1183:. This is the chemical reaction in which chemical energy is converted to light energy. It is estimated that 90% of deep-sea animals produce some sort of bioluminescence. Considering that a large proportion of the visible light spectrum is absorbed before reaching the deep sea, most of the emitted light from the sea-animals is blue and green. However, some species may emit a red and infrared light, and there has even been a genus that is found to emit yellow bioluminescence. The organ that is responsible for the emission of bioluminescence is known as photophores. This type is only present in squid and fish, and is used to illuminate their ventral surfaces, which disguise their silhouettes from predators. The uses of the photophores in the sea-animals differ, such as lenses for controlling intensity of color, and the intensity of the light produced. Squids have both photophores and chromatophores which controls both of these intensities. Another thing that is responsible for the emission of bioluminescence, which is evident in the bursts of light that
1220:. Biochromes are colors chemically formed microscopic, natural pigments. Their chemical composition is created to take in some color of light and reflect the rest. In contrast, schematochromes (structural colors) are colors created by light reflections from a colorless surface and refractions by tissues. Schematochromes act like prisms, refracting and dispersing visible light to the surroundings, which will eventually reflect a specific combination of colors. These categories are determined by the movement of pigments within the chromatophores. The physiological color changes are short-term and fast, found in fishes, and are a result from an animal's response to a change in the environment. In contrast, the morphological color changes are long-term changes, occurs in different stages of the animal, and are due to the change of numbers of chromatophores. To change the color pigments, transparency, or opacity, the cells alter in form and size, and stretch or contract their outer covering.
1167:
tyrosinase, and the alkali-soluble phaeomelanins which range from a yellow to red brown color, arising from the deviation of the eumelanin pathway through the intervention of cysteine and/or glutathione. Eumelanins are usually found in the skin and eyes. Several different melanins include melanoprotein (dark brown melanin that is stored in high concentrations in the ink sac of the cuttlefish Sepia
Officianalis), echinoidea (found in sand dollars, and the hearts of sea urchins), holothuroidea (found in sea cucumbers), and ophiuroidea (found in brittle and snake stars). These melanins are possibly polymers which arise from the repeated coupling of simple bi-polyfunctional monomeric intermediates, or of high molecular weights. The compounds benzothiazole and tetrahydroisoquinoline ring systems act as UV-absorbing compounds.
1247:
waters is less brilliant than the organisms that live in well-lit areas due to the reduction of pigments. In the colonies of the colonial ascidian-cyanophyte symbiosis
Trididemnum solidum, their colors are different depending on the light regime in which they live. The colonies that are exposed to full sunlight are heavily calcified, thicker, and are white. In contrast the colonies that live in shaded areas have more phycoerythrin (pigment that absorbs green) in comparison to phycocyanin (pigment that absorbs red), thinner, and are purple. The purple color in the shaded colonies are mainly due to the phycobilin pigment of the algae, meaning the variation of exposure in light changes the colors of these colonies.
1105:
rituals and camouflage. There are two main types of carotenoproteins: Type A and Type B. Type A has carotenoids (chromogen) which are stoichiometrically associated with a simple protein (glycoprotein). The second type, Type B, has carotenoids which are associated with a lipo protein and is usually less stable. While Type A is commonly found in the surface (shells and skins) of marine invertebrates, Type B is usually in eggs, ovaries, and blood. The colors and characteristic absorption of these carotenoprotein complexes are based upon the chemical binding of the chromogen and the protein subunits.
1216:. The first type is the erythrophores, which contains reddish pigments such as carotenoids and pteridines. The second type is the melanophores, which contains black and brown pigments such as the melanins. The third type is the xanthophores which contains yellow pigments in the forms of carotenoids. The various colors are made by the combination of the different layers of the chromatophores. These cells are usually located beneath the skin or scale the animals. There are two categories of colors generated by the cell – biochromes and
33:
532:
301:
289:
1124:, which gives off a purple-blue and green pigment. Astaxanthin's color is formed by creating complexes with proteins in a certain order. For example, the crustochrin has approximately 20 astaxanthin molecules bonded with protein. When the complexes interact by exciton-exciton interaction, it lowers the absorbance maximum, changing the different color pigments.
1131:(max 632 nm), a slate-blue pigment found in the lobster's carapace. The second one is crustochrin (max 409), a yellow pigment which is found on the outer layer of the carapace. Lastly, the lipoglycoprotein and ovoverdin forms a bright green pigment that is usually present in the outer layers of the carapace and the lobster eggs.
1273:, topsentins, and debromohymenialdisine have several lead compounds in the field of inflammation, rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis respectively. There's evidence that topsentins are potent mediators of immunogenic inflation, and topsentin and scytonemin are potent inhibitors of neurogenic inflammation.
1203:
are color pigment changing cells that are directly stimulated by central motor neurons. They are primarily used for quick environmental adaptation for camouflaging. The process of changing the color pigment of their skin relies on a single highly developed chromatophore cell and many muscles, nerves,
1255:
Aposematism is the warning coloration to signal potential predators to stay away. In many chromodorid nudibranchs, they take in distasteful and toxic chemicals emitted from sponges and store them in their repugnatorial glands (located around the mantle edge). Predators of nudibranchs have learned to
1187:
emit, start with a luciferin (a photogen) and ends with the light emitter (a photagogikon.) Luciferin, luciferase, salt, and oxygen react and combine to create a single unit called photo-proteins, which can produce light when reacted with another molecule such as Ca+. Jellyfish use this as a defense
1246:
Coloration in invertebrates varies based on the depth, water temperature, food source, currents, geographic location, light exposure, and sedimentation. For example, the amount of carotenoid a certain sea anemone decreases as we go deeper into the ocean. Thus, the marine life that resides on deeper
1237:
It's known that animals use their color patterns to warn off predators, however it has been observed that a sponge pigment mimicked a chemical which involved the regulation of moulting of an amphipod that was known to prey on sponges. So whenever that amphipod eats the sponge, the chemical pigments
1166:
There are several different types of melanins considering that they are an aggregate of smaller component molecules, such as nitrogen containing melanins. There are two classes of pigments: black and brown insoluble eumelanins, which are derived from aerobic oxidation of tyrosine in the presence of
1268:
Sesquiterpenoids are recognized for their blue and purple colors, but it has also been reported to exhibit various bioactivities such as antibacterial, immunoregulating, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic, as well as the inhibitory activity against cell division in the fertilized sea urchin and ascidian
630:
Algae are very diverse photosynthetic organisms, which differ from plants in that they are aquatic organisms, they do not present vascular tissue and do not generate an embryo. However, both types of organisms share the possession of photosynthetic pigments, which absorb and release energy that is
1162:
is a class of compounds that serves as a pigment with different structures responsible for dark, tan, yellowish / reddish pigments in marine animals. It is produced as the amino acid tyrosine is converted into melanin, which is found in the skin, hair, and eyes. Derived from aerobic oxidation of
1112:
has about 100-200 carotenoid molecules per every complex. In addition, the functions of these pigment-protein complexes also change their chemical structure as well. Carotenoproteins that are within the photosynthetic structure are more common, but complicated. Pigment-protein complexes that are
1264:
Pigments of marine animals serve several different purposes, other than defensive roles. Some pigments are known to protect against UV (see photo-protective pigments.) In the nudibranch
Nembrotha Kubaryana, tetrapyrrole pigment 13 has been found to be a potent antimicrobial agent. Also in this
1228:
Due to damage from UV-A and UV-B, marine animals have evolved to have compounds that absorb UV light and act as sunscreen. Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) can absorb UV rays at 310-360 nm. Melanin is another well-known UV-protector. Carotenoids and photopigments both indirectly act as
1104:
Marine animals are incapable of making their own carotenoids and thus rely on plants for these pigments. Carotenoproteins are especially common among marine animals. These complexes are responsible for the various colors (red, purple, blue, green, etc.) to these marine invertebrates for mating
631:
later used by the cell. These pigments in addition to chlorophylls, are phycobiliproteins, fucoxanthins, xanthophylls and carotenes, which serve to trap the energy of light and lead it to the primary pigment, which is responsible for initiating oxygenic photosynthesis reactions.
1191:
In reef-building coral and sea anemones, they fluoresce; light is absorbed at one wavelength, and re-emitted at another. These pigments may act as natural sunscreens, aid in photosynthesis, serve as warning coloration, attract mates, warn rivals, or confuse predators.
1150:
NH. The main role of the tetrapyrroles is their connection in the biological oxidation process. Tetrapyrroles have a major role in electron transport and act as a replacement for many enzymes. They also have a role in the pigmentation of the marine organism's tissues.
1269:
eggs. Several other pigments have been shown to be cytotoxic. In fact, two new carotenoids that were isolated from a sponge called
Phakellia stelliderma showed mild cytotoxicity against mouse leukemia cells. Other pigments with medical involvements include
1188:
mechanism; when a smaller predator is attempting to devour a jellyfish, it will flash its lights, which would therefore lure a larger predator and chase the smaller predator away. It is also used as mating behavior.
488:. They occur in all tissues of higher plants, providing color in leaves, plant stem, roots, flowers, and fruits, though not always in sufficient quantities to be noticeable. Anthocyanins are most visible in the
1036:
A variety of diseases and abnormal conditions that involve pigmentation are in humans and animals, either from absence of or loss of pigmentation or pigment cells, or from the excess production of pigment.
1054:, also called "fish scale disease", is an inherited condition in which one symptom is excess production of melanin. The skin is darker than normal, and is characterized by darkened, scaly, dry patches.
1852:
Bryon, Astrid; Kurlovs, Andre H.; Dermauw, Wannes; Greenhalgh, Robert; Riga, Maria; Grbić, Miodrag; Tirry, Luc; Osakabe, Masahiro; Vontas, John; Clark, Richard M.; Van
Leeuwen, Thomas (18 July 2017).
434:
as well as singlet oxygen scavenging for prevention of photooxidative damage), and also serve as protein structural elements. In higher plants, they also serve as precursors to the plant hormone
1024:(family Cecidomyiidae) are the only known animals capable of synthesizing carotenoids. The presence of genes for synthesizing carotenoids in these arthropods has been attributed to independent
2093:
Milicua JC, Barandiaran A, Macarulla JM, Garate AM, Gomez R (November 1985). "Structural characteristics of the carotenoids binding to the blue carotenoprotein from
Procambarus clarkii".
1256:
avoid these certain nudibranchs based on their bright color patterns. Preys also protect themselves by their toxic compounds ranging from a variety of organic and inorganic compounds.
1204:
glial and sheath cells. Chromatophores contract and contain vesicles that stores three different liquid pigments. Each color is indicated by the three types of chromatophore cells:
323:
and several colorful pigments that absorb as much light energy as possible. Pigments are also known to play a role in pollination where pigment accumulation or loss can lead to
1585:
GarcĂa-Plazaola JI, Matsubara S, Osmond CB (September 2007). "The lutein epoxide cycle in higher plants: its relationships to other xanthophyll cycles and possible functions".
1048:. Humans and animals that suffer from albinism are called "albinistic" (the term "albino" is also sometimes used, but may be considered offensive when applied to people).
1113:
outside of the photosynthetic system are less common, but have a simpler structure. For example, there are only two of these blue astaxanthin-proteins in the jellyfish,
1060:
is a condition in which dark brown patches of pigment appear on the face, influenced by hormonal changes. When it occurs during a pregnancy, this condition is called
528:. Other less common carotenoids in plants include lutein epoxide (in many woody species), lactucaxanthin (found in lettuce), and alpha carotene (found in carrots).
2130:"The lobster carapace carotenoprotein, alpha-crustacyanin. A possible role for tryptophan in the bathochromic spectral shift of protein-bound astaxanthin"
1229:
photo-protective pigments, as they quench oxygen free-radicals. They also supplement photosynthetic pigments that absorb light energy in the blue region.
1002:
groups that help to carry oxygen in the blood, are colored as a result of happenstance. Their color does not have a protective or signalling function.
1620:
1217:
797:
2397:
1109:
1101:
are the most common group of pigments found in nature. Over 600 different kinds of carotenoids are found in animals, plants, and microorganisms.
2056:"Carotenoids and chlorophyllic pigments in the marine snail, Cerithidea californica Haldeman, intermediate host for several avian trematodes"
647:
1854:"Disruption of a horizontally transferred phytoene desaturase abolishes carotenoid accumulation and diapause in Tetranychus urticae"
2305:
48:. The blue and white bird in the background lacks the yellow pigment. The dark markings on both birds are due to the black pigment
72:
1990:
1503:
642:
as a light harvesting pigment. While carotenoids can be found complexed within chlorophyll-binding proteins such as the
618:
released from degradation of light harvesting complexes are stored all winter in the tree's roots, branches, stems, and
446:
are red or yellow pigments. Like anthocyanins they are water-soluble, but unlike anthocyanins they are synthesized from
2037:
374:. It is the presence and relative abundance of chlorophyll that gives plants their green color. All land plants and
2275:
643:
17:
1924:"Carotenoids in unexpected places: Gall midges, lateral gene transfer, and carotenoid biosynthesis in animals"
1265:
creature, tamjamines A, B, C, E, and F has shown antimicrobial, antitumor, and immunosuppressive activities.
130:
wings typically contain structural color, although many butterflies have cells that contain pigment as well.
1402:"Coloration principles of nymphaline butterflies - thin films, melanin, ommochromes and wing scale stacking"
410:. All chlorophylls serve as the primary means plants use to intercept light in order to fuel photosynthesis.
2540:
2298:
1624:
1570:
Young AJ, Phillip D, Savill J (1997). "Carotenoids in higher plant photosynthesis.". In
Pessaraki M (ed.).
520:. Lutein is a yellow pigment found in fruits and vegetables and is the most abundant carotenoid in plants.
2545:
431:
1977:, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol. 1261, Singapore: Springer, pp. 217–220,
462:), and never co-occur in plants with anthocyanins. Betalains are responsible for the deep red color of
2269:
1923:
1797:"Horizontally transferred fungal carotenoid genes in the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae"
651:
1142:
are the next most common group of pigments. They have four pyrrole rings, each ring consisting of C
1025:
118:
in that it is the same for all viewing angles, whereas structural color is the result of selective
2291:
1127:
In lobsters, there are various types of astaxanthin-protein complexes present. The first one is
2255:
2249:
1297:
1659:
1465:
1051:
1322:
2402:
1865:
1745:
1528:
1175:
The only light source in the deep sea, marine animals give off visible light energy called
351:
327:, signaling to pollinators which flowers are rewarding and contain more pollen and nectar.
119:
111:. In some species, pigments accrue over very long periods during an individual's lifespan.
2192:
Bandaranayake WM (April 2006). "The nature and role of pigments of marine invertebrates".
8:
2174:
1013:
1005:
785:
324:
1869:
1749:
1532:
603:
are revealed. These pigments are present throughout the year, but the red pigments, the
2509:
2407:
2264:
2150:
2129:
2110:
2075:
2004:
1896:
1853:
1829:
1796:
1777:
1709:
1682:
1552:
1431:
1377:
1348:
697:
red-purple pigment, it is the dominant one in the species that have a red-purple color.
423:
1733:
1353:
sets freshwater teleost record as improved age analysis reveals centenarian longevity"
2227:
2209:
2155:
2033:
2008:
1996:
1986:
1951:
1943:
1901:
1883:
1834:
1816:
1769:
1761:
1714:
1663:
1602:
1544:
1499:
1469:
1423:
1382:
1180:
959:
608:
546:
139:
2114:
1781:
1435:
422:. During the process of photosynthesis, they have functions in light-harvesting (as
2450:
2244:
2201:
2145:
2137:
2102:
2067:
1978:
1935:
1891:
1873:
1824:
1808:
1753:
1704:
1694:
1655:
1594:
1556:
1536:
1461:
1413:
1372:
1364:
1302:
963:
234:
115:
45:
44:
pigment and its green color from a combination of the same yellow pigment and blue
1922:
Cobbs, Cassidy; Heath, Jeremy; Stireman, John O.; Abbot, Patrick (1 August 2013).
788:
and bacteriochlorophyll b. In cyanobacteria, many other carotenoids exist such as
2494:
2055:
1982:
1969:
Misawa, Norihiko; Takemura, Miho; Maoka, Takashi (2021), Misawa, Norihiko (ed.),
1176:
842:
793:
635:
427:
1939:
1734:"Lateral Transfer of Genes from Fungi Underlies Carotenoid Production in Aphids"
1347:
Lackmann AR, Andrews AH, Butler MG, Bielak-Lackmann ES, Clark ME (23 May 2019).
1970:
619:
595:(NCCs). As the predominant chlorophylls degrade, the hidden pigments of yellow
545:
A particularly noticeable manifestation of pigmentation in plants is seen with
505:
451:
419:
316:
239:
41:
1368:
370:
that absorbs blue and red wavelengths of light while reflecting a majority of
2534:
2504:
2435:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2268:
1947:
1887:
1820:
1765:
1699:
1683:"Fungal and Bacterial Pigments: Secondary Metabolites with Wide Applications"
1548:
1288:
Pigments (such as astaxanthin and lycopene) are used as dietary supplements.
1200:
1139:
1021:
952:
924:
847:
831:
827:
789:
781:
777:
769:
761:
694:
600:
535:
435:
214:
108:
1878:
1795:
Altincicek, Boran; Kovacs, Jennifer L.; Gerardo, Nicole M. (23 April 2012).
1757:
517:
2440:
2336:
2248:
2213:
2000:
1955:
1905:
1838:
1812:
1773:
1718:
1667:
1606:
1519:
Weiss MR (November 1991). "Floral colour changes as cues for pollinators".
1473:
1427:
1386:
1205:
1128:
974:
753:
588:
501:
262:
252:
187:
2283:
2159:
1080:
is a condition in which there is a loss of pigment-producing cells called
32:
2499:
2478:
2430:
2389:
2346:
1213:
1209:
1121:
1081:
1071:
992:
948:
857:
836:
765:
745:
717:
712:
604:
596:
470:
375:
362:
339:
320:
304:
293:
230:
210:
154:
142:
for electron bond chemistry that causes these molecules to have pigment.
123:
1452:
Grotewold E (2006). "The genetics and biochemistry of floral pigments".
951:. Some animals including fish, amphibians and cephalopods use pigmented
531:
300:
2519:
2460:
2106:
2079:
1418:
1401:
1270:
1098:
967:
940:
852:
801:
773:
757:
733:
650:, they also are found within dedicated carotenoid proteins such as the
615:
509:
497:
475:
414:
395:
335:
288:
218:
181:
166:
162:
37:
2141:
2422:
2205:
1646:
Hörtensteiner S (2006). "Chlorophyll degradation during senescence".
1540:
1184:
977:
898:
749:
741:
639:
554:
478:
331:
277:
273:
205:
176:
170:
158:
150:
127:
49:
2071:
1598:
1346:
346:. All biological pigments selectively absorb certain wavelengths of
2473:
2468:
2412:
2331:
2323:
1077:
1044:
is an inherited disorder characterized by total or partial loss of
1041:
539:
521:
481:
459:
447:
442:
343:
201:
197:
193:
92:
2514:
2379:
2092:
1159:
1057:
1045:
988:
984:
944:
939:
Pigmentation is used by many animals for protection, by means of
737:
367:
308:
269:
248:
104:
2445:
1070:
is an accumulation of pigment in the eye, and may be caused by
980:
intercepts light as the first step in the perception of light.
577:
573:
565:
525:
513:
455:
391:
256:
243:
222:
1584:
622:
until next spring when they are recycled to re‑leaf the tree.
1851:
581:
561:
550:
489:
371:
347:
68:
839:
blue-green pigment, is the dominant pigment in cyanobacteria
999:
955:
to provide camouflage that varies to match the background.
557:
463:
387:
146:
100:
84:
190:(algal pigments, mixes of carotenoids and their derivates)
67:, are substances produced by living organisms that have a
2127:
1282:
1238:
prevents the moulting, and the amphipod eventually dies.
569:
126:, usually because of multilayer structures. For example,
96:
88:
2128:
Zagalsky PF, Eliopoulos EE, Findlay JB (February 1991).
1971:"Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Animals: Case of Arthropods"
614:
once roughly half of chlorophyll has been degraded. The
496:
Plants, in general, contain six ubiquitous carotenoids:
1921:
1794:
1399:
485:
1975:
998:
However, some biological pigments in animals, such as
784:, and chlorophyll f. Purple sulfur bacteria produce
1968:
1241:
1117:, contains only about 100 carotenoids per complex.
1093:
1569:
1400:Stavenga DG, Leertouwer HL, Wilts BD (June 2014).
1680:
1574:. New York: Taylor and Francis. pp. 575–596.
2532:
1732:Moran, Nancy A.; Jarvik, Tyler (30 April 2010).
564:whereby they take on, during a few weeks in the
524:is the red pigment responsible for the color of
2398:1,7-Bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1,4,6-heptatrien-3-one
1858:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
378:possess two forms of this pigment: chlorophyll
330:Plant pigments include many molecules, such as
242:: a class of red and yellow pigments unique to
450:. This class of pigments is found only in the
315:The primary function of pigments in plants is
2299:
2191:
1645:
1232:
1088:
2185:
1496:Nature's Palette: The Science of Plant Color
1223:
2313:
2121:
1731:
1578:
1259:
406:, while red algae possess only chlorophyll
2306:
2292:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1031:
366:is the primary pigment in plants; it is a
2243:
2175:"Yes, It's a Lobster, and Yes, It's Blue"
2149:
1895:
1877:
1828:
1708:
1698:
1451:
1417:
1376:
970:use their chromatophores to communicate.
549:, a phenomenon that affects the normally
1660:10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105212
1498:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1466:10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105248
530:
357:The principal pigments responsible are:
299:
287:
31:
2315:
2263:
2053:
2021:
1621:"The Science of Color in Autumn Leaves"
1480:
1108:For example, the blue carotenoprotein,
727:
27:Substances produced by living organisms
14:
2533:
1681:Narsing Rao MP, Xiao M, Li WJ (2017).
1281:Pigments may be extracted and used as
1250:
934:
593:nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites
484:that appear red to blue, according to
133:
83:. Many biological structures, such as
2287:
2172:
1928:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
1917:
1915:
1518:
283:
2032:. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
2027:
1447:
1445:
625:
587:Chlorophylls degrade into colorless
1493:
1406:The Journal of Experimental Biology
964:courtship and reproductive behavior
24:
1912:
1170:
1120:A common carotenoid in animals is
732:Bacteria produce pigments such as
255:: red and green pigments found in
25:
2557:
2237:
2230:." WebExhibits. Web. 2 June 2010.
2228:Bioluminescence | Causes of Color
1442:
1340:
1195:
1323:"biochrome - biological pigment"
1242:Environmental influence on color
1134:
1094:Carotenoids and carotenoproteins
2220:
2166:
2086:
2047:
1962:
1845:
1788:
1725:
1674:
1639:
644:photosynthetic reaction centers
319:, which uses the green pigment
2276:New International Encyclopedia
1648:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1613:
1563:
1512:
1454:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1393:
1315:
808:Table 2. Pigments in bacteria
474:(literally "flower blue") are
75:. Biological pigments include
13:
1:
2136:. 274 ( Pt 1) (Pt 1): 79–83.
1308:
40:gets its yellow color from a
1983:10.1007/978-981-15-7360-6_19
1163:phenols, they are polymers.
962:between animals, such as in
538:bracts get their color from
265:: white color of some plants
107:in specialized cells called
7:
1940:10.1016/j.ympev.2013.03.012
1291:
886:Bacteriochlorophyll c and e
874:Bacteriochlorophyll a and b
658:Table 1. Pigments in algae
492:of flowers of many species.
432:non-photochemical quenching
418:are red, orange, or yellow
394:, and other photosynthetic
292:Space-filling model of the
114:Pigment color differs from
10:
2562:
2054:Nadakal AM (August 1960).
1572:Handbook of Photosynthesis
1233:Defensive role of pigments
1154:
1089:Pigments in marine animals
648:light-harvesting complexes
634:Algal phototrophs such as
568:season, various shades of
311:their purple pigmentation.
2487:
2459:
2421:
2388:
2345:
2322:
2173:Chang K (15 March 2005).
1687:Frontiers in Microbiology
1369:10.1038/s42003-019-0452-0
1224:Photo-protective pigments
1028:(HGT) events from fungi.
987:may protect tissues from
652:orange carotenoid protein
103:contain pigments such as
71:resulting from selective
2270:"Color, in Plants"
1700:10.3389/fmicb.2017.01113
1587:Functional Plant Biology
1260:Physiological activities
1026:horizontal gene transfer
1014:two-spotted spider mites
958:Pigmentation is used in
430:(energy dissipation via
2250:"Color in Plants"
2194:Natural Product Reports
2134:The Biochemical Journal
2060:The Biological Bulletin
1879:10.1073/pnas.1706865114
1758:10.1126/science.1187113
1327:Encyclopædia Britannica
1276:
1032:Diseases and conditions
704:Golden and Brown algae
59:, also known simply as
2256:Encyclopedia Americana
1813:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0704
1357:Communications Biology
1298:Photosynthetic pigment
983:Skin pigments such as
542:
312:
297:
53:
1062:the mask of pregnancy
786:bacteriochlorophyll a
534:
303:
291:
35:
2403:Bisdemethoxycurcumin
1351:Ictiobus cyprinellus
966:. For example, some
728:Pigments in bacteria
398:contain chlorophyll
2541:Biological pigments
1870:2017PNAS..114E5871B
1864:(29): E5871–E5880.
1750:2010Sci...328..624M
1533:1991Natur.354..227W
1251:Adaptive coloration
1084:in patches of skin.
1068:ocular pigmentation
1052:Lamellar ichthyosis
1018:Tetranychus urticae
1010:Acyrthosiphon pisum
935:Pigments in animals
809:
709:Chlorophyll a and c
676:Chlorophyll a and b
659:
325:floral color change
259:and related species
134:Biological pigments
57:Biological pigments
2546:Warning coloration
2510:Phycoerythrocyanin
2408:Desmethoxycurcumin
2179:The New York Times
2107:10.1007/BF01950050
1419:10.1242/jeb.098673
1412:(Pt 12): 2171–80.
1349:"Bigmouth Buffalo
949:warning coloration
807:
657:
654:of cyanobacteria.
543:
424:accessory pigments
313:
298:
284:Pigments in plants
140:conjugated systems
54:
2528:
2527:
2451:Condensed tannins
2142:10.1042/bj2740079
1992:978-981-15-7360-6
1744:(5978): 624–627.
1527:(6350): 227–229.
1505:978-0-226-47105-1
1181:chemiluminescence
932:
931:
725:
724:
691:Phycobiliproteins
626:Pigments in algae
547:autumn leaf color
235:phycobiliproteins
196:: alpha and beta
16:(Redirected from
2553:
2308:
2301:
2294:
2285:
2284:
2280:
2272:
2260:
2252:
2231:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2206:10.1039/b307612c
2189:
2183:
2182:
2170:
2164:
2163:
2153:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2090:
2084:
2083:
2051:
2045:
2043:
2028:Rang HP (2003).
2025:
2019:
2018:
2017:
2015:
1966:
1960:
1959:
1919:
1910:
1909:
1899:
1881:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1832:
1792:
1786:
1785:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1712:
1702:
1678:
1672:
1671:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1623:. Archived from
1617:
1611:
1610:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1541:10.1038/354227a0
1516:
1510:
1509:
1491:
1478:
1477:
1449:
1440:
1439:
1421:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1380:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1319:
1303:Human skin color
893:Chromobacterium
869:Purple bacteria
810:
806:
660:
656:
382:and chlorophyll
175:Light-emitting:
116:structural color
73:color absorption
46:structural color
21:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2551:
2550:
2531:
2530:
2529:
2524:
2495:Allophycocyanin
2483:
2455:
2417:
2384:
2341:
2318:
2312:
2240:
2235:
2234:
2225:
2221:
2190:
2186:
2171:
2167:
2126:
2122:
2091:
2087:
2072:10.2307/1538938
2052:
2048:
2040:
2026:
2022:
2013:
2011:
1993:
1967:
1963:
1920:
1913:
1850:
1846:
1801:Biology Letters
1793:
1789:
1730:
1726:
1679:
1675:
1644:
1640:
1630:
1628:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1599:10.1071/FP07095
1583:
1579:
1568:
1564:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1494:Lee DW (2007).
1492:
1481:
1450:
1443:
1398:
1394:
1345:
1341:
1331:
1329:
1321:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1294:
1279:
1262:
1253:
1244:
1235:
1226:
1218:schematochromes
1198:
1177:bioluminescence
1173:
1171:Bioluminescence
1157:
1149:
1145:
1137:
1115:Velella velella
1096:
1091:
1034:
937:
919:Micromonospora
881:Green bacteria
843:Allophycocyanin
826:Chlorophyll a,
794:myxoxanthophyll
730:
636:dinoflagellates
628:
553:leaves of many
428:photoprotection
420:tetraterpenoids
286:
240:Psittacofulvins
229:Proteinaceous:
136:
81:flower pigments
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2559:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2465:
2463:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2436:Anthocyanidins
2433:
2427:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2394:
2392:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2351:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2339:
2334:
2328:
2326:
2320:
2319:
2316:plant pigments
2311:
2310:
2303:
2296:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2261:
2239:
2238:External links
2236:
2233:
2232:
2226:Webexhibits. "
2219:
2184:
2165:
2120:
2101:(11): 1485–6.
2085:
2046:
2038:
2020:
1991:
1961:
1934:(2): 221–228.
1911:
1844:
1807:(2): 253–257.
1787:
1724:
1673:
1638:
1612:
1593:(9): 759–773.
1577:
1562:
1511:
1504:
1479:
1441:
1392:
1339:
1313:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1278:
1275:
1261:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1243:
1240:
1234:
1231:
1225:
1222:
1201:Chromatophores
1197:
1196:Chromatophores
1194:
1179:, a subset of
1172:
1169:
1156:
1153:
1147:
1143:
1136:
1133:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1075:
1065:
1055:
1049:
1033:
1030:
953:chromatophores
936:
933:
930:
929:
928:
927:
920:
916:
915:
914:
913:
908:
904:
903:
902:
901:
894:
890:
889:
888:
887:
882:
878:
877:
876:
875:
870:
866:
865:
864:
863:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
834:
822:
821:Cyanobacteria
818:
817:
814:
798:synechoxanthin
729:
726:
723:
722:
721:
720:
715:
710:
705:
701:
700:
699:
698:
692:
689:
684:
680:
679:
678:
677:
672:
668:
667:
664:
627:
624:
506:antheraxanthin
494:
493:
467:
452:Caryophyllales
439:
411:
317:photosynthesis
285:
282:
281:
280:
266:
260:
246:
237:
227:
226:
225:
208:
191:
179:
173:
135:
132:
109:chromatophores
77:plant pigments
42:psittacofulvin
26:
18:Plant pigments
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2558:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2505:Phycoerythrin
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2486:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2441:Anthoxanthins
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2375:Chlorophyll f
2373:
2371:
2370:Chlorophyll d
2368:
2366:
2365:Chlorophyll c
2363:
2361:
2360:Chlorophyll b
2358:
2356:
2355:Chlorophyll a
2353:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2309:
2304:
2302:
2297:
2295:
2290:
2289:
2286:
2278:
2277:
2271:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2257:
2251:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2229:
2223:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2200:(2): 223–55.
2199:
2195:
2188:
2180:
2176:
2169:
2161:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2124:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2066:(1): 98–108.
2065:
2061:
2057:
2050:
2041:
2039:0-443-07145-4
2035:
2031:
2024:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1918:
1916:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1840:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1728:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1677:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1642:
1627:on 3 May 2015
1626:
1622:
1616:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1573:
1566:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1515:
1507:
1501:
1497:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1448:
1446:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1352:
1343:
1328:
1324:
1318:
1314:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1274:
1272:
1266:
1257:
1248:
1239:
1230:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1206:erythrophores
1202:
1193:
1189:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1152:
1141:
1140:Tetrapyrroles
1135:Tetrapyrroles
1132:
1130:
1125:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1111:
1110:linckiacyanin
1106:
1102:
1100:
1083:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1038:
1029:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
1001:
996:
994:
990:
986:
981:
979:
976:
971:
969:
965:
961:
956:
954:
950:
946:
942:
926:
925:Anthraquinone
923:
922:
921:
918:
917:
911:
910:
909:
907:Streptomyces
906:
905:
900:
897:
896:
895:
892:
891:
885:
884:
883:
880:
879:
873:
872:
871:
868:
867:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
848:Phycoerithrin
846:
844:
841:
838:
835:
833:
832:Chlorophyll f
829:
828:Chlorophyll d
825:
824:
823:
820:
819:
815:
812:
811:
805:
803:
799:
795:
791:
790:canthaxanthin
787:
783:
782:chlorophyll d
779:
778:chlorophyll a
775:
771:
770:phycoerythrin
767:
763:
762:Cyanobacteria
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
719:
716:
714:
711:
708:
707:
706:
703:
702:
696:
695:Phycoerythrin
693:
690:
688:Chlorophyll a
687:
686:
685:
682:
681:
675:
674:
673:
670:
669:
665:
662:
661:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
632:
623:
621:
617:
613:
612:
606:
602:
601:beta-carotene
598:
594:
590:
589:tetrapyrroles
585:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
556:
552:
548:
541:
537:
536:Bougainvillea
533:
529:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
491:
487:
483:
480:
477:
476:water-soluble
473:
472:
468:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
444:
440:
437:
436:abscisic acid
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
416:
412:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
364:
360:
359:
358:
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
328:
326:
322:
318:
310:
306:
302:
295:
290:
279:
275:
271:
267:
264:
263:Anthoxanthins
261:
258:
254:
250:
247:
245:
241:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
215:canthaxanthin
212:
209:
207:
203:
199:
195:
192:
189:
188:Hematochromes
186:
185:
183:
180:
178:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
145:
144:
143:
141:
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
112:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
51:
47:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
2479:Xanthophylls
2431:Anthocyanins
2390:Curcuminoids
2337:Betaxanthins
2274:
2254:
2222:
2197:
2193:
2187:
2178:
2168:
2133:
2123:
2098:
2094:
2088:
2063:
2059:
2049:
2030:Pharmacology
2029:
2023:
2012:, retrieved
1974:
1964:
1931:
1927:
1861:
1857:
1847:
1804:
1800:
1790:
1741:
1737:
1727:
1690:
1686:
1676:
1651:
1647:
1641:
1629:. Retrieved
1625:the original
1615:
1590:
1586:
1580:
1571:
1565:
1524:
1520:
1514:
1495:
1457:
1453:
1409:
1405:
1395:
1360:
1356:
1350:
1342:
1330:. Retrieved
1326:
1317:
1287:
1280:
1267:
1263:
1254:
1245:
1236:
1227:
1214:xanthophores
1210:melanophores
1199:
1190:
1174:
1165:
1158:
1138:
1129:crustacyanin
1126:
1119:
1114:
1107:
1103:
1097:
1067:
1061:
1035:
1017:
1009:
1004:
997:
982:
975:photopigment
972:
957:
938:
754:actinorhodin
731:
671:Green algae
633:
629:
610:
609:synthesized
605:anthocyanins
597:xanthophylls
592:
586:
544:
502:violaxanthin
495:
471:Anthocyanins
469:
441:
413:
407:
403:
399:
383:
379:
361:
356:
340:anthocyanins
329:
314:
307:gives these
253:Turacoverdin
211:Xanthophylls
137:
113:
80:
76:
64:
60:
56:
55:
29:
2520:Xanthonoids
2500:Phycocyanin
2461:Carotenoids
2347:Chlorophyll
2332:Betacyanins
2245:Ingersoll E
2095:Experientia
1122:astaxanthin
1099:Carotenoids
1082:melanocytes
1074:medication.
1072:latanoprost
1022:gall midges
995:radiation.
993:ultraviolet
968:cephalopods
862:Carotenoids
858:Cyanophycin
837:Phycocyanin
766:phycocyanin
746:prodigiosin
734:carotenoids
718:Fucoxanthin
713:Xanthophyll
616:amino acids
599:and orange
454:(including
415:Carotenoids
402:instead of
396:heterokonts
376:green algae
363:Chlorophyll
336:carotenoids
321:chlorophyll
305:Anthocyanin
294:chlorophyll
231:phytochrome
182:Carotenoids
155:chlorophyll
124:iridescence
2535:Categories
2423:Flavonoids
2265:Coulter JM
1631:12 October
1460:: 761–80.
1363:(1): 197.
1332:27 January
1309:References
1271:scytonemin
1006:Pea aphids
960:signalling
941:camouflage
853:Scytonemin
802:echinenone
774:scytonemin
758:zeaxanthin
683:Red algae
518:β-carotene
510:zeaxanthin
498:neoxanthin
352:reflecting
332:porphyrins
278:flavonoids
219:zeaxanthin
167:hemoglobin
163:hemocyanin
120:reflection
65:biochromes
38:budgerigar
2474:Retinoids
2469:Carotenes
2324:Betalains
2314:Types of
2009:232419139
1948:1055-7903
1888:0027-8424
1821:1744-9561
1766:0036-8075
1654:: 55–77.
1549:0028-0836
1185:jellyfish
978:rhodopsin
899:Violacein
750:pyocyanin
742:violacein
640:peridinin
591:known as
555:deciduous
540:betalains
479:flavonoid
443:Betalains
344:betalains
296:molecule.
274:urochrome
206:rhodopsin
194:Carotenes
177:luciferin
171:myoglobin
159:bilirubin
151:porphyrin
128:butterfly
50:eumelanin
2515:Quinones
2413:Curcumin
2267:(1905).
2247:(1920).
2214:16572229
2115:37966773
2044:Page 146
2001:33783744
1956:23542649
1906:28674017
1839:21920958
1782:14785276
1774:20431015
1719:28690593
1693:: 1113.
1668:16669755
1607:32689404
1474:16669781
1436:25404107
1428:24675561
1387:31149641
1292:See also
1078:Vitiligo
1042:Albinism
816:Pigment
764:produce
666:Pigment
526:tomatoes
522:Lycopene
482:pigments
460:amaranth
448:tyrosine
354:others.
202:lycopene
198:carotene
153:-based:
93:feathers
61:pigments
2446:Flavans
2380:Chlorin
2160:2001254
2151:1149922
2080:1538938
2014:19 July
1897:5530703
1866:Bibcode
1830:3297373
1746:Bibcode
1738:Science
1710:5479939
1557:4363595
1529:Bibcode
1378:6533251
1160:Melanin
1155:Melanin
1058:Melasma
1046:melanin
1020:), and
989:sunburn
985:melanin
945:mimicry
912:Melanin
738:melanin
611:de novo
392:diatoms
368:chlorin
309:pansies
270:melanin
268:Other:
257:turacos
249:Turacin
244:parrots
105:melanin
2212:
2158:
2148:
2113:
2078:
2036:
2007:
1999:
1989:
1954:
1946:
1904:
1894:
1886:
1837:
1827:
1819:
1780:
1772:
1764:
1717:
1707:
1666:
1605:
1555:
1547:
1521:Nature
1502:
1472:
1434:
1426:
1385:
1375:
1212:, and
813:Group
800:, and
756:, and
663:Group
607:, are
580:, and
578:purple
574:yellow
566:autumn
562:shrubs
514:lutein
490:petals
456:cactus
426:), in
350:while
223:lutein
2488:Other
2111:S2CID
2076:JSTOR
2005:S2CID
1778:S2CID
1553:S2CID
1432:S2CID
947:, or
620:trunk
582:brown
558:trees
551:green
464:beets
388:Kelps
372:green
348:light
69:color
2210:PMID
2156:PMID
2034:ISBN
2016:2023
1997:PMID
1987:ISBN
1952:PMID
1944:ISSN
1902:PMID
1884:ISSN
1835:PMID
1817:ISSN
1770:PMID
1762:ISSN
1715:PMID
1664:PMID
1633:2013
1603:PMID
1545:ISSN
1500:ISBN
1470:PMID
1424:PMID
1383:PMID
1334:2010
1283:dyes
1277:Uses
1000:heme
973:The
830:and
646:and
638:use
560:and
516:and
458:and
342:and
251:and
147:Heme
138:See
101:hair
99:and
89:eyes
85:skin
79:and
36:The
2202:doi
2146:PMC
2138:doi
2103:doi
2068:doi
2064:119
1979:doi
1936:doi
1892:PMC
1874:doi
1862:114
1825:PMC
1809:doi
1754:doi
1742:328
1705:PMC
1695:doi
1656:doi
1595:doi
1537:doi
1525:354
1462:doi
1414:doi
1410:217
1373:PMC
1365:doi
1012:),
991:by
804:.
570:red
122:or
97:fur
63:or
2537::
2273:.
2253:.
2208:.
2198:23
2196:.
2177:.
2154:.
2144:.
2132:.
2109:.
2099:41
2097:.
2074:.
2062:.
2058:.
2003:,
1995:,
1985:,
1973:,
1950:.
1942:.
1932:68
1930:.
1926:.
1914:^
1900:.
1890:.
1882:.
1872:.
1860:.
1856:.
1833:.
1823:.
1815:.
1803:.
1799:.
1776:.
1768:.
1760:.
1752:.
1740:.
1736:.
1713:.
1703:.
1689:.
1685:.
1662:.
1652:57
1650:.
1601:.
1591:34
1589:.
1551:.
1543:.
1535:.
1523:.
1482:^
1468:.
1458:57
1456:.
1444:^
1430:.
1422:.
1408:.
1404:.
1381:.
1371:.
1359:.
1355:.
1325:.
1285:.
1208:,
943:,
796:,
792:,
780:,
776:,
772:,
768:,
760:.
752:,
748:,
744:,
740:,
736:,
584:.
576:,
572:,
512:,
508:,
504:,
500:,
486:pH
390:,
386:.
338:,
334:,
276:,
272:,
233:,
221:,
217:,
213::
204:,
200:,
184::
169:,
165:,
161:,
157:,
95:,
91:,
87:,
2307:e
2300:t
2293:v
2279:.
2259:.
2216:.
2204::
2181:.
2162:.
2140::
2117:.
2105::
2082:.
2070::
2042:.
1981::
1958:.
1938::
1908:.
1876::
1868::
1841:.
1811::
1805:8
1784:.
1756::
1748::
1721:.
1697::
1691:8
1670:.
1658::
1635:.
1609:.
1597::
1559:.
1539::
1531::
1508:.
1476:.
1464::
1438:.
1416::
1389:.
1367::
1361:2
1336:.
1148:4
1146:H
1144:4
1064:.
1016:(
1008:(
466:.
438:.
408:a
404:b
400:c
384:b
380:a
149:/
52:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
