1105:
40 °C, larvae start showing substantial mortality. The diurnal variation of temperature can be extensive with daily range of more than 20 °C on some sunny days and clear nights. Larvae are able to respond well to a wide range of temperature condition, which allows them to inhabit various locations in the world. In natural conditions, larvae shows fastest growth at temperatures close to 35 °C. however, in constant temperature conditions in laboratory, larvae shows mortality at 35 °C. In this lab condition, larvae grows between 10 °C to 30.5 °C while showing maximal developmental rate at 30.5 °C. The difference between lab and natural condition is due to routine temperature changes on the scale of minutes to hours under field conditions.
349:
1002:. Females foraging for nectar will readily abandon a linear path; they will show tight turns concentrating on flower patches. Females searching for host plant, however, will follow a linear route. As a result of directionality, the number of eggs laid per plant declines with increases in host plant density. The average move length declined as host plant density increases, but the decline is not enough to concentrate eggs on a dense host plant. Although females avoid laying eggs on plants or leaves with other eggs or larvae in a lab condition; this discrimination is not shown in field conditions.
383:
688:
vision and odor. Chemical compounds such as
Phenylacetaldehyde or 2-Phenylethanol was shown to provoke reflex proboscis extension. The search for nectar is also limited by the memory constraint. An adult butterfly shows a flower constancy in foraging, visiting flower species that it has already experienced. The ability to find nectar from the flower increased over time, showing a certain learning curve. Furthermore, the ability to find nectar from the first flower species decreased if the adult butterfly started to feed nectar from other plant species.
697:
92:
501:
It has been suggested that isothiocyanate compounds in the family
Brassicaceae may have been evolved to reduce herbivory by caterpillars of the small white. However, this suggestion is not generally accepted because the small white has later been shown to be immune to the isothiocyanate forming reaction due to a specific biochemical adaptation. In contrast, the small white and relatives seem to have evolved as a consequence of this biochemical adaptation to the isothiocyanate-forming
509:
31:
394:
1042:
45:
568:
1016:
467:
69:
332:
1347:
1393:
1456:
1435:
1502:
1414:
1059:
oviposition was preferred on larger plants, but this was not reflected in laboratory conditions. Younger plants often had yellow/green color while older plants display a darker and stronger green. Female butterflies preferred the older plants due to the attraction to the darker green color. However, larvae perform better on younger plants.
1368:
1305:
1263:
1326:
1284:
1477:
1351:
1350:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1020:
652:
Larval duration, pupal weights, adult weights, and larval growth rates were significantly altered by both plant nutrient availability and plant species. Larvae preferred
Brassicaceae plants over other host plants. Larvae that have previously fed on crucifers will refuse nasturtium leaves to the point
636:
on the new sprouts. The larvae adjust their feeding rate to maintain a constant rate of nitrogen uptake. They will feed faster in low nitrogen environment and utilize the nitrogen more efficiently (at the cost of efficiency in other nutrients) than larvae hatched on nitrogen high host plant. However,
1085:
A gravid female adult will lay disproportionate number of eggs on peripheral or isolated plants. A single larva is less likely to exhaust the whole plant, therefore laying eggs singly prevents the likelihood of larval starvation from resource exhaustion. This behavior may have evolved to exploit the
539:
have not been fully studied, different instars are easily differentiated simply by comparing sizes, especially the head alone. During the first and second instar the head is entirely black; third instar has the clypeus yellow but the rest of the head black. In the fourth and fifth instar, there is a
500:
is known to lay eggs singularly on the host plant. The egg is characterized by a yellowish color and 12 longitudinal ridges. The egg production peaks about a week after adulthood in lab and the female can live up to 3 weeks. Females tend to lay fewer eggs on plants in clumps than on isolated plants.
1018:
704:
The male, when it spots a female, zigzags up, down, below, and in front of her, flying until she lands. The male flutters, catches her closed forewings with his legs, and spreads his wings. This causes her to lean over. He usually flies a short distance with her dangling beneath him. An unreceptive
1023:
1022:
1017:
687:
The adult flies around feeding from nectars of the plant. The adult looks for certain colors among green vegetation (purple, blue, and yellow preferred to white, red and green) and extends the proboscis before landing. It probes for nectar after landing. The butterfly identifies the flower through
656:
Survival rates do not differ depending on nutrition availability of host plant. Elevated plant nutrient levels decrease larval duration and increase larval growth rate. The elevated nutrition level also decreased the fourth instar's consumption rate and increased its food utilization efficiencies.
418:
The species can be found in any open area with diverse plant association. It can be seen usually in towns, but also in natural habitats, mostly in valley bottoms. Although an affinity towards open areas is shown, the small white is found to have entered even small forest clearings in recent years.
1067:
Once a gravid female lands on a plant, tactile and contact chemical stimuli are major factors affecting acceptance or rejection of the site for egg deposition. Once a female lands on a host plant, it will go through a "drumming reaction" or a rapid movement of the forelegs across the surface of a
644:
The larvae are shown to disperse their damage on the plant. Larvae are shown to feed mostly during the day. They move around the plant mostly spending their time feeding. A feeding bout is immediately followed by a change in position, either to a new leaf or to another part of the same leaf. This
1354:
1104:
Larvae feeding and growth is highly dependent on their body temperature. While the larvae survives from as low as 10 °C, the growth of larvae changes with changing temperature. From 10 °C to 35 °C, growth increases, but declines rapidly at temperatures higher than 35 °C. Past
1058:
in a lab environment showed no significant preference for the shape or size of the oviposition substrate. Gravid females responded most positively to green and blue/green colors for oviposition. The preference was shown for surfaces with maximal reflectance of 550 nm. In natural conditions,
985:
female adult will first locate suitable habitats, and then identify patches of vegetation that contain potential host plants. The cabbage butterflies seem to limit their search to open areas and avoid cool, shaded woodlands even when host plants are available in these areas. Furthermore, gravid
1397:
709:
contain mustard oils and females use these oils to locate the plants. Females then lay the eggs singly on host leaves. In the northern hemisphere, adults appear as early as March and they continue to brood well into
October. Spring adults have smaller black spots on its wings and are generally
1210:
lays its eggs in the 1st and 2nd instar caterpillars. The larva then grows within the caterpillar and continues to feed on the caterpillar until it is almost fully grown, and at that point the caterpillar is killed. It is important to note that only one larva develops per host and the rate of
1460:
1439:
1024:
1396:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1459:
1438:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1443:
1441:
1437:
1506:
1400:
1505:
411:, nor on Channel Islands off the coast of southern California. By 1898, the small white had spread to Hawaii; by 1929, it had reached New Zealand and the area around Melbourne, Australia, and found its way to Perth as early as 1943. It does not seem to have made it to South America.
1510:
1508:
1504:
1464:
1442:
1418:
657:
Larvae on cultivated host plant was observed to have higher growth efficiency than those fed in foliage of wild species. In short, larvae fed on high nutrition foliage show shorter duration of development, less consumption rate, higher growth rate and food processing efficiency.
614:
can move many kilometers in individual flights. Adults have been observed to fly as much as 12 km in one flight. On average, a female flies about 0.7 km per day and moves 0.45 km from where she starts. Males patrol all day around host plants to mate with females.
1417:
1509:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1372:
1352:
406:
from Lower
Austral/Lower Sonoran to Canada. Estimates show that a single female of this species might be the progenitor in a few generations of millions. It is absent or scarce in desert and semidesert regions (except for irrigated areas). It is not found north of Canadian
1309:
1267:
1371:
1421:
1376:
1374:
1370:
540:
dark greenish-yellow dot behind each eye but with rest of the head black. However, the color of the caterpillar head does not necessarily indicate specific instar, as the time of color change is not fixed. In the larval stage, the small white can be a pest on cultivated
1308:
1266:
1021:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1375:
1330:
1312:
1288:
1270:
1398:
1461:
1440:
1329:
1287:
1481:
1334:
1332:
1327:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1480:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1507:
1333:
1291:
679:
guide for aiding nectar search for the butterfly where the petals reflect near UV light whereas the center of the flower absorbs UV light, creating a visible dark center in the flower when seen in UV condition. This UV guide plays a significant role in
1145:, coloured as green as the host plant leaves and they rest on the undersides of the leaves, thus making them less visible to predators. Unlike the large white, they are not distasteful to predators like birds. Like many other "white" butterflies, they
1484:
1419:
1373:
1310:
1268:
1076:
use their chemoreceptors on their tarsi to search for chemical cues from the host plant. An adult female will be sensitive to number of glucosinolates, gluconasturtiin being the most effective glucosinolate stimulants for these sensilla.
414:
In
Britain, it has two flight periods, April–May and July–August, but is continuously brooded in North America, being one of the first butterflies to emerge from the chrysalis in the spring and flying until hard freeze in the fall.
1331:
1289:
986:
females will not oviposit during overcast or rainy weather. In laboratory conditions, high light intensity is required to promote oviposition. The females fly in a linear path independent of wind direction or position of the sun.
1482:
401:
The species has a natural range across Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It was accidentally introduced to Quebec, Canada, around 1860 and spread rapidly throughout North
America. The species has spread to all North American
364:). The upperside is creamy white with black tips on the forewings. Females also have two black spots in the center of the forewings. Its underwings are yellowish with black speckles. It is sometimes mistaken for a
2296:
Hwang, Shaw-Yhi; Liu, Cheng-Hsiang; Shen, Tse-Chi (1 July 2008). "Effects of plant nutrient availability and host plant species on the performance of two Pieris butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)".
649:
larvae are cryptic, they remain in the sun for the majority of the day, rather than hiding on the underside of the leaf. The condition of the host plant influences the larval growth significantly.
1348:
653:
of starving to death. Within the family
Brassicaceae, larvae show no significant difference in feeding behavior; larvae placed on kale show no difference from larvae placed on Brussels sprouts.
1019:
307:
region of Europe, and to have spread across
Eurasia thanks to the diversification of brassicaceous crops and the development of human trade routes. Over the past two centuries, it spread to
1394:
1457:
1436:
669:
use both visual and olfactory cues to identify flowers in their foraging flight. The cabbage butterfly prefers purple, blue and yellow flowers over other floral colors. Some flowers, like
2421:
Honda, Keiichi; Omura, H.; Hayashi, N. (13 August 1998). "Identification of Floral
Volatiles from Lingustrum japonicum that Stimulate Flower Visiting by Cabbage Butterfly, Pieris rapae".
641:
rate was observed between larvae in the two environments. Considered a serious pest, the caterpillar is known to be responsible for annual damage worth hundreds of thousands of dollars.
1503:
1415:
1369:
1306:
1264:
1298:
Second instar larvae eating. Speeded up 50 times to illustrate feeding behavior. This species first and second instar larvae’s nearly transparent body shows internal digestion.
1328:
1285:
610:
and fly throughout the day, except for early morning and evening. Although there is occasional activity during the later part of the night, it ceases as dawn breaks. Adult
1478:
2707:
Miles, Carol I.; Campo, Marta L. del; Renwick, J. Alan A. (3 December 2004). "Behavioral and chemosensory responses to a host recognition cue by larvae of Pieris rapae".
632:
larva is voracious. Once it hatches from the egg, it eats its own eggshell and then moves to eat the leaves of the host plant. It bores into the interior of the cabbage,
583:. It is brown to mottled-gray or yellowish, matching the background color. It has a large head cone, with a vertical abdomen and flared subdorsal ridge. The two (pupa of
532:, and a lateral row of yellow dashes, and a yellow middorsal line. Caterpillars rest on the undersides of the leaves, making them less visible to predators. Although the
2031:
Hasenbank, Marc; Hartley, Stephen (2014-10-07). "Weaker resource diffusion effect at coarser spatial scales observed for egg distribution of cabbage white butterflies".
2326:
Davis, C. R.; N. Gilbert (1985). "A comparative study of egg-laying behaviour and larval development of Pieris rapae L. and P. brassicae L. on the same host plants".
744:
1985:
Richards, O. W. (November 1940). "The Biology of the Small White Butterfly (Pieris rapae), with Special Reference to the Factors Controlling its Abundance".
840:
750:
852:
1586:
994:
Pre-mating females do not display host plant searching behavior. The behavior starts soon after mating. Flight behavior of an ovipositing female of
2188:
816:
2382:
Omura, Hisashi; Keiichi Honda; Nanao Hayashi (6 April 1999). "Chemical and chromatic bases for preferential visiting by the cabbage butterfly,
3275:
2949:
2240:
Maurico, Rodney; M. Deane Bowers (1990). "Do caterpillars disperse their damage?: larval foraging behavior of two specialist herbivores,
1072:
is shown to prefer smooth hard surfaces similar to a surface of an index card over rougher softer textures like blotting paper or felt.
2082:
Agrawal, AA & NS Kurashige (2003). "A Role for Isothiocyanates in Plant Resistance Against the Specialist Herbivore Pieris rapae".
2588:
Ikeura, Hiromi; Kobayashi, Fumiyuki; Hayata, Yasuyoshi (1 December 2010). "How do Pieris rapae search for Brassicaceae host plants?".
2202:
Fullard, James H.; Napoleone, Nadia (2001). "Diel flight periodicity and the evolution of auditory defences in the Macrolepidoptera".
1089:
Age of butterflies appears to have no effect on their ability to select the source of highest concentration of oviposition stimulant.
3394:
1428:
Larvae shedding skin, becoming a chrysalis. Recorded over fifteen hours. Closeups at two times speed. Other clips at ten times speed.
3164:
1096:
The main issues with the weather are that strong winds can blow eggs from the leaves and strong rains can drown the caterpillars.
3203:
1407:
Parasitized larvae showing wasp larvae exiting its body, spinning cocoons. Playback at double speed. Adult wasps at normal speed.
606:, the small white is a strong flyer and the British population is increased by continental immigrants in most years. Adults are
3379:
3389:
2519:
2159:
1864:
1824:
1596:
3208:
645:
dispersal of damage is seen as an adaptive behavior to hide the visual cues from predators that rely on vision. Even though
3384:
1113:
Studies in Britain showed that birds are a major predator in British town and city environments (such as in gardens) while
3339:
2673:
Renwick, J. A. A.; Celia D. Radke (1983). "Chemical recognition of host plants for oviposition by the Cabbage butterfly,
274:. The butterfly is recognizable by its white color with small black dots on its wings, and it can be distinguished from
3364:
3125:
2761:
Dempster, J.P. (1967). "The Control of Pieris rapae with DDT. I. The Natural Mortality of the Young Stages of Pieris".
1774:
3374:
3369:
3143:
2544:
Renwick, J. A. A.; Celia D. Radke (1988). "Sensory cues in host selection for oviposition by the cabbage butterfly,
2150:
editors, J. Richard and Joan E. Heitzman; Jim Rathert, principal photographer; Kathy Love and LuAnne Larsen (1996).
3280:
3156:
2809:
Kingsolver, Joel G. (October 2000). "Feeding, growth, and the thermal environment of Cabbage White caterpillars,
76:
3404:
3399:
3359:
3349:
2916:
1068:
leaf. This behavior is believed to provide physical and chemical information about the suitability of a plant.
91:
1560:
1361:
Segments of the last two hours of the larvae shedding its 4th instar skin, after starting a few hours earlier.
3354:
3262:
2939:
705:
female may fly vertically or spread her wings and raise the abdomen to reject the male. Most host plants of
1164:
caterpillars are commonly parasitized by a variety of insects. The four main parasitoids are braconid wasps
3344:
3190:
3073:
3027:
2955:
1686:
1602:
3078:
3045:
1005:
Adult females may search for a suitable Brassicaceae over a range of 500 m to several kilometers.
633:
2630:): ecological consequences and adaptive significance of Markovian movements in a patchy environment".
2626:
Root, Richard B.; Peter M. Kareiva (February 1984). "The search for resources by cabbage butterflies (
3290:
3231:
1796:
3254:
828:
368:
due to its plain appearance. The wingspan of adults is roughly 32–47 mm (1.3–1.9 in).
3005:
2967:
1054:
Landing appears to be mediated primarily by visual cues, of which color is the most important.
928:
3241:
2181:
1227:
in that both parasitize the host in either the 1st or 2nd instar. The main difference is that
3218:
2945:
1933:
1146:
950:
918:
912:
888:
876:
529:
492:
304:
186:
3316:
2125:
3112:
3055:
3014:
2770:
2639:
2597:
2557:
2465:
2335:
2257:
1994:
1889:
1713:
1640:
1386:
larvae walking on broccoli stem and on glass, showing it laying down silk it then walks on.
894:
1231:
always kill the host in the 5th instar and multiple larvae can be raised within one host.
1153:. Bird predation is usually evident only in late-instar larvae or on overwintering pupae.
382:
8:
2908:
2456:
Lewis, Alcinda C. (16 May 1986). "Memory Constraints and Flower Choice in Pieris rapae".
1756:
1246:
762:
348:
58:
2774:
2643:
2601:
2561:
2469:
2339:
2261:
1998:
1893:
1717:
1644:
1012:, indicating that there may be slight variation among different geographic populations.
2838:
2786:
2732:
2655:
2489:
2438:
2403:
2359:
2273:
2269:
2219:
2169:
2107:
2064:
2010:
1905:
1784:
1737:
1725:
1702:"Relationship between wingbeat frequency and resonant frequency of the wing in insects"
1663:
1624:
1126:
858:
786:
212:
163:
86:
3311:
3099:
3019:
2830:
2724:
2569:
2515:
2481:
2351:
2155:
2099:
2056:
2048:
1860:
1854:
1820:
1814:
1770:
1729:
1701:
1668:
1592:
1172:
1086:
original vegetation in the eastern Mediterranean where brassica plants originated.
900:
834:
774:
756:
3032:
2736:
2493:
2442:
2407:
2363:
2277:
2223:
2068:
1741:
696:
528:, the caterpillars are bluish-green, with tiny black spots, a black ring around the
3104:
2879:
2874:
2862:
2842:
2822:
2778:
2716:
2686:
2647:
2605:
2565:
2473:
2430:
2395:
2343:
2305:
2265:
2211:
2111:
2091:
2040:
2002:
1897:
1762:
1721:
1658:
1648:
1536:
1166:
1134:
1092:
Additionally, it has been shown that the weather has a large impact on the eggs of
1047:
1008:
Small differences in flight patterns have been observed in Canadian and Australian
960:
944:
882:
870:
276:
248:
3298:
2477:
1880:
Gilbert, N. (June 1984). "Control of Fecundity in Pieris rapae: I. The Problem".
1178:
934:
906:
798:
638:
561:
3267:
3151:
3138:
1927:
999:
970:
822:
810:
804:
792:
768:
2720:
2609:
2434:
2399:
2309:
2095:
2044:
3333:
2052:
1118:
955:
939:
864:
780:
738:
726:
671:
517:
502:
487:
475:
341:
312:
3130:
1766:
1700:
Ha, Ngoc San; Truong, Quang Tri; Goo, Nam Seo; Park, Hoon Cheol (Oct 2013).
1653:
3195:
2990:
2834:
2728:
2706:
2485:
2355:
2215:
2103:
2060:
1967:
A Field guide to the Butterflies of North America, East of the Great Plains
1733:
1672:
1492:
1184:
846:
714:
508:
308:
2690:
2587:
1340:
Larvae eating remainder of a leaf. Six hours speeded up one hundred times.
3249:
3226:
3177:
3065:
2999:
603:
557:
426:
is found in Europe, while Asian populations are placed in the subspecies
357:
316:
143:
3303:
3169:
2790:
2659:
2347:
1758:
The introduction and spread of Pieris rapae in North America, 1860–1886
1516:
Butterflies depositing eggs under leaves. Each repeated in slow motion.
1239:
1203:
1114:
965:
733:
607:
595:, the proboscis sheath extends far beyond the antennal sheath while in
403:
288:
30:
3091:
1584:
1247:
Butterfly Life Cycle in Video (Pieris rapae, the common cabbage white)
981:
adult female butterfly: searching, landing, and contact evaluation. A
393:
3182:
1198:
1041:
408:
320:
241:
123:
103:
2961:
2782:
2651:
2014:
1909:
1534:
In Europe, "cabbage white" and "cabbage butterfly" refer instead to
591:) can be easily distinguished by comparing the proboscis sheath. In
567:
44:
3086:
2984:
2826:
2295:
1856:
The butterflies of North America: a natural history and field guide
553:
479:
478:
on both cultivated and wild members of the cabbage family, such as
466:
280:
by its larger size and the black band at the tip of its forewings.
251:
203:
153:
2006:
1901:
1319:
This species second instar larvae sheds skin in under 20 minutes.
1142:
541:
536:
244:
2930:
1117:
had larger influence in rural areas. Bird predators include the
3117:
3040:
2381:
982:
549:
336:
296:
133:
113:
2081:
331:
1029:
533:
2933:
A worldwide citizen science project undertaking research on
1625:"Global invasion history of the agricultural pest butterfly
1150:
730:
545:
365:
300:
283:
The caterpillar of this species, often referred to as the "
2514:(2nd ed.). South Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
1949:
New Zealand butterflies identification and natural history
374:
has a wingbeat frequency averaging 12.8 flaps per second.
2539:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2420:
2321:
2319:
2235:
2233:
2143:
2621:
2619:
560:. The larva is considered a serious pest for commercial
725:
All known host plants contain natural chemicals called
676:
2666:
2528:
2316:
2239:
2230:
2154:. Jefferson City, MO: Missouri Dept. of Conservation.
2856:
2854:
2852:
2672:
2616:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2543:
1561:"NatureServe Explorer 2.0 Pieris rapae Cabbage White"
713:
Males seem to benefit from the sodium uptake through
356:
In appearance it looks like a smaller version of the
2702:
2700:
2625:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2291:
2289:
2287:
717:
behaviour with an increase in reproductive success.
291:
crops such as cabbage, kale, bok choy and broccoli.
352:
Cabbage White Butterfly (Pieris rapae) wings closed
2849:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2576:
2697:
2370:
2284:
729:, that are cues for egg laying. Host plants are:
3331:
2201:
2030:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1202:, were introduced in North America from Asia as
989:
977:There are three phases to host selection by the
2797:
2325:
1921:
1919:
1859:. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
1699:
1585:RR Scott & RM Emberson (compilers) (1999).
1470:Butterflies flying. Later clips in slow motion.
397:Small whites mating. German/Dutch border region
2860:
1973:
1495:to concentrate salts for female reproduction.
691:
2867:New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research
1916:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1836:
2902:The Millennium Atlas of Britain and Ireland
2505:
2503:
1808:
1806:
1754:
1629:revealed with genomics and citizen science"
377:
323:, as a result of accidental introductions.
303:; it is believed to have originated in the
2808:
2449:
2414:
1940:
1622:
67:
43:
29:
2878:
2187:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1833:
1662:
1652:
832:(females oviposit but larvae refuse it),
2913:The Identification of Indian Butterflies
2760:
2500:
1984:
1960:
1958:
1803:
1591:. Entomological Society of New Zealand.
1040:
1014:
695:
566:
507:
465:
392:
381:
347:
330:
2149:
2126:""Tiny black pints on the caterpillar""
1925:
1879:
1687:"Butterflies of Canada – Cabbage White"
618:
3332:
1449:Emerging from chrysalis into an adult.
1080:
2966:
2965:
2907:
2815:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology
2756:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2455:
2026:
2024:
1964:
1955:
1946:
1852:
1277:Emerging from egg and first feedings.
3291:ebd2513b-af80-49e0-b86a-de779471fdc8
3157:fb4a54c4-41a6-408d-be78-4eefaa0d63fc
1812:
1588:Handbook of New Zealand Insect Names
1237:pupae are frequently parasitized by
1062:
2709:Journal of Comparative Physiology A
2590:Biochemical Systematics and Ecology
2509:
2298:Biochemical Systematics and Ecology
1036:
938:(larvae grow slowly or refuse it);
564:of cabbage and other Brassicaceae.
13:
2890:
2743:
2270:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1990.tb00796.x
2021:
14:
3416:
2924:
2152:Butterflies and moths of Missouri
1969:. Cambridge: The Riverside Press.
1951:. Auckland, New Zealand: Collins.
720:
474:The small white will readily lay
3395:Lepidoptera of the United States
1819:. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.
1816:The Butterflies of North America
1706:Bioinspiration & Biomimetics
1623:Ryan, S.F.; et al. (2019).
1500:
1475:
1454:
1433:
1412:
1391:
1366:
1345:
1324:
1303:
1282:
1261:
1099:
660:
623:
90:
2915:(2nd ed.). Mumbai, India:
2195:
2118:
2075:
1873:
1761:. Vol. 4. pp. 53–69.
266:, on several continents as the
254:. It is known in Europe as the
2917:Bombay Natural History Society
2880:10.1080/00288233.1974.10421002
1748:
1693:
1679:
1616:
1578:
1553:
1528:
599:, only a very short distance.
326:
1:
3380:Butterflies described in 1758
1547:
1540:, also known as "large white"
1156:
990:Host plant searching behavior
637:no significant difference in
461:
3390:Butterflies of North America
2861:Ashby, J; Pottinger (1974).
2570:10.1016/0022-1910(88)90055-8
2550:Journal of Insect Physiology
2478:10.1126/science.232.4752.863
1965:Klots, Alexander B. (1951).
1726:10.1088/1748-3182/8/4/046008
1108:
710:smaller than summer adults.
602:Like its close relative the
270:, and in New Zealand as the
240:is a small- to medium-sized
7:
3385:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
2423:Journal of Chemical Ecology
2388:Journal of Chemical Ecology
2084:Journal of Chemical Ecology
1045:Pollinating the flowers of
579:is very similar to that of
516:Traditionally known in the
430:. Other subspecies include
386:Global invasion history of
10:
3421:
3340:NatureServe secure species
2952:Featured Creatures website
2904:. Oxford University Press.
2763:Journal of Applied Ecology
2677:(Lepidoptera: Pieridae)".
1251:
1215:is largely independent of
1196:, previously in the genus
692:Courtship and reproduction
258:, in North America as the
247:of the whites-and-yellows
3365:Pieridae of South America
2974:
2721:10.1007/s00359-004-0580-x
2610:10.1016/j.bse.2010.12.007
2310:10.1016/j.bse.2008.03.001
2045:10.1007/s00442-014-3103-7
1987:Journal of Animal Ecology
1932:. Garden City, New York:
1882:Journal of Animal Ecology
1813:Howe, William H. (1975).
868:(retards larval growth),
218:
211:
192:
185:
87:Scientific classification
85:
65:
56:
51:
42:
37:
28:
23:
3375:Butterflies of Australia
3370:Butterflies of Indochina
2679:Environmental Entomology
2130:Butterfly Identification
1853:Scott, James A. (1986).
1565:explorer.natureserve.org
1521:
524:, now more commonly the
422:The nominate subspecies
378:Distribution and habitat
2958:, Butterflies of Canada
2435:10.1023/a:1020750029362
2400:10.1023/a:1020990018111
2096:10.1023/A:1024265420375
1926:Holland, W. J. (1931).
1767:10.5962/bhl.title.38374
1654:10.1073/pnas.1907492116
829:Capsella bursa-pastoris
2512:Butterfly conservation
2216:10.1006/anbe.2001.1753
1185:Epicampocera succinata
1051:
1033:
929:Streptanthus tortuosus
701:
572:
513:
471:
398:
390:
353:
345:
3405:Lepidoptera of Mexico
3400:Lepidoptera of Canada
3360:Butterflies of Europe
3350:Butterflies of Africa
2250:Ecological Entomology
1947:Gibbs, G. W. (1980).
1044:
1027:
951:Capparis sandwichiana
919:Sisymbrium officinale
913:Sisymbrium altissimum
889:Raphanus raphanistrum
877:Nasturtium officinale
745:Armoracia lapthifolia
699:
570:
522:imported cabbage worm
511:
493:Sisymbrium officinale
469:
396:
385:
351:
334:
305:Eastern Mediterranean
3355:Butterflies of Japan
3152:Fauna Europaea (new)
2386:, to rape flowers".
1755:Scudder, SH (1887).
1141:). Caterpillars are
895:Rorippa curvisiliqua
619:Behavior and ecology
285:imported cabbageworm
16:Species of butterfly
2775:1967JApEc...4..485D
2691:10.1093/ee/12.2.446
2644:1984Ecol...65..147R
2602:2010BioSE..38.1199I
2562:1988JInsP..34..251R
2470:1986Sci...232..863L
2340:1985Oecol..67..278D
2262:1990EcoEn..15..153M
2242:Euphrydryas phaeton
1999:1940JAnEc...9..243R
1894:1984JAnEc..53..581G
1718:2013BiBi....8d6008S
1645:2019PNAS..11620015R
1639:(40): 20015–20024.
1131:Carduelis carduelis
1081:Egg-laying behavior
763:Barbarea orthoceras
268:small cabbage white
59:Conservation status
3345:Pieris (butterfly)
2510:New, T.R. (1997).
2348:10.1007/bf00384299
2244:(Nymphalidae) and
2180:has generic name (
1929:The Butterfly book
1240:Pteromalus puparum
1052:
1034:
859:Lobularia maritima
841:Descurainia Sophia
787:Brassica caulorapa
751:Armoracia aquatica
702:
573:
514:
472:
399:
391:
354:
346:
3327:
3326:
3312:Open Tree of Life
2968:Taxon identifiers
2521:978-0-19-554124-3
2464:(4752): 863–865.
2429:(12): 2167–2180.
2161:978-1-887247-06-1
1866:978-0-8047-1205-7
1826:978-0-385-04926-9
1598:978-0-9597663-5-6
1511:
1491:Male butterflies
1486:
1465:
1444:
1423:
1402:
1377:
1356:
1335:
1314:
1293:
1272:
1219:population size.
1194:Cotesia glomerata
1173:Cotesia glomerata
1123:Passer domesticus
1063:Behavior on plant
1025:
901:Rorippa islandica
835:Dentaria diphylla
775:Brassica oleracea
757:Barbarea vulgaris
295:is widespread in
264:cabbage butterfly
233:
232:
228:(Linnaeus, 1758)
80:
3412:
3320:
3319:
3307:
3306:
3294:
3293:
3284:
3283:
3271:
3270:
3268:NHMSYS0000503832
3258:
3257:
3245:
3244:
3235:
3234:
3222:
3221:
3212:
3211:
3199:
3198:
3186:
3185:
3173:
3172:
3160:
3159:
3147:
3146:
3134:
3133:
3121:
3120:
3108:
3107:
3095:
3094:
3082:
3081:
3069:
3068:
3059:
3058:
3049:
3048:
3036:
3035:
3023:
3022:
3010:
3009:
3008:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2963:
2962:
2920:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2858:
2847:
2846:
2806:
2795:
2794:
2758:
2741:
2740:
2704:
2695:
2694:
2670:
2664:
2663:
2623:
2614:
2613:
2596:(6): 1199–1203.
2585:
2574:
2573:
2541:
2526:
2525:
2507:
2498:
2497:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2394:(8): 1895–1905.
2379:
2368:
2367:
2323:
2314:
2313:
2293:
2282:
2281:
2237:
2228:
2227:
2204:Animal Behaviour
2199:
2193:
2192:
2185:
2179:
2175:
2173:
2165:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2137:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2090:(6): 1403–1415.
2079:
2073:
2072:
2028:
2019:
2018:
1982:
1971:
1970:
1962:
1953:
1952:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1923:
1914:
1913:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1850:
1831:
1830:
1810:
1801:
1800:
1794:
1790:
1788:
1780:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1697:
1691:
1690:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1666:
1656:
1620:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1610:
1601:. Archived from
1582:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1557:
1541:
1537:Pieris brassicae
1532:
1513:
1512:
1488:
1487:
1467:
1466:
1446:
1445:
1425:
1424:
1404:
1403:
1379:
1378:
1358:
1357:
1337:
1336:
1316:
1315:
1295:
1294:
1274:
1273:
1190:Cotesia rubecula
1167:Cotesia rubecula
1048:Senecio tamoides
1037:Plant preference
1028:Pieris rapae in
1026:
961:Tropaeolum majus
945:Cleome serrulata
883:Raphanus sativus
871:Matthiola incana
853:Erysimum perenne
484:Sinapis arvensis
362:Pieris brassicae
287:", is a pest to
198:
95:
94:
74:
71:
70:
47:
33:
21:
20:
3420:
3419:
3415:
3414:
3413:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3330:
3329:
3328:
3323:
3315:
3310:
3302:
3299:Observation.org
3297:
3289:
3287:
3279:
3274:
3266:
3261:
3253:
3248:
3240:
3238:
3230:
3225:
3217:
3215:
3207:
3202:
3194:
3189:
3181:
3176:
3168:
3163:
3155:
3150:
3142:
3137:
3129:
3124:
3116:
3111:
3103:
3098:
3090:
3085:
3077:
3072:
3064:
3062:
3054:
3052:
3044:
3039:
3031:
3026:
3018:
3013:
3004:
3003:
2998:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2970:
2927:
2893:
2891:Further reading
2888:
2859:
2850:
2807:
2798:
2783:10.2307/2401350
2759:
2744:
2705:
2698:
2671:
2667:
2652:10.2307/1939467
2624:
2617:
2586:
2577:
2542:
2529:
2522:
2508:
2501:
2454:
2450:
2419:
2415:
2380:
2371:
2324:
2317:
2294:
2285:
2238:
2231:
2200:
2196:
2186:
2177:
2176:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2148:
2144:
2135:
2133:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2080:
2076:
2029:
2022:
1983:
1974:
1963:
1956:
1945:
1941:
1924:
1917:
1878:
1874:
1867:
1851:
1834:
1827:
1811:
1804:
1792:
1791:
1782:
1781:
1777:
1753:
1749:
1698:
1694:
1689:. 11 June 2014.
1685:
1684:
1680:
1621:
1617:
1608:
1606:
1599:
1583:
1579:
1569:
1567:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1544:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1517:
1514:
1501:
1496:
1489:
1476:
1471:
1468:
1455:
1450:
1447:
1434:
1429:
1426:
1413:
1408:
1405:
1392:
1387:
1380:
1367:
1362:
1359:
1346:
1341:
1338:
1325:
1320:
1317:
1304:
1299:
1296:
1283:
1278:
1275:
1262:
1256:
1254:
1249:
1179:Phryxe vulgaris
1159:
1139:Alauda arvensis
1111:
1102:
1083:
1065:
1039:
1015:
992:
935:Thlaspi arvense
907:Sisymbrium irio
799:Brassica juncea
723:
700:Copulating pair
694:
663:
626:
621:
464:
428:P. r. crucivora
380:
335:Feeding on the
329:
272:white butterfly
224:
207:
200:
194:
181:
89:
81:
72:
68:
61:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3418:
3408:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3325:
3324:
3322:
3321:
3308:
3295:
3285:
3272:
3259:
3246:
3236:
3223:
3213:
3200:
3187:
3174:
3161:
3148:
3139:Fauna Europaea
3135:
3122:
3109:
3096:
3083:
3070:
3060:
3050:
3037:
3024:
3011:
2996:
2980:
2978:
2972:
2971:
2960:
2959:
2953:
2937:
2931:Pieris project
2926:
2925:External links
2923:
2922:
2921:
2905:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2886:
2873:(2): 229–239.
2848:
2827:10.1086/317758
2821:(5): 621–628.
2796:
2769:(2): 485–500.
2742:
2715:(2): 147–155.
2696:
2685:(2): 446–450.
2665:
2638:(1): 147–165.
2615:
2575:
2556:(3): 251–257.
2527:
2520:
2499:
2448:
2413:
2369:
2334:(2): 278–281.
2315:
2304:(7): 505–513.
2283:
2256:(2): 153–161.
2229:
2210:(2): 349–368.
2194:
2160:
2142:
2117:
2074:
2039:(2): 423–430.
2020:
1993:(2): 243–288.
1972:
1954:
1939:
1915:
1888:(2): 581–588.
1872:
1865:
1832:
1825:
1802:
1793:|journal=
1776:978-0665147715
1775:
1747:
1692:
1678:
1615:
1597:
1577:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1518:
1515:
1499:
1497:
1490:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1390:
1388:
1381:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1260:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1223:is similar to
1158:
1155:
1110:
1107:
1101:
1098:
1082:
1079:
1064:
1061:
1038:
1035:
1000:Markov process
991:
988:
971:Reseda odorata
823:Cardaria draba
811:Brassica nigra
805:Brassica hirta
793:Brassica napus
769:Barbarea verna
727:glucosinolates
722:
721:Host selection
719:
693:
690:
662:
659:
625:
622:
620:
617:
503:glucosinolates
463:
460:
379:
376:
328:
325:
231:
230:
226:Artogeia rapae
223:Linnaeus, 1758
216:
215:
209:
208:
201:
190:
189:
183:
182:
175:
173:
169:
168:
161:
157:
156:
151:
147:
146:
141:
137:
136:
131:
127:
126:
121:
117:
116:
111:
107:
106:
101:
97:
96:
83:
82:
66:
63:
62:
57:
54:
53:
49:
48:
40:
39:
35:
34:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3417:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3286:
3282:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3237:
3233:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3214:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3061:
3057:
3051:
3047:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3016:
3012:
3007:
3001:
2997:
2992:
2986:
2982:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2957:
2956:Cabbage white
2954:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2942:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2929:
2928:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2894:
2881:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2857:
2855:
2853:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2805:
2803:
2801:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2703:
2701:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2669:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2622:
2620:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2523:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2504:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2322:
2320:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2292:
2290:
2288:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2248:(Pieridae)".
2247:
2243:
2236:
2234:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2198:
2190:
2183:
2171:
2163:
2157:
2153:
2146:
2131:
2127:
2121:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2078:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2025:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1968:
1961:
1959:
1950:
1943:
1935:
1931:
1930:
1922:
1920:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1868:
1862:
1858:
1857:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1828:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1809:
1807:
1798:
1786:
1778:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1759:
1751:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1712:(4): 046008.
1711:
1707:
1703:
1696:
1688:
1682:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1628:
1619:
1605:on 2010-05-25
1604:
1600:
1594:
1590:
1589:
1581:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1552:
1539:
1538:
1531:
1527:
1498:
1494:
1473:
1452:
1431:
1410:
1389:
1385:
1384:white cabbage
1382:Fifth instar
1364:
1343:
1322:
1301:
1280:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1244:
1242:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1200:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1186:
1181:
1180:
1175:
1174:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1119:house sparrow
1116:
1106:
1100:Larval growth
1097:
1095:
1090:
1087:
1078:
1075:
1071:
1060:
1057:
1050:
1049:
1043:
1031:
1013:
1011:
1006:
1003:
1001:
997:
987:
984:
980:
975:
973:
972:
967:
963:
962:
957:
956:Tropaeolaceae
953:
952:
947:
946:
941:
940:Capparidaceae
937:
936:
931:
930:
925:
921:
920:
915:
914:
909:
908:
903:
902:
897:
896:
891:
890:
885:
884:
879:
878:
873:
872:
867:
866:
865:Lunaria annua
861:
860:
855:
854:
849:
848:
843:
842:
837:
836:
831:
830:
825:
824:
819:
818:
817:Brassica tula
813:
812:
807:
806:
801:
800:
795:
794:
789:
788:
783:
782:
781:Brassica rapa
777:
776:
771:
770:
765:
764:
759:
758:
753:
752:
747:
746:
741:
740:
739:Arabis glabra
735:
732:
728:
718:
716:
711:
708:
698:
689:
685:
683:
678:
674:
673:
672:Brassica rapa
668:
661:Adult feeding
658:
654:
650:
648:
642:
640:
635:
631:
624:Larva feeding
616:
613:
609:
605:
600:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
569:
565:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
538:
535:
531:
527:
526:cabbage white
523:
519:
518:United States
510:
506:
504:
499:
495:
494:
489:
488:hedge mustard
485:
481:
477:
468:
459:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
420:
416:
412:
410:
405:
395:
389:
384:
375:
373:
369:
367:
363:
359:
350:
344:
343:
342:Aster amellus
338:
333:
324:
322:
318:
314:
313:North America
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
281:
279:
278:
273:
269:
265:
261:
260:cabbage white
257:
253:
250:
246:
243:
239:
238:
229:
227:
222:
221:Papilio rapae
217:
214:
210:
205:
199:
197:
191:
188:
187:Binomial name
184:
180:
179:
178:P. rapae
174:
171:
170:
167:
166:
162:
159:
158:
155:
152:
149:
148:
145:
142:
139:
138:
135:
132:
129:
128:
125:
122:
119:
118:
115:
112:
109:
108:
105:
102:
99:
98:
93:
88:
84:
78:
64:
60:
55:
50:
46:
41:
36:
32:
27:
22:
19:
3056:Pieris-rapae
3046:pieris-rapae
3033:Pieris_rapae
3020:Pieris_rapae
3006:Pieris rapae
2976:Pieris rapae
2975:
2941:Pieris rapae
2940:
2935:Pieris rapae
2934:
2912:
2909:Evans, W. H.
2901:
2897:
2870:
2866:
2818:
2814:
2811:Pieris rapae
2810:
2766:
2762:
2712:
2708:
2682:
2678:
2675:Pieris rapae
2674:
2668:
2635:
2631:
2628:Pieris rapae
2627:
2593:
2589:
2553:
2549:
2546:Pieris rapae
2545:
2511:
2461:
2457:
2451:
2426:
2422:
2416:
2391:
2387:
2384:Pieris rapae
2383:
2331:
2327:
2301:
2297:
2253:
2249:
2246:Pieris rapae
2245:
2241:
2207:
2203:
2197:
2151:
2145:
2134:. Retrieved
2132:. 2019-04-09
2129:
2120:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2036:
2032:
2007:10.2307/1459
1990:
1986:
1966:
1948:
1942:
1928:
1902:10.2307/4536
1885:
1881:
1875:
1855:
1815:
1757:
1750:
1709:
1705:
1695:
1681:
1636:
1632:
1627:Pieris rapae
1626:
1618:
1607:. Retrieved
1603:the original
1587:
1580:
1568:. Retrieved
1564:
1555:
1535:
1530:
1493:mud-puddling
1383:
1255:
1238:
1234:
1233:
1229:C. glomerata
1228:
1224:
1221:C. glomerata
1220:
1216:
1213:C. rubecula
1212:
1207:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1183:
1177:
1176:, and flies
1171:
1165:
1161:
1160:
1138:
1130:
1122:
1112:
1103:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1084:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1055:
1053:
1046:
1009:
1007:
1004:
998:follows the
995:
993:
978:
976:
969:
959:
949:
943:
933:
927:
923:
917:
911:
905:
899:
893:
887:
881:
875:
869:
863:
857:
851:
847:Eruca sativa
845:
839:
833:
827:
821:
815:
809:
803:
797:
791:
785:
779:
773:
767:
761:
755:
749:
743:
737:
724:
715:mud-puddling
712:
706:
703:
686:
681:
670:
666:
664:
655:
651:
646:
643:
629:
627:
611:
601:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
575:The pupa of
574:
525:
521:
515:
497:
491:
483:
473:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
421:
417:
413:
400:
388:Pieris rapae
387:
372:Pieris rapae
371:
370:
361:
355:
340:
309:North Africa
293:Pieris rapae
292:
284:
282:
277:P. brassicae
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
237:Pieris rapae
236:
235:
234:
225:
220:
219:
196:Pieris rapae
195:
193:
177:
176:
164:
24:Small white
18:
3250:NatureServe
3178:iNaturalist
3000:Wikispecies
2896:Asher, Jim
2178:|last=
1225:C. rubecula
1208:C. rubecula
1204:biocontrols
924:leicocarpum
604:large white
558:horseradish
512:Caterpillar
444:mauretanica
424:P. r. rapae
358:large white
327:Description
317:New Zealand
256:small white
144:Lepidoptera
77:NatureServe
3334:Categories
3242:ArtogRapae
2136:2021-05-04
1609:2010-05-07
1548:References
1157:Parasitism
1147:overwinter
1115:arthropods
966:Resedaceae
922:(and var.
734:Cruciferae
684:foraging.
462:Life cycle
456:orientalis
452:novangliae
404:life zones
124:Arthropoda
2328:Oecologia
2170:cite book
2053:0029-8549
2033:Oecologia
1934:Doubleday
1795:ignored (
1785:cite book
1570:3 October
1217:P. rapae
1199:Apanteles
1127:goldfinch
1109:Predation
1094:P. rapae.
675:, have a
530:spiracles
440:leucosoma
409:life zone
321:Australia
242:butterfly
172:Species:
110:Kingdom:
104:Eukaryota
3255:2.114893
3239:MaBENA:
3087:BugGuide
3063:BioLib:
3053:BAMONA:
2985:Wikidata
2911:(1932).
2835:11073798
2737:12774590
2729:15711970
2494:20010229
2486:17755969
2443:21394740
2408:42519089
2364:32329879
2356:28311324
2278:84852010
2224:53182157
2104:12918924
2069:18306617
2061:25288057
1742:11346861
1734:24166827
1673:31506352
1235:P. rapae
1162:P. rapae
1074:P. rapae
1070:P. rapae
1056:P. rapae
1010:P. rapae
996:P. rapae
979:P. rapae
707:P. rapae
682:P. rapae
667:P. rapae
647:P. rapae
630:P. rapae
612:P. rapae
593:P. rapae
585:P. rapae
577:P. rapae
554:broccoli
542:cabbages
498:P. rapae
480:charlock
436:eumorpha
432:atomaria
289:crucifer
252:Pieridae
213:Synonyms
204:Linnaeus
154:Pieridae
150:Family:
120:Phylum:
114:Animalia
100:Domain:
3170:1920496
2944:on the
2843:1052766
2791:2401350
2771:Bibcode
2660:1939467
2640:Bibcode
2632:Ecology
2598:Bibcode
2558:Bibcode
2466:Bibcode
2458:Science
2336:Bibcode
2258:Bibcode
2112:7947436
1995:Bibcode
1890:Bibcode
1714:Bibcode
1664:6778179
1641:Bibcode
1252:Gallery
1143:cryptic
1135:skylark
634:feeding
608:diurnal
597:P. napi
589:P. napi
581:P. napi
537:instars
520:as the
245:species
206:, 1758)
160:Genus:
140:Order:
134:Insecta
130:Class:
75: (
73:Secure
38:Female
3317:634345
3288:NZOR:
3209:188541
3144:440885
3118:176683
3041:ARKive
2991:Q27653
2898:et al.
2841:
2833:
2789:
2735:
2727:
2658:
2518:
2492:
2484:
2441:
2406:
2362:
2354:
2276:
2222:
2158:
2110:
2102:
2067:
2059:
2051:
2013:
1936:, INC.
1908:
1863:
1823:
1773:
1740:
1732:
1671:
1661:
1595:
1182:, and
1133:) and
1032:, 2020
983:gravid
665:Adult
639:growth
562:growth
556:, and
550:radish
534:larval
486:) and
454:, and
337:nectar
319:, and
297:Europe
249:family
165:Pieris
3281:64459
3216:LoB:
3196:41167
3183:55626
3131:91142
3126:EUNIS
3105:4HRRC
3079:21425
3066:51336
2839:S2CID
2813:L.".
2787:JSTOR
2733:S2CID
2656:JSTOR
2490:S2CID
2439:S2CID
2404:S2CID
2360:S2CID
2274:S2CID
2220:S2CID
2108:S2CID
2065:S2CID
2011:JSTOR
1906:JSTOR
1738:S2CID
1522:Notes
1149:as a
1030:Tokyo
52:Male
3276:NCBI
3232:4197
3227:MONA
3219:4558
3204:ITIS
3165:GBIF
3092:3259
3074:BOLD
2950:IFAS
2831:PMID
2725:PMID
2516:ISBN
2482:PMID
2352:PMID
2189:link
2182:help
2156:ISBN
2100:PMID
2057:PMID
2049:ISSN
2015:1459
1910:4536
1861:ISBN
1821:ISBN
1797:help
1771:ISBN
1730:PMID
1669:PMID
1633:PNAS
1593:ISBN
1572:2020
1192:and
1170:and
1151:pupa
731:herb
628:The
587:and
571:Pupa
546:kale
476:eggs
448:napi
366:moth
301:Asia
299:and
3304:710
3263:NBN
3191:ISC
3113:EoL
3100:CoL
3028:AFD
3015:ADW
2875:doi
2863:"R"
2823:doi
2779:doi
2717:doi
2713:191
2687:doi
2648:doi
2606:doi
2566:doi
2548:".
2474:doi
2462:232
2431:doi
2396:doi
2344:doi
2306:doi
2266:doi
2212:doi
2092:doi
2041:doi
2037:177
2003:doi
1898:doi
1763:doi
1722:doi
1659:PMC
1649:doi
1637:116
1125:),
926:),
496:).
470:Egg
339:of
262:or
3336::
3314::
3301::
3278::
3265::
3252::
3229::
3206::
3193::
3180::
3167::
3154::
3141::
3128::
3115::
3102::
3089::
3076::
3043::
3030::
3017::
3002::
2987::
2948:/
2946:UF
2900::
2871:17
2869:.
2865:.
2851:^
2837:.
2829:.
2819:73
2817:.
2799:^
2785:.
2777:.
2765:.
2745:^
2731:.
2723:.
2711:.
2699:^
2683:12
2681:.
2654:.
2646:.
2636:65
2634:.
2618:^
2604:.
2594:38
2592:.
2578:^
2564:.
2554:34
2552:.
2530:^
2502:^
2488:.
2480:.
2472:.
2460:.
2437:.
2427:24
2425:.
2402:.
2392:25
2390:.
2372:^
2358:.
2350:.
2342:.
2332:67
2330:.
2318:^
2302:36
2300:.
2286:^
2272:.
2264:.
2254:15
2252:.
2232:^
2218:.
2208:62
2206:.
2174::
2172:}}
2168:{{
2128:.
2106:.
2098:.
2088:29
2086:.
2063:.
2055:.
2047:.
2035:.
2023:^
2009:.
2001:.
1989:.
1975:^
1957:^
1918:^
1904:.
1896:.
1886:53
1884:.
1835:^
1805:^
1789::
1787:}}
1783:{{
1769:.
1736:.
1728:.
1720:.
1708:.
1704:.
1667:.
1657:.
1647:.
1635:.
1631:.
1563:.
1243:.
1206:.
1188:.
974:.
968::
964:;
958::
954:;
948:,
942::
932:,
916:,
910:,
904:,
898:,
892:,
886:,
880:,
874:,
862:,
856:,
850:,
844:,
838:,
826:,
820:,
814:,
808:,
802:,
796:,
790:,
784:,
778:,
772:,
766:,
760:,
754:,
748:,
742:,
736:–
677:UV
552:,
548:,
544:,
505:.
458:.
450:,
446:,
442:,
438:,
434:,
315:,
311:,
2919:.
2883:.
2877::
2845:.
2825::
2793:.
2781::
2773::
2767:4
2739:.
2719::
2693:.
2689::
2662:.
2650::
2642::
2612:.
2608::
2600::
2572:.
2568::
2560::
2524:.
2496:.
2476::
2468::
2445:.
2433::
2410:.
2398::
2366:.
2346::
2338::
2312:.
2308::
2280:.
2268::
2260::
2226:.
2214::
2191:)
2184:)
2164:.
2139:.
2114:.
2094::
2071:.
2043::
2017:.
2005::
1997::
1991:9
1912:.
1900::
1892::
1869:.
1829:.
1799:)
1779:.
1765::
1744:.
1724::
1716::
1710:8
1675:.
1651::
1643::
1612:.
1574:.
1137:(
1129:(
1121:(
490:(
482:(
360:(
202:(
79:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
