): A02307.
5947:
5906:
5879:
5865:978-0080952031
5864:
5844:
5805:
5770:
5735:
5708:(2): 412–420.
5691:
5672:(9): 939–957.
5656:
5615:
5604:
5585:
5552:
5526:(1): 173–182.
5503:
5476:
5467:|journal=
5422:
5379:
5372:
5354:
5315:(8): 683–696.
5295:
5241:
5197:
5186:
5166:
5159:
5138:
5113:
5106:
5086:
5079:
5059:
5040:
4998:
4991:
4973:
4965:
4946:
4926:
4881:
4855:
4829:
4800:
4783:
4729:
4703:
4654:
4639:
4632:
4614:
4589:
4554:
4519:
4465:
4435:
4417:
4389:
4371:978-0306413322
4370:
4350:
4343:
4325:
4314:
4294:
4268:
4261:
4243:
4236:
4218:
4207:
4184:
4173:
4150:
4139:
4119:
4098:
4087:
4064:
4015:
4004:
3982:
3963:(9): 857–858.
3947:
3908:(8): 627–637.
3888:
3844:
3837:
3819:
3801:
3794:
3776:
3769:
3751:
3744:
3738:. p. 17.
3722:
3715:
3697:
3686:
3662:
3651:
3627:
3620:
3602:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3550:
3549:
3544:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3520:
3518:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3494:
3490:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3466:
3463:
3456:
3455:
3448:
3441:
3433:
3425:
3424:
3418:
3417:
3416:
3413:Physics portal
3400:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3392:
3385:
3383:
3377:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3339:
3337:
3332:
3325:
3321:
3318:
3306:nanostructures
3272:
3269:
3216:
3213:
3205:complex system
3198:
3197:
3155:
3153:
3146:
3140:
3137:
3129:Hall parameter
3118:dyadic tensors
3074:kinetic energy
3041:
3040:MHD converters
3038:
3037:
3036:
3025:
3022:13.56 MHz
3008:
2989:
2976:
2968:
2964:
2949:
2946:
2945:
2944:
2928:
2919:
2911:
2908:13.56 MHz
2898:
2889:Glow discharge
2883:
2880:
2839:
2836:
2791:
2788:
2768:electric spark
2740:electric field
2725:discharge tube
2721:non-conducting
2717:dielectric gas
2705:Jacob's Ladder
2689:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2681:Lorentz forces
2672:
2669:
2651:
2647:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2625:
2598:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2576:
2572:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2541:
2538:
2492:, and much of
2460:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2445:
2440:
2432:
2425:
2418:
2412:
2409:nuclear fusion
2400:
2399:
2398:
2392:
2387:
2377:
2371:
2365:
2358:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2343:
2337:
2330:
2312:
2306:
2296:
2286:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2260:plasma physics
2256:plasma science
2252:academic field
2247:
2244:
2223:
2220:
2191:
2188:
2179:Main article:
2164:
2161:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2124:
2099:
2077:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2033:
2005:
2002:
1997:
1976:
1973:
1967:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1941:
1938:
1933:
1916:
1913:
1893:
1886:
1882:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1859:
1853:
1849:
1839:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1798:
1795:
1790:
1786:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1727:charge density
1699:
1695:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1640:
1637:
1604:is close to a
1570:
1567:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1491:
1486:
1482:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1433:
1429:
1406:
1402:
1379:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1334:
1312:
1290:
1286:
1269:
1266:
1244:
1241:
1224:Main article:
1221:
1218:
1210:particle beams
1197:Main article:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1188:collisionless.
1178:
1167:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1119:
1109:
1105:
1104:
1098:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1073:
1072:are the rule.
1063:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1046:
983:
980:
978:
975:
972:
971:
969:
968:
961:
954:
946:
943:
942:
938:
937:
932:
927:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
861:
860:
857:
856:
853:
852:
847:
846:
845:
844:
839:
834:
826:
825:
819:
818:
817:
816:
811:
806:
796:
791:
790:
787:
786:
781:
780:
774:
773:
771:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
734:
731:
730:
724:
723:
721:
720:
715:
710:
708:Chromatography
705:
700:
694:
691:
690:
684:
683:
681:
680:
661:
660:
659:
640:
628:
623:
611:
598:
595:
594:
586:
581:
580:
577:
576:
572:
571:
566:
561:
560:
559:
549:
544:
539:
538:
537:
532:
522:
517:
512:
507:
506:
505:
495:
489:
488:
483:
482:
479:
478:
473:
472:
471:
470:
462:
461:
457:
456:
455:
454:
449:
444:
436:
435:
429:
426:
425:
422:
421:
416:
402:
399:
394:
391:
385:
382:
379:
376:
365:
364:
358:
357:
278:
275:
251:plasma etching
94:
93:
84:
83:
75:
74:
73:
64:
63:
55:
54:
53:
44:
43:
35:
34:
33:
32:
31:
26:
18:Plasma Physics
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7316:
7305:
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7280:
7277:
7275:
7272:
7271:
7269:
7254:
7251:
7249:
7246:
7244:
7241:
7239:
7236:
7234:
7231:
7230:
7228:
7224:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7212:Ocean physics
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7195:
7193:
7190:
7188:
7185:
7183:
7180:
7178:
7175:
7173:
7170:
7169:
7167:
7165:
7161:
7155:
7152:
7148:
7147:Modern optics
7145:
7143:
7140:
7138:
7135:
7134:
7133:
7130:
7128:
7125:
7123:
7120:
7118:
7115:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7103:
7102:
7101:
7098:
7097:
7095:
7093:
7089:
7081:
7078:
7076:
7073:
7072:
7071:
7068:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7055:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7037:
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7018:
7017:
7014:
7013:
7011:
7009:
7005:
6997:
6996:Computational
6994:
6993:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6983:
6981:
6977:
6969:
6966:
6965:
6964:
6961:
6959:
6956:
6955:
6953:
6949:
6945:
6937:
6932:
6930:
6925:
6923:
6918:
6917:
6914:
6902:
6899:
6897:
6894:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6879:
6877:
6874:
6872:
6871:Mpemba effect
6869:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6851:Cooling curve
6849:
6847:
6844:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6833:
6831:
6827:
6821:
6818:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6801:
6798:
6796:
6793:
6791:
6788:
6787:
6785:
6781:
6775:
6774:Vitrification
6772:
6770:
6767:
6765:
6762:
6760:
6757:
6755:
6752:
6750:
6747:
6745:
6742:
6740:
6739:Recombination
6737:
6735:
6734:Melting point
6732:
6730:
6727:
6725:
6722:
6720:
6717:
6715:
6712:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6679:Critical line
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6669:Boiling point
6667:
6665:
6662:
6661:
6659:
6657:
6653:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6635:
6632:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6622:
6621:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6601:Exotic matter
6599:
6597:
6594:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6573:
6571:
6567:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6547:
6545:
6541:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6522:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6510:
6507:
6505:
6502:
6500:
6497:
6495:
6492:
6491:
6489:
6485:
6480:
6470:
6467:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6456:
6453:
6451:
6448:
6446:
6443:
6442:
6440:
6436:
6431:
6427:
6420:
6415:
6413:
6408:
6406:
6401:
6400:
6397:
6391:
6388:
6386:
6383:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6370:
6367:
6365:
6362:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6350:
6346:
6343:
6340:
6339:
6327:
6323:
6318:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6278:
6270:
6266:
6262:
6258:
6254:
6250:
6243:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6223:
6219:
6215:
6211:
6207:
6200:
6192:
6188:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6172:
6165:
6157:
6145:
6137:
6131:
6127:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6108:
6107:
6099:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6064:
6055:
6049:
6033:
6027:
6019:
6015:
6011:
6007:
6003:
5999:
5992:
5983:
5978:
5974:
5970:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5951:
5942:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5925:
5921:
5917:
5910:
5902:
5898:
5894:
5890:
5883:
5875:
5871:
5867:
5861:
5857:
5856:
5848:
5840:
5836:
5832:
5828:
5824:
5820:
5816:
5809:
5801:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5774:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5739:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5695:
5687:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5667:
5660:
5651:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5635:(2): 025322.
5634:
5630:
5626:
5619:
5611:
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5605:9781139471732
5601:
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5126:apod.nasa.gov
5123:
5117:
5109:
5103:
5099:
5098:
5090:
5082:
5076:
5072:
5071:
5063:
5048:on 3 May 2012
5047:
5043:
5041:0-87590-026-7
5037:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5009:
5002:
4994:
4992:9780120884254
4988:
4984:
4977:
4968:
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4958:
4957:
4949:
4943:
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4938:
4930:
4921:
4920:2027.42/70486
4916:
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4908:
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4896:
4892:
4885:
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4866:
4859:
4844:
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4801:9780309052313
4797:
4793:
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4772:
4768:
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4760:
4756:
4752:
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4744:
4740:
4733:
4718:
4714:
4707:
4699:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4674:(6): 060901.
4673:
4669:
4665:
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4650:
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4635:
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4625:
4618:
4603:
4599:
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4406:
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4393:
4385:
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4340:
4336:
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4321:
4317:
4311:
4307:
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4298:
4283:
4279:
4272:
4264:
4258:
4254:
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4233:
4229:
4222:
4214:
4210:
4208:9781139462150
4204:
4200:
4199:
4191:
4189:
4180:
4176:
4174:9781475755954
4170:
4166:
4165:
4157:
4155:
4146:
4142:
4140:9780387209753
4136:
4132:
4131:
4123:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4102:
4094:
4090:
4088:9781468418965
4084:
4080:
4079:
4074:
4068:
4060:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4035:(5316): 219.
4034:
4030:
4026:
4019:
4011:
4007:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3986:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
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3951:
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3934:
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3919:
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3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3892:
3876:
3872:
3858:
3854:
3848:
3840:
3834:
3830:
3823:
3815:
3811:
3805:
3797:
3791:
3788:. CRC Press.
3787:
3780:
3772:
3766:
3762:
3755:
3747:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3726:
3718:
3712:
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3693:
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3679:
3675:
3674:
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3658:
3654:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3639:
3631:
3623:
3617:
3613:
3606:
3590:
3586:
3579:
3575:
3564:
3562:
3561:Recombination
3559:
3552:
3551:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3530:
3529:
3524:
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3500:
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3478:
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3440:
3435:
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3423:
3420:
3419:
3414:
3408:
3403:
3389:
3384:
3381:
3374:
3369:
3362:
3357:
3338:
3335:
3329:
3324:
3323:
3317:
3315:
3314:nanomaterials
3311:
3307:
3304:of different
3303:
3298:
3293:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3278:Hannes Alfvén
3268:
3266:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3250:
3246:
3245:magnetic rope
3242:
3238:
3234:
3233:electric arcs
3230:
3226:
3222:
3215:Filamentation
3212:
3210:
3206:
3194:
3191:
3183:
3173:
3169:
3163:
3161:
3154:
3145:
3144:
3136:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3123:
3122:7-dimensional
3119:
3115:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3061:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2983:
2981:
2977:
2974:
2962:
2961:metallurgical
2958:
2956:
2955:Arc discharge
2952:
2951:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2909:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2890:
2886:
2885:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2835:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2804:
2796:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2758:) beyond its
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2706:
2701:
2694:
2682:
2677:
2676:Larmor orbits
2673:
2670:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2596:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2537:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2514:neutron stars
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2472:
2466:
2450:
2447:Interstellar
2446:
2444:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2423:
2419:
2417:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2385:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2375:polar aurorae
2372:
2370:
2366:
2363:
2362:magnetosphere
2359:
2357:
2354:
2353:
2352:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2334:fusion energy
2331:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2311:
2310:ion thrusters
2307:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2294:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2276:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2222:Kinetic model
2219:
2217:
2216:double layers
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2187:
2182:
2174:
2169:
2160:
2158:
2137:
2129:
2126:
2114:
2066:
2065:
2031:
2022:
2021:gyrofrequency
1995:
1974:
1971:
1951:
1946:
1931:
1922:
1915:Magnetization
1912:
1910:
1904:
1891:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1869:
1857:
1851:
1847:
1837:
1830:
1821:
1809:
1796:
1788:
1784:
1774:
1769:
1762:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1745:
1741:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1720:
1719:double layers
1715:
1697:
1693:
1686:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1662:
1658:
1649:
1645:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1596:
1595:Saha equation
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1579:electronvolts
1576:
1566:
1564:
1543:
1539:
1513:
1509:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1431:
1427:
1404:
1400:
1390:
1377:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1352:
1345:
1341:
1335:
1332:
1324:
1310:
1288:
1284:
1275:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1240:
1238:
1233:
1227:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1200:
1186:
1182:
1179:
1177:quasineutral.
1175:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1139:
1138:instabilities
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1067:
1064:
1062:Interactions
1061:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1045:
1044:
1041:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
991:
967:
962:
960:
955:
953:
948:
947:
945:
944:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
911:
908:
906:
903:
901:
898:
896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
866:
863:
862:
855:
854:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
829:
828:
827:
824:
821:
820:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
801:
800:
799:
794:
789:
788:
779:
776:
775:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
748:Charles's law
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
735:
733:
732:
729:
726:
725:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
695:
693:
692:
689:
686:
685:
679:
676:
672:
669:
665:
662:
657:
656:non-Newtonian
654:
650:
646:
645:
644:
641:
639:
636:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
615:
612:
610:
607:
603:
600:
599:
597:
596:
593:
590:
589:
584:
579:
578:
570:
567:
565:
562:
558:
555:
554:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
542:Compatibility
540:
536:
533:
531:
530:Finite strain
528:
527:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
504:
501:
500:
499:
496:
494:
491:
490:
486:
481:
480:
469:
466:
465:
464:
463:
459:
458:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
439:
438:
437:
434:Conservations
433:
432:
424:
423:
419:
400:
397:
392:
389:
383:
380:
377:
374:
367:
366:
363:
360:
359:
355:
354:
351:
349:
345:
340:
338:
334:
328:
326:
322:
318:
314:
306:
302:
299:
295:
277:Early history
274:
271:
267:
263:
259:
254:
252:
248:
244:
241:makes plasma
240:
235:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
174:
167:
163:
160:
159:Ancient Greek
156:
147:
143:
142:solar eclipse
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
118:
114:
113:Space Shuttle
110:
109:filamentation
106:
102:
98:
88:
79:
68:
59:
48:
39:
30:
19:
7294:Astrophysics
7172:Astrophysics
6986:Experimental
6896:Superheating
6769:Vaporization
6764:Triple point
6759:Supercooling
6724:Lambda point
6674:Condensation
6591:Time crystal
6569:Other states
6509:Quantum Hall
6468:
6380:More (Video)
6291:
6287:
6277:
6252:
6248:
6242:
6209:
6205:
6199:
6174:
6170:
6164:
6105:
6098:
6073:
6069:
6063:
6036:. Retrieved
6026:
6001:
5997:
5991:
5964:
5960:
5950:
5923:
5919:
5909:
5892:
5888:
5882:
5854:
5847:
5822:
5818:
5808:
5783:
5779:
5773:
5748:
5744:
5738:
5705:
5701:
5694:
5669:
5665:
5659:
5632:
5629:AIP Advances
5628:
5618:
5594:
5588:
5569:
5565:
5555:
5544:the original
5523:
5519:
5506:
5494:. Retrieved
5479:
5458:cite journal
5446:. Retrieved
5439:the original
5425:
5395:(22): R423.
5392:
5388:
5382:
5363:
5357:
5312:
5308:
5298:
5257:
5253:
5217:
5213:
5176:
5169:
5150:
5129:. Retrieved
5125:
5116:
5096:
5089:
5069:
5062:
5050:. Retrieved
5046:the original
5015:
5011:
5001:
4982:
4976:
4955:
4936:
4929:
4894:
4890:
4884:
4872:. Retrieved
4868:
4865:"chapter 15"
4858:
4846:. Retrieved
4842:
4832:
4791:
4786:
4774:. Retrieved
4749:(1): 59–83.
4746:
4742:
4732:
4720:. Retrieved
4716:
4706:
4671:
4667:
4657:
4648:
4642:
4623:
4617:
4605:. Retrieved
4601:
4592:
4567:
4563:
4557:
4532:
4528:
4522:
4510:. Retrieved
4485:(1): 21–51.
4482:
4478:
4468:
4456:. Retrieved
4447:
4438:
4426:. Retrieved
4409:10.1142/3634
4399:
4392:
4360:
4353:
4334:
4328:
4304:
4297:
4285:. Retrieved
4281:
4271:
4252:
4246:
4227:
4221:
4197:
4163:
4129:
4122:
4106:
4101:
4077:
4067:
4032:
4028:
4018:
3995:
3985:
3960:
3956:
3950:
3905:
3901:
3891:
3879:. Retrieved
3861:. Retrieved
3847:
3828:
3822:
3804:
3785:
3779:
3760:
3754:
3731:
3725:
3706:
3700:
3672:
3665:
3637:
3630:
3611:
3605:
3593:. Retrieved
3588:
3578:
3540:Condensation
3523:Vaporization
3486:
3378:Plasma in a
3354:Solar plasma
3294:
3274:
3253:
3249:Plasma pinch
3237:solar flares
3218:
3201:
3186:
3177:
3157:
3104:
3102:
3090:flow control
3082:moving parts
3063:
3010:
2991:
2978:
2953:
2930:
2921:
2913:
2900:
2887:
2841:
2812:Electric arc
2810:
2790:Electric arc
2733:
2709:
2543:
2510:white dwarfs
2475:
2468:
2382:, including
2340:Plasma globe
2268:
2259:
2255:
2249:
2225:
2193:
2184:
2062:
1918:
1905:
1810:
1724:
1717:
1714:Debye length
1661:Debye sheath
1654:
1599:
1572:
1391:
1325:
1271:
1236:
1232:dusty plasma
1229:
1226:Dusty plasma
1220:Dusty plasma
1214:Penning trap
1202:
1180:
1174:Debye length
1169:
1164:Debye sphere
1155:
1150:
1147:Ideal plasma
1121:
1111:
1100:
1090:
1075:
1065:
1038:
1019:
987:
985:
823:Smart fluids
777:
768:Graham's law
674:
667:
652:
638:Pascal's law
634:
617:
605:
460:Inequalities
348:blood plasma
342:
336:
332:
330:
310:
305:bodily fluid
255:
236:
214:, mostly in
172:
169:
162:
154:
153:
116:
105:plasma globe
29:
7075:Statistical
6991:Theoretical
6968:Engineering
6805:Latent heat
6754:Sublimation
6699:Evaporation
6634:Ferromagnet
6629:Ferrimagnet
6611:Dark matter
6543:High energy
5926:(6): 1338.
5131:10 February
5018:: 439–453.
4874:10 February
4848:10 February
4722:10 February
4607:10 February
4535:(5): 1439.
3595:10 February
3504:Sublimation
3432:of matter (
3261:micrometers
3221:plasma ball
3125:phase space
3094:shock waves
3078:electricity
2971:to produce
2868:luminescent
2864:fluorescent
2850:(coating),
2522:binary star
2518:black holes
2332:Plasmas in
2320:heat shield
2240:gyrokinetic
2190:Fluid model
2064:anisotropic
1569:Temperature
1122:Two or more
1066:Short-range
977:Definitions
842:Ferrofluids
743:Boyle's law
515:Hooke's law
493:Deformation
294:microfields
101:neon lights
7268:Categories
7192:Geophysics
7182:Biophysics
7026:Analytical
6979:Approaches
6820:Volatility
6783:Quantities
6744:Regelation
6719:Ionization
6694:Deposition
6646:Superglass
6616:Antimatter
6550:QCD matter
6529:Supersolid
6524:Superfluid
6487:Low energy
6038:26 January
5786:(3): 123.
4458:25 October
3571:References
3547:Ionization
3535:Deposition
3086:efficiency
3084:at a high
3058:See also:
3016:this is a
2844:metallurgy
2486:heliopause
2482:solar wind
2416:solar wind
2369:ionosphere
2328:atmosphere
2316:spacecraft
2304:neon signs
1628:See also:
1606:Maxwellian
1274:ionization
1095:insulators
1076:Long-range
1070:collisions
895:Gay-Lussac
858:Scientists
758:Fick's law
738:Atmosphere
557:frictional
510:Plasticity
498:Elasticity
344:Lewi Tonks
301:simulation
262:Neon signs
157:(from
7142:Molecular
7043:Acoustics
7036:Continuum
7031:Celestial
7021:Newtonian
7008:Classical
6951:Divisions
6154:ignored (
6144:cite book
5874:690642377
5825:(1): 20.
5686:137392051
5417:116995929
5309:Materials
5290:206069219
5052:25 August
4818:cite book
4771:122977170
4763:1572-946X
4698:1070-664X
4507:250739485
4499:1063-7869
4075:(1972) .
3302:synthesis
3229:lightning
3180:June 2024
3168:talk page
3112:with low
2973:aluminium
2816:lightning
2807:electron.
2776:conductor
2772:insulator
2633:≫
2534:M87's jet
2520:in close
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2326:into the
2138:×
2130:−
2032:ν
1996:ν
1952:ν
1932:ν
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1825:→
1766:Φ
1757:
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1648:Lightning
1549:⟩
1536:⟨
1506:⟩
1493:⟨
1454:α
1333:α
1311:α
1253:rendition
1251:Artist's
1126:Electrons
1101:Very high
1022:particles
935:Truesdell
865:Bernoulli
814:Rheometer
809:Rheometry
649:Newtonian
643:Viscosity
393:φ
381:−
266:lightning
204:electrons
97:Lightning
6881:Spinodal
6829:Concepts
6709:Freezing
6372:Archived
6345:Archived
6326:23330064
6294:: 1083.
6234:26797662
6048:cite web
5730:18930244
5610:Archived
5572:: 1–14.
5490:Archived
5448:12 April
5349:28773804
5282:18499345
5192:Archived
4810:42854229
4512:19 March
4452:Archived
4428:19 March
4384:Archived
4320:Archived
4213:Archived
4179:Archived
4145:Archived
4093:Archived
4059:16063290
4010:Archived
3942:16587379
3875:Archived
3857:Archived
3814:Archived
3736:Springer
3692:Archived
3657:Archived
3643:Springer
3585:"πλάσμα"
3516:Freezing
3399:See also
3080:with no
3031::" is a
2530:galaxies
2336:research
2324:re-entry
2206:and the
1987:, where
1614:magnetic
1610:electric
1528:, where
1091:Very low
1050:Property
793:Rheology
698:Adhesion
678:Pressure
664:Buoyancy
609:Dynamics
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117:Atlantis
7226:Related
7110:General
7105:Special
6963:Applied
6841:Binodal
6729:Melting
6664:Boiling
6581:Crystal
6576:Colloid
6317:3547321
6296:Bibcode
6257:Bibcode
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4776:15 July
4676:Bibcode
4572:Bibcode
4537:Bibcode
4380:9852700
4037:Bibcode
3965:Bibcode
3933:1085653
3910:Bibcode
3553:Plasma
3512:Liquid
3499:Melting
3380:tokamak
3320:Gallery
3209:fractal
2891:plasmas
2856:welding
2852:etching
2780:ionized
2774:into a
2752:voltage
2748:cathode
2449:nebulae
2384:sprites
2322:during
2298:Inside
1623:z-pinch
1134:charges
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2995:(DBD):
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