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458:. When the waves are one or more whole wavelengths apart – in other words, at certain specific angles, they add (interfere constructively), giving a strong reflection. At other angles and phase differences, they can subtract, giving weak reflections. The thin film therefore selectively reflects just one wavelength – a pure colour – at any given angle, but other wavelengths – different colours – at different angles. So, as a thin-film structure such as a butterfly's wing or bird's feather moves, it seems to change colour.
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529:, a bird of paradise. The barbules of the feathers of its brightly coloured breast patch are V-shaped, creating thin-film microstructures that strongly reflect two different colours, bright blue-green and orange-yellow. When the bird moves the colour switches sharply between these two colours, rather than drifting iridescently. During courtship, the male bird systematically makes small movements to attract females, so the structures must have evolved through
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849:. These are arranged to reflect blue–green light in a wide viewing direction. The fast flashes of the blue rings are achieved using muscles under neural control. Under normal circumstances, each ring is hidden by contraction of muscles above the iridophores. When these relax and muscles outside the ring contract, the bright blue rings are exposed.
1129:. This used a photosensitive emulsion fine enough for the interference caused by light waves reflecting off the back of the glass plate to be recorded in the thickness of the emulsion layer, in a monochrome (black and white) photographic process. Shining white light through the plate effectively reconstructs the colours of the photographed scene.
756:, the layer is 2.7 micrometres thick. The unusual starch cells form a diffuse but strong reflector, enhancing the flower's brilliance. The curved petals form a paraboloidal dish which directs the sun's heat to the reproductive parts at the centre of the flower, keeping it some degrees Celsius above the ambient temperature.
1201:
is densely packed with microscopic projections that have the effect of reducing reflection and hence increasing transmission of incident light. Similarly, the eyes of some moths have antireflective surfaces, again using arrays of pillars smaller than the wavelength of light. "Moth-eye" nanostructures
436:
A 3-slide series of pictures taken with and without a pair of MasterImage 3D circularly polarized movie glasses of some dead
European rose chafers (Cetonia aurata) whose shiny green colour comes from left-polarized light. Note that, without glasses, both the beetles and their mirror images have shiny
278:
But
Beddard then largely dismissed structural coloration, firstly as subservient to pigments: "in every case the colour needs for its display a background of dark pigment;" and then by asserting its rarity: "By far the commonest source of colour in invertebrate animals is the presence in the skin of
218:
The finely colour'd
Feathers of some Birds, and particularly those of Peacocks Tails, do, in the very same part of the Feather, appear of several Colours in several Positions of the Eye, after the very same manner that thin Plates were found to do in the 7th and 19th Observations, and therefore their
199:
shells, do not onely reflect a very brisk light, but tinge that light in a most curious manner; and by means of various positions, in respect of the light, they reflect back now one colour, and then another, and those most vividly. Now, that these colours are onely fantastical ones, that is, such as
2538:
MORPHOTEX, the world's first structurally colored fiber, features a stack structure with several tens of nano-order layers of polyester and nylon fibers with different refractive indexes, facilitating control of color using optical coherence tomography. Structural control means that a single fiber
829:
squid is controlled by electric charge. When charge is absent, the proteins stack together tightly, forming a thin, more reflective layer; when charge is present, the molecules stack more loosely, forming a thicker layer. Since chromatophores contain multiple reflectin layers, the switch changes the
770:
is exposed and light is diffracted by the proteins in the fibrils. The coloration or wavelength of the diffracted light depends on the angle of observation and can be enhanced by covering the meat with translucent foils. Roughening the surface or removing water content by drying causes the structure
449:
reflect part of the light falling on them from their top surfaces. The rest of the light goes through the films, and a further part of it is reflected from their bottom surfaces. The two sets of reflected waves travel back upwards in the same direction. But since the bottom-reflected waves travelled
269:
The colours of animals are due either solely to the presence of definite pigments in the skin, or … beneath the skin; or they are partly caused by optical effects due to the scattering, diffraction or unequal refraction of the light rays. Colours of the latter kind are often spoken of as structural
94:, combined with refraction as light enters and leaves such films. The geometry then determines that at certain angles, the light reflected from both surfaces interferes constructively, while at other angles, the light interferes destructively. Different colours therefore appear at different angles.
482:
A number of fixed structures can create structural colours, by mechanisms including diffraction gratings, selective mirrors, photonic crystals, crystal fibres and deformed matrices. Structures can be far more elaborate than a single thin film: films can be stacked up to give strong iridescence, to
192:
The parts of the
Feathers of this glorious Bird appear, through the Microscope, no less gaudy then do the whole Feathers; for, as to the naked eye 'tis evident that the stem or quill of each Feather in the tail sends out multitudes of Lateral branches, … so each of those threads in the Microscope
1163:
inks appear as different colours depending on the angle the banknote is viewed from. Because the ink is hard to obtain, and because a photocopier or scanner (which works from only one angle) cannot reproduce or even perceive the color-shifting effect, the ink serves to make counterfeiting more
551:
and are about the same distance apart. The holes are arranged regularly in small patches; neighbouring patches contain arrays with differing orientations. The result is that these emerald-patched cattleheart scales reflect green light evenly at different angles instead of being iridescent. In
510:
and air gives rise to the iridescent colours of various butterfly wing scales as well as to the tail feathers of birds such as the peacock. Hooke and Newton were correct in their claim that the peacock's colours are created by interference, but the structures responsible, being close to the
483:
combine two colours, or to balance out the inevitable change of colour with angle to give a more diffuse, less iridescent effect. Each mechanism offers a specific solution to the problem of creating a bright colour or combination of colours visible from different directions.
595:
for two wavelengths of light. Yellow light is reflected directly from the centres of the pits; blue light is reflected twice by the sides of the pits. The combination appears green, but can be seen as an array of yellow spots surrounded by blue circles under a microscope.
750:, based on the top two layers of a buttercup's petals. The brilliant yellow gloss derives from a combination, rare among plants, of yellow pigment and structural coloration. The very smooth upper epidermis acts as a reflective and iridescent thin film; for example, in
618:, warning predators not to attack. The chitin walls of the hollow bristles form a hexagonal honeycomb-shaped photonic crystal; the hexagonal holes are 0.51 ÎĽm apart. The structure behaves optically as if it consisted of a stack of 88 diffraction gratings, making
728:
is the first organism known to show such random polarization of light, which, nevertheless does not have a visual function, as the seed-eating birds who visit this plant species are not able to perceive polarised light. Spiral microstructures are also found in
1202:
could be used to create low-reflectance glass for windows, solar cells, display devices, and military stealth technologies. Antireflective biomimetic surfaces using the "moth-eye" principle can be manufactured by first creating a mask by lithography with gold
915:
875:
562:, the chitin exoskeleton is covered in iridescent green oval scales. These contain diamond-based crystal lattices oriented in all directions to give a brilliant green coloration that hardly varies with angle. The scales are effectively divided into
951:
391:. This is because the reflected colour depends on the viewing angle, which in turn governs the apparent spacing of the structures responsible. Structural colours can be combined with pigment colours: peacock feathers are pigmented brown with
777:
can occur in microscale structures, such as sessile water droplets and biphasic oil-in-water droplets as well as polymer microstructured surfaces. In this structural coloration mechanism, light rays that travel by different paths of
219:
Colours arise from the thinness of the transparent parts of the
Feathers; that is, from the slenderness of the very fine Hairs, or Capillamenta, which grow out of the sides of the grosser lateral Branches or Fibres of those Feathers.
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711:
butterflies, and is one of the first instances of structural coloration known from any plant. Each cell has its own thickness of stacked fibres, making it reflect a different colour from its neighbours, and producing a
1118:'s colour photographs, "Le Cervin", 1899, made using a monochrome photographic process (a single emulsion). The colours are structural, created by interference with light reflected from the back of the glass plate.
897:
200:
arise immediately from the refractions of the light, I found by this, that water wetting these colour'd parts, destroy'd their colours, which seem'd to proceed from the alteration of the reflection and refraction.
124:. In the few plants that exploit structural coloration, brilliant colours are produced by structures within cells. The most brilliant blue coloration known in any living tissue is found in the marble berries of
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1961:
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colour. The right-polarizer removes the colour of the beetles but leaves the color of the mirror images. The left-polarizer does the opposite, showing reversal of handedness of the reflected light.
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1148:, in a transparent nylon sheath with an oval cross-section. The materials are arranged so that the colour does not vary with angle. The fibres have been produced in red, green, blue, and violet.
693:, resulting in the most intense blue coloration known in nature. The berry's surface has four layers of cells with thick walls, containing spirals of transparent cellulose spaced so as to allow
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also show structural coloration due to the exposure of the periodic arrangement of the muscular fibres. Many of these photonic mechanisms correspond to elaborate structures visible by
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Structural coloration could be further exploited industrially and commercially, and research that could lead to such applications is under way. A direct parallel would be to create
837:
cells. If they are provoked, they quickly change colour, becoming bright yellow with each of the 50-60 rings flashing bright iridescent blue within a third of a second. In the
547:, the emerald-patched cattleheart butterfly, photonic crystals are formed of arrays of nano-sized holes in the chitin of the wing scales. The holes have a diameter of about 150
1902:
Galusha, Jeremy W., Lauren R. Richey, John S. Gardner, Jennifer N. Cha, Michael H. Bart (May 2008). "Discovery of a diamond-based photonic crystal structure in beetle scales".
3083:
2685:
Morhard, C., Pacholski, C., Lehr, D., Brunner, R., Helgert, M., Sundermann, M., Spatz, J.P. (2010). "Tailored antireflective biomimetic nanostructures for UV applications".
1027:
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is produced by thin-film reflection by the epidermis supplemented by yellow pigmentation, and strong diffuse scattering by a layer of starch cells immediately beneath.
1140:
butterfly wing scales. The fibres are composed of 61 flat alternating layers, between 70 and 100 nanometres thick, of two plastics with different refractive indices,
652:. Since the reflections are not all arranged in the same direction, the colours, while still magnificent, do not vary much with angle, so they are not iridescent.
1958:
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effect with different blues speckled with brilliant green, purple, and red dots. The fibres in any one cell are either left-handed or right-handed, so each cell
3018:
2242:
Goodling, Amy E.; Nagelberg, Sara; Kaehr, Bryan; Meredith, Caleb H.; Cheon, Seong Ik; Saunders, Ashley P.; Kolle, Mathias; Zarzar, Lauren D. (February 2019).
2866:
195:… their upper sides seem to me to consist of a multitude of thin plated bodies, which are exceeding thin, and lie very close together, and thereby, like
2011:
515:. Another way to produce a diffraction grating is with tree-shaped arrays of chitin, as in the wing scales of some of the brilliantly coloured tropical
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2307:"Tunable and Responsive Structural Color from Polymeric Microstructured Surfaces Enabled by Interference of Totally Internally Reflected Light"
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do. The ability to vary reflectivity to different wavelengths of light could also lead to efficient optical switches that could function like
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to create interference effects are formed of micron-sized bowl-shaped pits lined with multiple layers of chitin in the wing scales of
833:
Blue-ringed octopuses spend much of their time hiding in crevices whilst displaying effective camouflage patterns with their dermal
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colours; they are caused by the structure of the coloured surfaces. The metallic lustre of the feathers of many birds, such as the
230:
by showing that light could also behave as a wave. He showed in 1803 that light could diffract from sharp edges or slits, creating
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are pigmented brown, but their microscopic structure makes them also reflect blue, turquoise, and green light, and they are often
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2874:"Iridescent plumage in satin bowerbirds: Structure, mechanisms and nanostructural predictors of individual variation in colour"
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in animals, and a few plants, is the production of colour by microscopically structured surfaces fine enough to interfere with
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about a micrometre wide. Each such pixel is a single crystal and reflects light in a direction different from its neighbours.
432:
3894:
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Huang, J., Wang, X., Wang, Z.L. (2008). "Bio-inspired fabrication of antireflection nanostructures by replicating fly eyes".
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a century later. Young described iridescence as the result of interference between reflections from two or more surfaces of
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Vignolini, Silvia; Paula J. Rudall; Alice V. Rowland; Alison Reed; Edwige
Moyroud; Robert B. Faden; Jeremy J. Baumberg;
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1901:
1717:
36:
The brilliant iridescent colors of the peacock's tail feathers are created by structural coloration, as first noted by
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wavelength of light in scale (see micrographs), were smaller than the striated structures they could see with their
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304:, the waves reflected from the upper and lower surfaces travel different distances depending on the angle, so they
17:
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Animal
Coloration, An Account of the Principal Facts and Theories Relating to the Colours and Markings of Animals
2181:"Visual Ecology" by Cronin, T.W., Johnson, S., Marshall, N.J. and Warrant, E.J. (2014) Princeton University Press
1404:
Animal
Coloration: an account of the principal facts and theories relating to the colours and markings of animals
1125:
won the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1908 for his work on a structural coloration method of colour photography, the
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the brilliant colours are produced by intricate firtree-shaped microstructures too small for optical microscopes.
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described the mechanism of the colours other than the brown pigment of peacock tail feathers. Newton noted that
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2018:
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Fibers' Morphotex, an undyed fabric woven from structurally coloured fibres, mimicking the microstructure of
239:
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3448:
1468:
Parker, A.R., Martini, N. (June–September 2006). "Structural colour in animals—simple to complex optics".
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weevil contain diamond-based crystal lattices oriented in all directions to give almost uniform green.
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4708:
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1713:"Dramatic colour changes in a bird of paradise caused by uniquely structured breast feather barbules"
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are produced when a material is scored with fine parallel lines, or formed of one or more parallel
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927:, is created by arrays of microscopic bowls that reflect yellow directly and blue from the sides.
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Structural coloration is responsible for the blues and greens of the feathers of many birds (the
1308:(4th ed.). William Innys at the West-End of St. Paul's, London. pp. Prop. V., page 251
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bird of paradise signals to the female with his breast feathers that switch from blue to yellow.
116:, crystal fibres, matrices of nanochannels and proteins that can vary their configuration. Some
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602:, formed of hexagonal arrays of hollow nanofibres, create the bright iridescent colours of the
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Structural coloration has potential for industrial, commercial and military applications, with
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Two photographs of the same
Eupholus weevil exhibit the unique expression of structural color.
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with blue light. Below these cells is a layer two or three cells thick containing dark brown
649:
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305:
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Kinoshita, S. (2008). "Structural Color in the Realm of Nature". World Scientific Publishing
2244:"Colouration by total internal reflection and interference at microscale concave interfaces"
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owe their brilliant colours partly to diffraction grating microstructures in their feathers
1819:
766:. The structural coloration on meat cuts appears only after the ordered pattern of muscle
8:
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1021:(a species of sea mouse) reflect light in yellows, reds and greens to warn off predators.
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Mouchet, S. R., Deparis, O. (2021). "Natural Photonics and Bioinspiration". Artech House
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59:, although some structural coloration occurs in combination with pigments. For example,
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Butterfly wing at different magnifications reveals microstructured chitin acting as a
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The Photonic Beetle: Nature Builds Diamond-like Crystals for Future Optical Computers
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274:, is due to the presence of excessively fine striae upon the surface of the feathers.
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762:, consisting of ordered surface features due to exposure of ordered muscle cells on
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Goodling, Amy E.; Nagelberg, Sara; Kolle, Mathias; Zarzar, Lauren D. (2020-07-06).
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Several countries and regions, including the U.S., European Union, and Brazil, use
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Structural coloration is caused by interference effects rather than by pigments.
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has "structural peculiarities" in its hair that "give rise to brilliant colours".
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2445:"Seven fabrics inspired by nature: from the lotus leaf to butterflies and sharks"
2346:"How does the blue-ringed octopus (Hapalochlaena lunulata) flash its blue rings?"
2009:
1965:
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appears a large long body, consisting of a multitude of bright reflecting parts.
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Mäthger, L.M., Bell, G.R., Kuzirian, A.M., Allen, J.J. and Hanlon, R.T. (2012).
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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of the film, and the angle at which the light fell – the two sets of waves are
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van der Kooi, C.J.; Elzenga, J.T.M.; Dijksterhuis, J.; Stavenga, D.G. (2017).
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Stavenga, Doekele G.; Leertouwer, H. L.; Marshall, N. J.; Osorio, D. (2010).
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1329:"Experimental Demonstration of the General Law of the Interference of Light"
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Structural colour under the microscope! Feathers, beetles and butterflie!!
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which can be switched between two configurations. The configuration of
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2010:
McPhedran, Ross; McKenzie, David; Nicorovici, Nicolae (3 April 2002).
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Doucet, S. M.; Shawkey, M. D.; Hill, G. E.; Montgomerie, R. (2006).
2496:. Fashionably Early Forum, National Gallery Canberra. pp. 61–70
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4463:
1764:"Beyond butterflies—the diversity of biological photonic crystals"
1631:"Nature's Palette: How animals, including humans, produce colours"
4847:
4129:
3972:
3945:
3118:
3106:
2994:
2797:
1689:. University of Alaska, Fairbanks (Honors Thesis). Archived from
1190:, enabling engineers to make fast optical computers and routers.
1175:
641:
392:
370:
358:
313:
206:
185:
64:
60:
4064:
74:
Structural coloration was first described by English scientists
5070:
4673:
4663:
3672:
2572:
1159:, which is structurally coloured, as a security feature. These
1133:
1068:
830:
layer spacing and hence the colour of light that is reflected.
698:
640:, consisting of randomly oriented nanochannels in a spongelike
592:
563:
559:
507:
354:
350:
319:
2241:
807:
such as squid are able to vary their colours rapidly for both
247:(1858–1925) acknowledged the existence of structural colours:
4698:
4693:
4683:
4653:
4124:
4095:
3998:
1141:
743:
petals exploit both yellow pigment and structural coloration.
425:
374:
196:
2871:
2539:
will always show the same colors regardless of its location.
2304:
1761:
782:
along an interface interfere to generate iridescent colour.
4688:
4668:
4648:
4518:
4435:
2867:
National Geographic News: Peacock Plumage Secrets Uncovered
2407:] (in German) (4th ed.). Dover. pp. 668–672.
1254:
Of Peacoks, Ducks, and Other Feathers of Changeable Colours
1248:
1246:
1244:
771:
to collapse, thus, the structural coloration to disappear.
614:, a non-wormlike genus of marine annelids. The colours are
603:
399:
pigments for yellowness and thin films for reflectiveness.
2820:
The Optics of Life: A Biologist's Guide to Light in Nature
2430:"Lippmann's and Gabor's Revolutionary Approach to Imaging"
2042:
4764:
4658:
4423:
3794:
1988:
1467:
1333:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
1274:
Natural Photonics (originally in Physics Review Magazine)
1252:
Hooke, Robert. Micrographia. Chapter 36 ('Observ. XXXVI.
655:
644:
matrix, create the diffuse non-iridescent blue colour of
521:
butterflies (see drawing). Yet another variant exists in
130:, where a spiral structure of cellulose fibrils produces
27:
Colour in living creatures caused by interference effects
2017:. University of Sydney School of Physics. Archived from
1241:
279:
definite pigments", though he does later admit that the
149:, efficient optical switches and low-reflectance glass.
145:
surfaces that could provide brilliant colours, adaptive
2516:"Teijin Limited | Annual Report 2006 | R&D Efforts"
1380:. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston. pp. 96–101.
573:
Structural coloration through selective mirrors in the
2647:
1276:. University of Exeter. September 1998. Archived from
945:, creates its brilliant green using photonic crystals.
170:
contains the first observations of structural colours.
2190:
1704:
1132:
In 2010, the dressmaker Donna Sgro made a dress from
775:
Interference from multiple total internal reflections
724:
the light it reflects in one direction or the other.
1687:"What Makes the Peacock Feather Bright and Colorful"
1054:
in a soap bubble. Colour varies with film thickness.
1039:, has been studied for its ability to change colour.
1264:
1262:
450:a little farther – controlled by the thickness and
100:such as on the feathers of birds and the scales of
4717:Linguistic relativity and the colour naming debate
1875:Vukusic, P. (February 2004). "Natural Photonics".
811:and signalling. The mechanisms include reversible
264:golden moles' thick fur was structurally coloured.
3649:Statal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton
1817:
1628:
5116:
2193:"Iridescence in Meat Caused by Surface Gratings"
1868:
1259:
622:one of the most iridescent of marine organisms.
2813:Animal Biochromes and Animal Structural Colours
2392:
1582:"Functional optics of glossy buttercup flowers"
1442:Mouchet, SĂ©bastien R; Deparis, Olivier (2021),
2442:
1441:
4080:
3704:
2940:
2043:Vukusic, P., Sambles, J.R. (14 August 2003).
2036:
1437:
1435:
993:Electron micrograph of the three-dimensional
705:produces a stronger colour than the wings of
2848:Nature's Palette: The Science of Plant Color
2735:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2670:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2641:
2633:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2384:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2100:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1944:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1820:"Photonic Crystals: Semiconductors of Light"
1803:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1535:
1502:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1078:genera often produce a bluish tint from the
687:in the "marble berries" of the African herb
2337:
1874:
402:
184:described the "fantastical" colours of the
5099:
4087:
4073:
3711:
3697:
2947:
2933:
2427:
1762:Welch, V.L., Vigneron, J.-P. (July 2007).
1665:"What Makes the Peacock Feather Colorful?"
1432:
2889:
2789:, John Martyn and James Allestry, London.
2594:
2521:. Teijin Japan. July 2006. Archived from
2361:
2218:
2208:
2158:
2148:
2108:
1738:
1684:
1662:
1605:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1352:
921:Brilliant green of emerald swallowtail,
591:butterfly. These act as highly selective
490:Drawing of 'firtree' micro-structures in
134:scattering of light. The bright gloss of
4868:International Commission on Illumination
1297:
1295:
1109:
789:
735:
654:
624:
568:
485:
470:
431:
416:
295:
291:
249:
156:
104:, interference is created by a range of
31:
2827:Photonic Structures Inspired by Nature
2678:
2191:Martinez-Hurtado, J L (November 2013).
1575:
1573:
1571:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1397:
939:Emerald-patched cattleheart butterfly,
733:where they produce iridescent colours.
659:The most intense blue known in nature:
14:
5117:
4858:Color Association of the United States
2443:Cherny-Scanlon, Xenya (29 July 2014).
1622:
1586:Journal of the Royal Society Interface
1384:
1375:
1301:
785:
629:Magnificent non-iridescent colours of
4068:
3895:Evolution of color vision in primates
3718:
3692:
3199:Newton's law of universal gravitation
2928:
2920:Butterflies and Gyroids – Numberphile
2566:
2184:
1461:
1326:
1292:
1178:to match their environments, just as
794:Variable ring patterns on mantles of
3357:Newton's theorem of revolving orbits
2954:
2491:
2398:
1568:
1510:
1445:Natural Photonics and Bioinspiration
1174:fabrics that vary their colours and
541:can be formed in different ways. In
3305:Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy
3046:standing on the shoulders of giants
2751:
2350:The Journal of Experimental Biology
1971:
1818:Yablonovitch, Eli (December 2001).
466:
445:in 1803, is created when extremely
395:, while buttercup petals have both
24:
4722:Blue–green distinction in language
1979:"Sea mouse promises bright future"
1718:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
25:
5151:
4094:
2915:Causes of Color: Peacock feathers
2860:
2815:. University of California Press.
2428:Biedermann, Klaus (15 May 2005).
2121:"Pointillist structural color in
1847:10.1038/scientificamerican1201-46
845:), the rings contain multi-layer
5098:
5089:
5088:
4879:International Colour Association
4462:
3784:
3634:Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes
2841:Colour in Art, Design and Nature
2833:
2554:. Transmaterial. 12 October 2010
2468:
2323:10.1021/acsmaterialslett.0c00143
2045:"Photonic Structures in Biology"
1099:
1087:
1082:of their otherwise black chitin.
1059:
1044:
1026:
1008:
986:
968:
950:
932:
914:
896:
874:
859:
748:Thin film with diffuse reflector
345:, for example), as well as many
4874:International Colour Consortium
3654:Newton International Fellowship
3335:generalized Gauss–Newton method
3248:Newton's method in optimization
2878:Journal of Experimental Biology
2746:
2544:
2508:
2494:"Biomimicry + Fashion Practice"
2485:
2462:
2436:
2421:
2298:
2235:
2175:
2003:
1968:. Biomimicry News, 21 May 2008.
1952:
1895:
1811:
1755:
1678:
1663:Smyth, S.; et al. (2007).
1656:
1490:10.1016/j.optlastec.2005.06.037
4939:List of Crayola crayon colours
4863:International Colour Authority
2850:. University of Chicago Press.
2707:10.1088/0957-4484/21/42/425301
2605:10.1088/0957-4484/19/02/025602
1448:(1st ed.), Artech House,
1421:
1369:
1320:
633:created by random nanochannels
226:(1773–1829) extended Newton's
13:
1:
2822:. Princeton University Press.
2492:Sgro, Donna (9 August 2012).
1470:Optics & Laser Technology
1235:
1015:Hollow nanofibre bristles of
461:
441:Iridescence, as explained by
286:
4742:Traditional colours of Japan
4519:Achromatic colours (Neutral)
4402:Multi-primary colour display
3275:Newton's theorem about ovals
2766:. Swan Sonnenschein, London.
2012:"A Natural Photonic Crystal"
1378:Great Experiments in Physics
1270:"Iridescence in Lepidoptera"
428:showing multiple thin layers
7:
4176:Spectral power distribution
3823:Simple eye in invertebrates
3644:Sir Isaac Newton Sixth Form
3300:Corpuscular theory of light
3226:Schrödinger–Newton equation
2805:
2652:. University of Southampton
2648:Boden, S.A., Bagnall, D.M.
2405:Geschichte der Photographie
2119:; Ullrich Steinera (2012).
1213:
852:
839:greater blue-ringed octopus
10:
5156:
4602:Colour realism (art style)
4260:Evolution of colour vision
4019:Infrared sensing in snakes
3053:Notes on the Jewish Temple
1924:10.1103/PhysRevE.77.050904
1629:Wallin, Margareta (2002).
1103:
424:of a fractured surface of
406:
311:
152:
5084:
5056:
4969:
4919:List of colours (compact)
4894:
4887:
4838:
4757:
4737:Colour in Chinese culture
4707:
4639:
4630:
4549:
4482:
4471:
4460:
4360:
4307:
4189:
4112:
4103:
3991:
3903:
3890:Evolution of color vision
3875:
3793:
3782:
3724:
3662:
3599:
3554:
3477:
3419:
3174:
3094:
3029:
2962:
2268:10.1038/s41586-019-0946-4
1889:10.1088/2058-7058/17/2/34
1783:10.1007/s11082-007-9094-4
1536:Ball, Philip (May 2012).
823:cells in the skin of the
780:total internal reflection
695:constructive interference
506:constructed of layers of
4924:List of colours by shade
4387:Digital image processing
4120:Electromagnetic spectrum
3204:post-Newtonian expansion
3084:Corruptions of Scripture
3076:Ancient Kingdoms Amended
2801:, William Innys, London.
403:Principle of iridescence
365:petals. These are often
357:) and (while rare among
228:particle theory of light
4929:List of colour palettes
3394:Absolute space and time
3258:truncated Newton method
3231:Newton's laws of motion
3194:Newton's law of cooling
2150:10.1073/pnas.1210105109
1538:"Nature's Color Tricks"
1376:Shamos, Morris (1959).
1302:Newton, Isaac (1730) .
1033:Longfin inshore squid,
803:Some animals including
4152:Structural colouration
3629:Isaac Newton Telescope
3619:Isaac Newton Institute
3389:Newton–Puiseux theorem
3384:Parallelogram of force
3372:kissing number problem
3362:Newton–Euler equations
3265:Gauss–Newton algorithm
3214:gravitational constant
2839:Brebbia, C.A. (2011).
2401:History of Photography
1731:10.1098/rspb.2010.2293
1598:10.1098/rsif.2016.0933
1354:10.1098/rstl.1804.0001
1327:Young, Thomas (1804).
1206:, and then performing
1157:optically variable ink
1119:
1052:Thin-film interference
843:Hapalochlaena lunulata
800:
797:Hapalochlaena lunulata
744:
666:
634:
577:
497:
479:
438:
429:
409:thin-film interference
309:
300:When light falls on a
276:
265:
221:
202:
171:
108:mechanisms, including
45:
4934:List of colour spaces
4853:Color Marketing Group
4608:On Vision and Colours
4541:Tinctures in heraldry
4524:Polychromatic colours
4509:Complementary colours
4497:Monochromatic colours
4024:Monocular deprivation
3983:Underwater camouflage
3978:Structural coloration
3956:Disruptive coloration
3583:Isaac Newton Gargoyle
3493: (nephew-in-law)
3469:Copernican Revolution
3464:Scientific Revolution
3325:Newton–Cotes formulas
3189:Newton's inequalities
3166:Structural coloration
2399:Eder, J. M. (1945) .
2311:ACS Materials Letters
1407:. Swan Sonnenschein.
1113:
1104:Further information:
997:within the scales on
975:Iridescent scales on
960:Lamprocyphus augustus
957:Iridescent scales of
793:
739:
658:
650:blue-and-yellow macaw
631:blue-and-yellow macaw
628:
572:
555:Lamprocyphus augustus
489:
474:
435:
420:
407:Further information:
312:Further information:
299:
292:Structure not pigment
267:
253:
216:
190:
160:
112:, selective mirrors,
49:Structural coloration
35:
4914:List of colours: N–Z
4909:List of colours: G–M
4904:List of colours: A–F
4826:Tint, shade and tone
4709:Cultural differences
4004:Blindness in animals
3936:Counter-illumination
3885:Evolution of the eye
3590:Astronomers Monument
3280:Newton–Pepys problem
3253:Apollonius's problem
3221:Newton–Cartan theory
3134:Newton–Okounkov body
3067:hypotheses non fingo
3056: (c. 1680)
2818:Johnsen, S. (2011).
2758:Beddard, Frank Evers
2552:"Fabric | Morphotex"
2210:10.3390/foods2040499
1771:Opt Quantum Electron
1638:Bioscience Explained
1399:Beddard, Frank Evers
1208:reactive-ion etching
887:butterflies such as
722:circularly polarizes
496:butterfly wing scale
110:diffraction gratings
82:, and its principle—
4961:List of web colours
4956:List of RAL colours
4362:Colour reproduction
4327:LĂĽscher colour test
4164:Colour of chemicals
3399:Luminiferous aether
3347:Newton's identities
3320:Newton's cannonball
3295:Classical mechanics
3285:Newtonian potential
3146:Newtonian telescope
2699:2010Nanot..21P5301M
2587:2008Nanot..19b5602H
2528:on 17 November 2016
2260:2019Natur.566..523G
2141:2012PNAS..10915712V
2135:(39): 15712–15715.
2072:10.1038/nature01941
2064:2003Natur.424..852V
1916:2008PhRvE..77e0904G
1839:2001SciAm.285f..46Y
1827:Scientific American
1725:(1715): 2098–2104.
1554:2012SciAm.306e..74B
1542:Scientific American
1482:2006OptLT..38..315P
1345:1804RSPT...94....1Y
1193:The surface of the
1172:military camouflage
1036:Doryteuthis pealeii
867:European bee-eaters
826:Doryteuthis pealeii
786:Variable structures
589:emerald swallowtail
575:emerald swallowtail
503:diffraction grating
477:diffraction grating
422:Electron micrograph
256:Frank Evers Beddard
245:Frank Evers Beddard
122:electron microscopy
5125:Animal coat colors
4370:Colour photography
4322:Colour preferences
4265:Impossible colours
4255:Colour vision test
4250:Colour temperature
4228:Colour calibration
4157:Animal colouration
3951:Deimatic behaviour
3624:Isaac Newton Medal
3429: (birthplace)
3243:Newtonian dynamics
3141:Newton's reflector
2846:Lee, D.W. (2008).
2825:Kolle, M. (2011).
2811:Fox, D.L. (1992).
2363:10.1242/jeb.076869
2117:Beverley J. Glover
1964:2012-11-02 at the
1685:Smyth, S. (2009).
1230:Patterns in nature
1169:active or adaptive
1120:
1018:Aphrodita aculeata
1000:Entimus imperialis
978:Entimus imperialis
801:
745:
667:
635:
578:
498:
480:
439:
430:
377:shells such as of
310:
266:
172:
46:
5140:Optical materials
5112:
5111:
5052:
5051:
4834:
4833:
4758:Colour dimensions
4747:Human skin colour
4626:
4625:
4616:Theory of Colours
4514:Analogous colours
4458:
4457:
4392:Colour management
4309:Colour psychology
4191:Colour perception
4062:
4061:
4054:Visual perception
4049:Underwater vision
4014:Feature detection
4009:Eyespot apparatus
3968:Eyespot (mimicry)
3916:Animal coloration
3719:Vision in animals
3686:
3685:
3578: (sculpture)
3545:Abraham de Moivre
3499: (professor)
3427:Woolsthorpe Manor
3379:Newton's quotient
3352:Newton polynomial
3310:Newton's notation
3041: (1661–1665)
2891:10.1242/jeb.01988
2773:2nd Edition, 1895
2414:978-0-486-23586-8
2356:(21): 3752–3757.
2254:(7745): 523–527.
2058:(6950): 852–855.
2024:on 25 August 2012
1991:. January 3, 2001
1904:Physical Review E
1592:(127): 20160933.
1455:978-163-081-797-8
1414:978-0-543-91406-4
1220:Animal coloration
995:photonic crystals
942:Parides sesostris
924:Papilio palinurus
690:Pollia condensata
662:Pollia condensata
638:Deformed matrices
585:Papilio palinurus
581:Selective mirrors
544:Parides sesostris
538:Photonic crystals
513:light microscopes
240:Animal Coloration
237:In his 1892 book
204:In his 1704 book
174:In his 1665 book
127:Pollia condensata
114:photonic crystals
84:wave interference
16:(Redirected from
5147:
5102:
5101:
5092:
5091:
4892:
4891:
4637:
4636:
4569:Secondary colour
4480:
4479:
4466:
4342:National colours
4337:Political colour
4317:Colour symbolism
4275:Opponent process
4233:Colour constancy
4211:Colour blindness
4142:Spectral colours
4110:
4109:
4089:
4082:
4075:
4066:
4065:
4034:Palpebral (bone)
3867:Schizochroal eye
3788:
3713:
3706:
3699:
3690:
3689:
3674:
3569: (monotype)
3533:William Stukeley
3529: (disciple)
3509:Benjamin Pulleyn
3485:Catherine Barton
3404:Newtonian series
3315:Rotating spheres
3061:General Scholium
2956:Sir Isaac Newton
2949:
2942:
2935:
2926:
2925:
2911:
2893:
2752:Pioneering books
2741:
2740:
2734:
2726:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2669:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2650:"Antireflection"
2645:
2639:
2638:
2632:
2624:
2598:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2535:
2533:
2527:
2520:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2501:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2478:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2383:
2375:
2365:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2222:
2212:
2188:
2182:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2162:
2152:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2099:
2091:
2049:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2023:
2016:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1975:
1969:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1943:
1935:
1899:
1893:
1892:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1824:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1802:
1794:
1777:(4–6): 295–303.
1768:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1742:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1699:
1698:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1672:NNIN REU Journal
1669:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1635:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1609:
1577:
1566:
1565:
1533:
1508:
1507:
1501:
1493:
1476:(4–6): 315–322.
1465:
1459:
1458:
1439:
1430:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1395:
1382:
1381:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1356:
1324:
1318:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1299:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1280:on April 7, 2014
1266:
1257:
1250:
1123:Gabriel Lippmann
1116:Gabriel Lippmann
1091:
1063:
1048:
1030:
1012:
990:
972:
954:
936:
918:
900:
878:
863:
760:Surface gratings
753:Ranunculus acris
685:Bragg reflection
558:, a weevil from
531:sexual selection
467:Fixed structures
452:refractive index
281:Cape golden mole
21:
18:Structural color
5155:
5154:
5150:
5149:
5148:
5146:
5145:
5144:
5115:
5114:
5113:
5108:
5080:
5048:
4965:
4883:
4840:
4830:
4753:
4732:Blue in culture
4728:Colour history
4703:
4622:
4596:Colour analysis
4591:Colour triangle
4545:
4502:black-and-white
4474:
4467:
4454:
4397:Colour printing
4356:
4303:
4185:
4099:
4093:
4063:
4058:
3987:
3899:
3871:
3789:
3780:
3720:
3717:
3687:
3682:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3671:
3658:
3614:Newton's cradle
3595:
3550:
3523: (student)
3521:William Whiston
3517: (student)
3473:
3454:Religious views
3415:
3330:Newton's method
3290:Newtonian fluid
3184:Bucket argument
3170:
3090:
3025:
2958:
2953:
2863:
2836:
2808:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2728:
2727:
2683:
2679:
2663:
2662:
2655:
2653:
2646:
2642:
2626:
2625:
2596:10.1.1.655.2198
2571:
2567:
2557:
2555:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2499:
2497:
2490:
2486:
2476:
2474:
2467:
2463:
2453:
2451:
2441:
2437:
2426:
2422:
2415:
2397:
2393:
2377:
2376:
2342:
2338:
2303:
2299:
2240:
2236:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2113:
2109:
2093:
2092:
2047:
2041:
2037:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2014:
2008:
2004:
1994:
1992:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1966:Wayback Machine
1957:
1953:
1937:
1936:
1900:
1896:
1873:
1869:
1859:
1857:
1822:
1816:
1812:
1796:
1795:
1766:
1760:
1756:
1709:
1705:
1696:
1694:
1683:
1679:
1667:
1661:
1657:
1647:
1645:
1633:
1627:
1623:
1578:
1569:
1534:
1511:
1495:
1494:
1466:
1462:
1456:
1440:
1433:
1426:
1422:
1415:
1396:
1385:
1374:
1370:
1325:
1321:
1311:
1309:
1300:
1293:
1283:
1281:
1268:
1267:
1260:
1251:
1242:
1238:
1216:
1108:
1102:
1095:
1092:
1083:
1064:
1055:
1049:
1040:
1031:
1022:
1013:
1004:
991:
982:
973:
964:
955:
946:
937:
928:
919:
910:
906:Parotia lawesii
901:
892:
879:
870:
864:
855:
788:
527:Lawes's parotia
523:Parotia lawesii
469:
464:
415:
405:
361:) the gloss of
316:
294:
289:
197:mother of Pearl
194:
155:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5153:
5143:
5142:
5137:
5135:Nanotechnology
5132:
5127:
5110:
5109:
5107:
5106:
5096:
5085:
5082:
5081:
5079:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5062:
5060:
5054:
5053:
5050:
5049:
5047:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4975:
4973:
4967:
4966:
4964:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4947:
4946:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4900:
4898:
4889:
4885:
4884:
4882:
4881:
4876:
4871:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4844:
4842:
4836:
4835:
4832:
4831:
4829:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4817:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4796:
4786:
4785:
4784:
4782:Pastel colours
4774:
4773:
4772:
4761:
4759:
4755:
4754:
4752:
4751:
4750:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4726:
4725:
4724:
4713:
4711:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4645:
4643:
4634:
4628:
4627:
4624:
4623:
4621:
4620:
4612:
4611:(Schopenhauer)
4604:
4599:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4572:
4571:
4566:
4564:Primary colour
4555:
4553:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4527:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4505:
4504:
4488:
4486:
4477:
4469:
4468:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4455:
4453:
4452:
4450:Colour mapping
4447:
4442:
4441:
4440:
4439:
4438:
4428:
4427:
4426:
4411:
4410:
4409:
4404:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4383:
4382:
4377:
4375:Colour balance
4366:
4364:
4358:
4357:
4355:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4332:Kruithof curve
4329:
4324:
4319:
4313:
4311:
4305:
4304:
4302:
4301:
4294:
4289:
4288:
4287:
4282:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4224:
4223:
4218:
4208:
4207:
4206:
4204:Sonochromatism
4195:
4193:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4172:
4171:
4161:
4160:
4159:
4154:
4144:
4139:
4138:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4116:
4114:
4113:Colour physics
4107:
4105:Colour science
4101:
4100:
4092:
4091:
4084:
4077:
4069:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3995:
3993:
3992:Related topics
3989:
3988:
3986:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3964:
3963:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3941:Countershading
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3907:
3905:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3881:
3879:
3873:
3872:
3870:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3857:Holochroal eye
3854:
3853:
3852:
3847:
3837:
3836:
3835:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3799:
3797:
3791:
3790:
3783:
3781:
3779:
3778:
3777:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3730:
3728:
3722:
3721:
3716:
3715:
3708:
3701:
3693:
3684:
3683:
3670:
3669:
3667:
3666:
3664:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3605:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3593:
3586:
3579:
3570:
3560:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3547: (friend)
3542:
3541: (friend)
3536:
3535: (friend)
3530:
3524:
3518:
3512:
3506:
3505: (mentor)
3503:William Clarke
3500:
3494:
3488:
3481:
3479:
3475:
3474:
3472:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3459:Occult studies
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3430:
3423:
3421:
3417:
3416:
3414:
3413:
3412:
3411:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3342:Newton fractal
3339:
3338:
3337:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3270:Newton's rings
3267:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3245:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3180:
3178:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3156:Newton's metal
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3129:Newton polygon
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3110:
3109:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3088:
3080:
3072:
3063:" (1713;
3057:
3049:
3042:
3033:
3031:
3030:Other writings
3027:
3026:
3024:
3023:
3015:
3007:
2999:
2991:
2983:
2975:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2959:
2952:
2951:
2944:
2937:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2884:(2): 380–390.
2869:
2862:
2861:External links
2859:
2858:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2844:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2823:
2816:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2802:
2790:
2777:
2776:
2768:
2767:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2742:
2693:(42): 425301.
2687:Nanotechnology
2677:
2640:
2575:Nanotechnology
2565:
2543:
2507:
2484:
2461:
2435:
2432:. Nobel Prize.
2420:
2413:
2391:
2336:
2317:(7): 754–763.
2297:
2234:
2203:(4): 499–506.
2183:
2174:
2107:
2035:
2002:
1970:
1951:
1894:
1867:
1810:
1754:
1703:
1677:
1655:
1621:
1567:
1509:
1460:
1454:
1431:
1420:
1413:
1383:
1368:
1319:
1291:
1258:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1233:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1215:
1212:
1127:Lippmann plate
1101:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1093:
1086:
1084:
1065:
1058:
1056:
1050:
1043:
1041:
1032:
1025:
1023:
1014:
1007:
1005:
992:
985:
983:
974:
967:
965:
956:
949:
947:
938:
931:
929:
920:
913:
911:
902:
895:
893:
880:
873:
871:
865:
858:
854:
851:
787:
784:
731:scarab beetles
600:Crystal fibres
468:
465:
463:
460:
404:
401:
293:
290:
288:
285:
154:
151:
86:—explained by
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5152:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5122:
5120:
5105:
5097:
5095:
5087:
5086:
5083:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5063:
5061:
5059:
5055:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4972:
4968:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4945:
4942:
4941:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4901:
4899:
4897:
4893:
4890:
4886:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4845:
4843:
4841:organisations
4837:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4791:
4790:
4787:
4783:
4780:
4779:
4778:
4777:Colourfulness
4775:
4771:
4768:
4767:
4766:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4756:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4729:
4727:
4723:
4720:
4719:
4718:
4715:
4714:
4712:
4710:
4706:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4629:
4618:
4617:
4613:
4610:
4609:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4561:
4560:
4559:Colour mixing
4557:
4556:
4554:
4552:
4551:Colour theory
4548:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4531:Light-on-dark
4529:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4503:
4500:
4499:
4498:
4495:
4494:
4493:
4490:
4489:
4487:
4485:
4484:Colour scheme
4481:
4478:
4476:
4470:
4465:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4437:
4434:
4433:
4432:
4429:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4420:
4417:
4416:
4415:
4412:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4399:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4372:
4371:
4368:
4367:
4365:
4363:
4359:
4353:
4352:Chromotherapy
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4306:
4300:
4299:
4295:
4293:
4292:Tetrachromacy
4290:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4277:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4244:
4241:
4240:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4216:Achromatopsia
4214:
4213:
4212:
4209:
4205:
4202:
4201:
4200:
4199:Chromesthesia
4197:
4196:
4194:
4192:
4188:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4170:
4167:
4166:
4165:
4162:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4149:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4122:
4121:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4102:
4097:
4090:
4085:
4083:
4078:
4076:
4071:
4070:
4067:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3999:Animal senses
3997:
3996:
3994:
3990:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3962:
3959:
3958:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3931:Chromatophore
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3908:
3906:
3902:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3874:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3842:
3841:
3838:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3829:
3828:Mammalian eye
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3803:Arthropod eye
3801:
3800:
3798:
3796:
3792:
3787:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3729:
3727:
3723:
3714:
3709:
3707:
3702:
3700:
3695:
3694:
3691:
3677:
3673:
3665:
3661:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3609:Newton (unit)
3607:
3606:
3604:
3602:
3598:
3592:
3591:
3587:
3585:
3584:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3557:
3553:
3546:
3543:
3540:
3539:William Jones
3537:
3534:
3531:
3528:
3525:
3522:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3511: (tutor)
3510:
3507:
3504:
3501:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3491:John Conduitt
3489:
3487: (niece)
3486:
3483:
3482:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3433:Cranbury Park
3431:
3428:
3425:
3424:
3422:
3420:Personal life
3418:
3410:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3368:
3367:Newton number
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3237:
3236:Kepler's laws
3234:
3233:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3209:parameterized
3207:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3173:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3095:Contributions
3093:
3086:
3085:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3062:
3058:
3055:
3054:
3050:
3048:" (1675)
3047:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3028:
3021:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3008:
3005:
3004:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2976:
2973:
2972:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2950:
2945:
2943:
2938:
2936:
2931:
2930:
2927:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2855:
2852:
2849:
2845:
2842:
2838:
2837:
2834:General books
2828:
2824:
2821:
2817:
2814:
2810:
2809:
2800:
2799:
2794:
2793:Newton, Isaac
2791:
2788:
2787:
2782:
2781:Hooke, Robert
2779:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2764:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2738:
2732:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2681:
2673:
2667:
2651:
2644:
2636:
2630:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2581:(2): 025602.
2580:
2576:
2569:
2553:
2547:
2540:
2524:
2517:
2511:
2495:
2488:
2472:
2469:Sgro, Donna.
2465:
2450:
2446:
2439:
2431:
2424:
2416:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2387:
2381:
2373:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2340:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2301:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2187:
2178:
2170:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2124:
2118:
2111:
2103:
2097:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2046:
2039:
2020:
2013:
2006:
1990:
1986:
1985:
1980:
1974:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1955:
1947:
1941:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1910:(5): 050904.
1909:
1905:
1898:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1877:Physics World
1871:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1814:
1806:
1800:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1765:
1758:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1719:
1714:
1707:
1693:on 2016-03-04
1692:
1688:
1681:
1673:
1666:
1659:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1625:
1617:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1505:
1499:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1464:
1457:
1451:
1447:
1446:
1438:
1436:
1429:
1424:
1416:
1410:
1406:
1405:
1400:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1379:
1372:
1364:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1323:
1307:
1306:
1298:
1296:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1265:
1263:
1255:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1240:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1217:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1204:nanoparticles
1200:
1196:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1170:
1165:
1162:
1158:
1155:that include
1154:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1100:In technology
1090:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1070:
1066:Wasps of the
1062:
1057:
1053:
1047:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1029:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1011:
1006:
1002:
1001:
996:
989:
984:
980:
979:
971:
966:
962:
961:
953:
948:
944:
943:
935:
930:
926:
925:
917:
912:
908:
907:
899:
894:
890:
889:Morpho helena
886:
885:
877:
872:
868:
862:
857:
856:
850:
848:
844:
840:
836:
835:chromatophore
831:
828:
827:
822:
821:chromatophore
818:
814:
810:
806:
799:
798:
792:
783:
781:
776:
772:
769:
765:
761:
757:
755:
754:
749:
742:
738:
734:
732:
727:
723:
719:
715:
710:
709:
704:
700:
696:
692:
691:
686:
682:
679:
675:
671:
664:
663:
657:
653:
651:
647:
643:
639:
632:
627:
623:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
594:
590:
586:
582:
576:
571:
567:
565:
561:
557:
556:
550:
546:
545:
540:
539:
534:
532:
528:
524:
520:
519:
514:
509:
505:
504:
495:
494:
488:
484:
478:
473:
459:
457:
453:
448:
444:
434:
427:
423:
419:
414:
410:
400:
398:
394:
390:
389:
384:
380:
379:pearl oysters
376:
373:feathers and
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
331:
329:
325:
321:
315:
307:
303:
298:
284:
282:
275:
273:
272:humming birds
263:
262:
257:
252:
248:
246:
242:
241:
235:
233:
229:
225:
220:
215:
213:
209:
208:
201:
198:
189:
188:'s feathers:
187:
183:
179:
178:
169:
168:
163:
159:
150:
148:
144:
139:
137:
133:
129:
128:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
72:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
53:visible light
50:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
4951:Colour chart
4814:Fluorescence
4770:Dichromatism
4632:Colour terms
4614:
4606:
4586:Colour wheel
4581:Colour solid
4576:Chromaticity
4445:Colour space
4414:Colour model
4347:Chromophobia
4296:
3977:
3862:Parietal eye
3808:Compound eye
3676:Isaac Newton
3588:
3581:
3573:
3564:
3497:Isaac Barrow
3435: (home)
3176:Newtonianism
3165:
3151:Newton scale
3114:Impact depth
3087: (1754)
3082:
3079: (1728)
3074:
3064:
3051:
3036:
3022: (1711)
3017:
3014: (1707)
3009:
3006: (1704)
3001:
2998: (1704)
2993:
2990: (1687)
2985:
2982: (1684)
2977:
2974: (1671)
2969:
2963:Publications
2881:
2877:
2847:
2843:. WIT Press.
2840:
2826:
2819:
2812:
2796:
2786:Micrographia
2784:
2761:
2747:Bibliography
2731:cite journal
2690:
2686:
2680:
2654:. Retrieved
2643:
2629:cite journal
2578:
2574:
2568:
2556:. Retrieved
2546:
2537:
2530:. Retrieved
2523:the original
2510:
2498:. Retrieved
2487:
2475:. Retrieved
2473:. Donna Sgro
2464:
2452:. Retrieved
2449:The Guardian
2448:
2438:
2423:
2404:
2400:
2394:
2380:cite journal
2353:
2349:
2339:
2314:
2310:
2300:
2251:
2247:
2237:
2200:
2196:
2186:
2177:
2132:
2128:
2122:
2110:
2096:cite journal
2055:
2051:
2038:
2026:. Retrieved
2019:the original
2005:
1993:. Retrieved
1982:
1973:
1954:
1940:cite journal
1907:
1903:
1897:
1883:(2): 35–39.
1880:
1876:
1870:
1858:. Retrieved
1833:(6): 46–55.
1830:
1826:
1813:
1799:cite journal
1774:
1770:
1757:
1722:
1716:
1706:
1695:. Retrieved
1691:the original
1680:
1671:
1658:
1648:November 17,
1646:. Retrieved
1641:
1637:
1624:
1589:
1585:
1548:(5): 74–79.
1545:
1541:
1498:cite journal
1473:
1469:
1463:
1444:
1423:
1403:
1377:
1371:
1336:
1332:
1322:
1310:. Retrieved
1304:
1282:. Retrieved
1278:the original
1273:
1253:
1195:compound eye
1192:
1166:
1150:
1137:
1131:
1121:
1073:
1067:
1034:
1016:
998:
976:
958:
940:
922:
904:
888:
882:
842:
832:
824:
819:proteins in
802:
795:
774:
773:
764:cuts of meat
759:
758:
751:
747:
746:
725:
706:
702:
688:
681:microfibrils
674:helicoidally
672:, formed of
670:Spiral coils
669:
668:
660:
646:Ara ararauna
645:
637:
636:
619:
607:
599:
598:
584:
580:
579:
553:
542:
536:
535:
522:
516:
501:
499:
491:
481:
456:out of phase
443:Thomas Young
440:
386:
353:wing-cases (
332:
317:
277:
268:
261:Chrysospalax
259:
258:noted that
238:
236:
232:interference
224:Thomas Young
222:
217:
212:Isaac Newton
205:
203:
191:
182:Robert Hooke
177:Micrographia
175:
173:
167:Micrographia
165:
162:Robert Hooke
140:
125:
118:cuts of meat
96:
88:Thomas Young
80:Isaac Newton
76:Robert Hooke
73:
48:
47:
42:Robert Hooke
38:Isaac Newton
29:
4809:Iridescence
4641:Basic terms
4536:Web colours
4492:Colour tool
4431:subtractive
4380:Colour cast
4285:Unique hues
4243:Colour code
4238:Colour task
4181:Colorimetry
4147:Chromophore
4039:Pseudopupil
3921:Aposematism
3840:Mollusc eye
3576:by Paolozzi
3515:Roger Cotes
3124:Newton disc
3038:Quaestiones
3011:Arithmetica
2829:. Springer.
2558:23 November
2532:23 November
2500:23 November
2477:23 November
2454:23 November
1188:transistors
1184:cephalopods
1164:difficult.
1161:pearlescent
1080:sculpturing
847:iridophores
805:cephalopods
718:pointillist
413:iridescence
324:thin layers
132:Bragg's law
102:butterflies
55:instead of
5119:Categories
4971:Shades of:
4804:Brightness
4475:philosophy
4280:Afterimage
4270:Metamerism
4221:Dichromacy
4029:Ommatidium
3961:coincident
3926:Camouflage
3904:Coloration
3845:cephalopod
3739:Chameleons
3663:Categories
3639:XMM-Newton
3556:Depictions
3527:John Keill
3449:Apple tree
3444:Later life
3439:Early life
3019:De Analysi
1697:2015-09-21
1236:References
1225:Camouflage
1180:chameleons
1106:Biomimicry
1075:Hemipepsis
809:camouflage
714:pixellated
616:aposematic
549:nanometres
462:Mechanisms
447:thin films
397:carotenoid
367:iridescent
339:kingfisher
328:wavelength
287:Principles
234:patterns.
147:camouflage
143:biomimetic
136:buttercups
98:In animals
92:thin films
69:iridescent
4821:Grayscale
4794:Lightness
4789:Luminance
4598:(fashion)
4298:The dress
4044:Rhopalium
3877:Evolution
3850:gastropod
3818:Eye shine
3813:Eagle eye
3744:Dinosaurs
3478:Relations
2987:Principia
2591:CiteSeerX
2331:219739918
2276:1476-4687
1995:April 26,
1791:121911730
1644:(2): 1–12
1363:110408369
1312:April 27,
1284:April 27,
1153:banknotes
1146:polyester
903:The male
817:reflectin
741:Buttercup
683:, create
678:cellulose
620:Aphrodita
612:sea mouse
608:Aphrodita
383:Pteriidae
363:buttercup
347:butterfly
335:bee-eater
306:interfere
302:thin film
254:In 1892,
5094:Category
5076:Lighting
4799:Darkness
4619:(Goethe)
4419:additive
4407:Quattron
3911:Albinism
3601:Namesake
3567:by Blake
3161:Spectrum
3102:Calculus
3071: )
2971:Fluxions
2908:14595674
2900:16391360
2806:Research
2795:(1704).
2783:(1665).
2760:(1892).
2723:29902805
2715:20858934
2666:cite web
2613:21817544
2372:23053367
2292:71144355
2284:30814712
2229:28239133
2169:23019355
2080:12917700
1984:BBC News
1962:Archived
1932:18643018
1855:11759585
1749:21159676
1616:28228540
1562:22550931
1401:(1892).
1339:: 1–16.
1214:See also
1199:housefly
1176:patterns
853:Examples
813:proteins
676:stacked
604:bristles
388:Nautilus
375:nacreous
369:, as in
164:'s 1665
106:photonic
65:feathers
57:pigments
5058:Related
5019:Magenta
4944:history
4848:Pantone
4135:Visible
4130:Rainbow
3973:Mimicry
3946:Crypsis
3759:Mammals
3119:Inertia
3107:fluxion
3003:Queries
2995:Opticks
2979:De Motu
2798:Opticks
2695:Bibcode
2656:May 19,
2621:7184882
2583:Bibcode
2471:"About"
2256:Bibcode
2220:5302279
2160:3465391
2137:Bibcode
2088:4413969
2060:Bibcode
1912:Bibcode
1835:Bibcode
1740:3107630
1607:5332578
1550:Bibcode
1478:Bibcode
1341:Bibcode
1305:Opticks
1197:of the
1114:One of
768:fibrils
699:tannins
665:berries
642:keratin
593:mirrors
393:melanin
371:peacock
359:flowers
349:wings,
320:Colours
314:Feather
207:Opticks
186:peacock
153:History
61:peacock
5071:Qualia
5066:Vision
5014:Purple
5009:Violet
4989:Yellow
4984:Orange
4839:Colour
4679:Orange
4674:Purple
4664:Yellow
4473:Colour
4098:topics
4096:Colour
3764:horses
3726:Vision
3574:Newton
3565:Newton
2906:
2898:
2721:
2713:
2619:
2611:
2593:
2411:
2370:
2329:
2290:
2282:
2274:
2248:Nature
2227:
2217:
2167:
2157:
2125:fruit"
2123:Pollia
2086:
2078:
2052:Nature
2028:18 May
1930:
1860:15 May
1853:
1789:
1747:
1737:
1614:
1604:
1560:
1452:
1411:
1361:
1138:Morpho
1134:Teijin
1069:Pepsis
1003:weevil
981:weevil
884:Morpho
726:Pollia
708:Morpho
703:Pollia
648:, the
610:, the
587:, the
564:pixels
560:Brazil
518:Morpho
508:chitin
493:Morpho
385:) and
355:elytra
351:beetle
343:roller
5130:Color
5104:Index
5044:Black
5034:White
5029:Brown
4994:Green
4896:Lists
4888:Names
4870:(CIE)
4699:Brown
4694:White
4684:Black
4654:Green
4169:Water
4125:Light
3833:human
3754:Toads
3734:Birds
3409:table
2904:S2CID
2719:S2CID
2617:S2CID
2526:(PDF)
2519:(PDF)
2403:[
2327:S2CID
2288:S2CID
2197:Foods
2084:S2CID
2048:(PDF)
2022:(PDF)
2015:(PDF)
1823:(PDF)
1787:S2CID
1767:(PDF)
1668:(PDF)
1634:(PDF)
1359:S2CID
1142:nylon
426:nacre
63:tail
5039:Gray
5024:Pink
5004:Blue
4999:Cyan
4689:Grey
4669:Pink
4649:Blue
4436:CMYK
3795:Eyes
3774:cats
3769:dogs
3749:Fish
2896:PMID
2771:---
2737:link
2711:PMID
2672:link
2658:2012
2635:link
2609:PMID
2560:2018
2534:2018
2502:2018
2479:2018
2456:2018
2409:ISBN
2386:link
2368:PMID
2280:PMID
2272:ISSN
2225:PMID
2165:PMID
2102:link
2076:PMID
2030:2012
1997:2012
1946:link
1928:PMID
1862:2012
1851:PMID
1805:link
1745:PMID
1650:2011
1612:PMID
1558:PMID
1504:link
1450:ISBN
1409:ISBN
1314:2012
1286:2012
1182:and
1144:and
1072:and
411:and
341:and
78:and
40:and
4979:Red
4765:Hue
4659:Red
4424:RGB
2886:doi
2882:209
2703:doi
2601:doi
2358:doi
2354:215
2319:doi
2264:doi
2252:566
2215:PMC
2205:doi
2155:PMC
2145:doi
2133:109
2068:doi
2056:424
1989:BBC
1920:doi
1885:doi
1843:doi
1831:285
1779:doi
1735:PMC
1727:doi
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