Phytolith - Knowledge

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foodstuffs, it may be more beneficial to focus on areas where food processing and consumption took place. It is always beneficial to sample ubiquitously throughout the site, because it is always possible to select a smaller portion of the samples for analysis from a larger collection. Samples should be collected and labeled in individual plastic bags. It is not necessary to freeze the samples, or treat them in any special way because silica is not subject to decay by microorganisms.

266: 84:, found in some plant tissues and persisting after the decay of the plant. These plants take up silica from the soil, whereupon it is deposited within different intracellular and extracellular structures of the plant. Phytoliths come in varying shapes and sizes. Although some use "phytolith" to refer to all mineral secretions by plants, it more commonly refers to siliceous plant remains. In contrast, mineralized calcium secretions in 1072:

are usually a good context for phytolith samples, because wind often will carry phytoliths from the topsoil and deposit them on water, where they will sink to the bottom, very similar to pollen. It is also possible and desirable to take vertical samples of phytolith data, as it can be a good indicator of changing frequencies of taxa over time.

284:. By an unknown mechanism, which appears to be linked to genetics and metabolism, some of the silica is then laid down in the plant as silicon dioxide. This biological mechanism does not appear to be limited to specific plant structures, as some plants have been found with silica in their reproductive and sub-surface organs. 1064:

The most important consideration when designing a sampling strategy for a cultural context is to fit the sampling design to the research objectives. For example, if the objective of the study is to identify activity areas, it may be ideal to sample using a grid system. If the objective is to identify

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Phytoliths may form within single cells, or multiple cells within a plant to form 'conjoined' or multi-cell phytoliths, which are three-dimensional replicas of sections of plant tissue. Conjoined phytoliths occur when conditions are particularly favourable for phytolith formation, such as on a silica

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Phytoliths are composed mainly of noncrystalline silicon dioxide, and about 4% to 9% of their mass is water. Carbon, nitrogen, and other major nutrient elements comprise less than 5%, and commonly less than 1%, of phytolith material by mass. These elements are present in the living cells in which the

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There is still debate in the scientific community as to why plants form phytoliths, and whether silica should be considered an essential nutrient for plants. Studies that have grown plants in silica-free environments have typically found that plants lacking silica in the environment do not grow well.

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Ashley, Gail M.; Barboni, Doris; Dominguez-Rodrigo, Manuel; Bunn, Henry T.; Mabulla, Audax Z.P.; Diez-Martin, Fernando; Barba, Rebeca; Baquedano, Enrique (2017). "Paleoenvironmental and paleoecological reconstruction of a freshwater oasis in savannah grassland at FLK North, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania".

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WoldeGabriel, G.; Ambrose, S. H.; Barboni, D.; Bonnefille, R.; Bremond, L.; Currie, B.; DeGusta, D.; Hart, W. K.; Murray, A. M.; Renne, P. R.; Jolly-Saad, M. C.; Stewart, K. M.; White, T. D. (2009). "The Geological, Isotopic, Botanical, Invertebrate, and Lower Vertebrate Surroundings of Ardipithecus

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Pinilla, A., and Bustillo, A., 1997, Sílicofi tolitos en secencies arcillosas con silcretas. Mioceno Medio, Madrid, in Pinilla, A., Juan-Tresserras, J., and Machado, M.J., eds., The State of the Art of Phytoliths in Soils and Plants, Volume 4: Madrid, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científi cas

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Phytolith analysis has been used to retrace the domestication and ancestral lineage of various plants. For example, research tracing modern lineages of maize in South America and the American Southwest using phytolith remains on ceramics and pottery has proven to be enlightening. Recent genetic data

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because they can help to reconstruct the plants present at a site when the rest of the plant parts have been burned up or dissolved. Because they are made of the inorganic substances silica or calcium oxalate, phytoliths don't decay with the rest of the plant and can survive in conditions that would

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technique. Once the sample is left to only house soil and sediment components, phytoliths can be separated through a variety of techniques. Pressurized microwave extraction is a fast method but does not produce as pure of results as other methods. Dry ashing tends to break up phytoliths better than

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Sampling a natural context, typically for the purpose of environmental reconstruction, should be done in a context that is free of disturbances. Human activity can alter the makeup of samples of local vegetation, so sites with evidence of human occupation should be avoided. Bottom deposits of lakes

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expansion, when it was previously thought to have been introduced in the region. This case is not isolated. Around the same time, certain varieties of maize could be found with ubiquity across part of South America, suggesting a highly frequented and established trade route existed. Phytolith data

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problems can be dealt with by integrating phytolith analysis with other areas, such as micromorphology and morphometric approaches used in soil analysis. It is suggested that using phytolith data from food residues (on ceramics, usually) can decrease the bias from both of these problems, because

152:. Phytoliths may also provide plants with protection. These rigid silica structures help to make plants more difficult to consume and digest, lending the plant's tissues a grainy or prickly texture. Phytoliths also appear to provide physiologic benefits. Experimental studies have shown that the 1476:

Research, particularly since 2005 has shown that carbon in phytoliths can be resistant to decomposition for millennia and can accumulate in soils. While researchers had previously known that phytoliths could persist in some soils for thousands of years and that there was carbon occluded within

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Zucol, A.F., Brea, M., and Bellosi, E., 2010, Phytolith studies in Gran Barranca (central Patagonia, Argentina): The middle-late Eocene, in Madden, R.H., Carlini, A.A., Vucetich, M.G., and Kay, R.F., eds., The Paleontology of Gran Barranca: Evolution and Environmental Change through the Middle

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Archaeobotanists working in the Americas first consider and analyze phytolith assemblages in order to track prehistoric plant use and domestication. Also for the first time, phytolith data from pottery are used to track history of clay procurement and pottery manufacture. Around the same time,

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was one of the leaders in the field of phytolith analysis. He developed the first classification system for phytoliths, and analyzed soil samples that were sent to him from all around the world. Most notably, Ehrenberg recorded phytoliths in samples he received from the famous naturalist,

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While carbon sequestration is a potentially important way to limit atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations in the long term, the use of phytoliths to achieve this must be balanced against other uses that might be made of the same biomass carbon (or land for producing biomass) to reduce

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Sampling modern surfaces for use with archeobotanical data may be used to create a reference collection, if the taxa being sampled are known. It may also serve to "detect downward movement of phytoliths into archaeological strata". Taking point samples for modern contexts is

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from the southeastern United States suggest that two different lineages of maize were introduced from two different sources. Research that hopes to discover more specific information about the spread of maize throughout the southeastern United States is currently under way.

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Though further testing is required, evolution and development of phytoliths in vascular plants seem to be related to certain types of plant-animal interactions in which phytoliths function as a defensive mechanism for herbivores or related to adaptive changes to habitats.

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phytolith analysis is more likely to represent crop products and identification of phytoliths can be made with more confidence. Also, food residues do not usually accumulate extraneous deposits. In other words, the samples are more likely to represent a primary context.

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Tsartsidou, Georgia; Lev-Yadun, Simcha; Albert, Rosa-Maria; Miller-Rosen, Arlene; Efstratiou, Nikos; Weiner, Steve (2007). "The phytolith archaeological record: strengths and weaknesses evaluated based on a quantitative modern reference collection from Greece".

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Phytolith structures in plants gained wide recognition and attention throughout Europe. Research on production, taxonomy and morphology exploded. Detailed notes and drawings on plant families that produce silica structures and morphology within families were

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Freshwater oases and related landscape changes that could have affected plant-human interactions were reconstructed through synthesizing phytolith, pollen, and paleoenvironmental data in the well-known early hominin site of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.

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Light intensity (e.g., open versus closed canopies) can affect cell morphology, especially cell length and area, which can be measured from phytolith fossils. These can be useful for tracing fluctuations in the ancient light regime and canopy cover.

1369:). Findings such as these reveal useful information about the diet of these extinct animals, and also shed light on the evolutionary history of many different types of plants. Paleontologists in India have recently identified grass phytoliths in 1219:

and burned phytolith analysis. It is believed that during prehistoric times, an increase in intensive land use such as through agriculture, caused an increase in anthropogenic fires while non-anthropogenic fires could have resulted from

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phytoliths that could be used for radiocarbon dating, research into the capacity of phytoliths as a method of storing carbon in soils was pioneered by Parr and Sullivan who suggested that there was a real opportunity to

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Phytoliths may be extracted from residue on many sources: dental calculus (buildup on teeth); food preparation tools like rocks, grinders, and scrapers; cooking or storage containers; ritual offerings; and garden areas.

369:, the deposition of silica has been shown to create a physical barrier between invading fungi and the plant. Some factors however can have very damaging effects on the plant and limit or alter phytolith production. 279:

Soluble silica, also called monosilicic or orthosilicic acid with a chemical formula of (Si(OH)4), is taken up from the soil when plant roots absorb groundwater. From there, it is carried to other plant organs by the

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flotation. Over time, different liquids have been utilized as technology changes, each still carrying different advantages and disadvantages to the separation process. Current liquids used include zinc bromide,

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First applications of phytolith analysis to paleoecological work, mostly in Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Russia. Classification systems for differentiation within plant families became

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from which they were obtained. However, a count of two hundred phytoliths are recommended as a good starting point. If the conditions warrant, more should be counted. It is still not possible to isolate plant

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using phytolith analyses, are insightful. In one study, phytolith analysis was used to complement macro-remains sampling in order to infer concentrations of plant parts and predict crop processing stages.

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Strömberg, Caroline A.E.; Werdelin, Lars; Friis, Else Marie; Saraç, Gerçek (2007). "The spread of grass-dominated habitats in Turkey and surrounding areas during the Cenozoic: Phytolith evidence".

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Stromberg, C (2004). "Using phytolith assemblages to reconstruct the origin and spread of grass-dominated habitats in the great plains of North America during the late Eocene to early Miocene".

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disease resulted in much larger phytoliths but they were abnormally shaped. This could be due to the bacteria causing constriction of the hypodermal cells, causing an influx of silica deposits.

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phytolith data are also used as a means of vegetation reconstruction among paleoecologists. A much larger reference collection on phytolith morphology within varying plant families is assembled.

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is added. This lowers the solution's density, causing the phytoliths to sink to the bottom of the container. The phytoliths are removed and rinsed several times to ensure all of the flotation

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Comparisons between paleorecords of phytolith remains and modern reference remains in the same region can aid reconstructing how plant composition and related environments changed over time.

1504:(PhytOC). Phytoliths are able to hold PhytOC in the soil for thousands of years, much longer than other organic methods. While this yields phytoliths as an important area of study regarding 1294:

Jigsaw puzzle-shaped phytoliths observed from sites in Greece but not from Israel may relate to climatic difference, possibly relating to irrigation performed for legume plant management.

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Strömberg, Caroline A.E (2002). "The origin and spread of grass-dominated ecosystems in the late Tertiary of North America: preliminary results concerning the evolution of hypsodonty".

2499:; Liang, M.-M.; Werdelin, L.; Zhang, Y.-l. (2007). "Palaeoecology of an early middle Miocene lake in China: Preliminary interpretations based on phytoliths from the Shanwang Basin". 305:

from 1.5 to 2.3. Phytoliths may be colorless, light brown, or opaque; most are transparent. Phytoliths exist in various three-dimensional shapes, some of which are specific to plant

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For example, the stems of certain plants will collapse when grown in soil lacking silica. In many cases, phytoliths appear to lend structure and support to the plant, much like the

1300:(squash and gourd) phytolith data from early Holocene sites in Ecuador indicate that the plant food production occurred across lowland South America independent from Mesoamerica. 421:

experienced a decrease in phytolith size. This is because the virus constricts overall plant growth and therefore phytolith growth as well. Contrastingly, plants affected with

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destroy organic residues. Phytoliths can provide evidence of both economically important plants and those that are indicative of the environment at a particular time period.

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residue and fires with higher temperatures which can be measured on the Burnt Phytolith Index (BPI). Burned phytoliths can also appear melted in addition to darkened color.

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Miller, L. A.; Smith, S. Y.; Sheldon, N. D.; Stromberg, C. A. E. (2012). "Eocene vegetation and ecosystem fluctuations inferred from a high-resolution phytolith record".

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Strömberg, Caroline A. E.; McInerney, Francesca A. (2016). "The Neogene transition from C3 to C4 grasslands in North America: assemblage analysis of fossil phytoliths".

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Cabanes, D. (2020). Phytolith Analysis in Paleoecology and Archaeology. In Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology (pp. 255-288) doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-42622-4_11

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hold different carbon storage potential within the silica rather than within the plant itself. Therefore, total PhytOC sequester largely depends on the condition of the

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Lustek, Robert Karl. (2008). Setting the Archaeology of Maize on Its Ear: The Use of Phytolith Assemblages to Identify Lineages of Maize. University of Minnesota

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Sudbury, J.B. (2010). Quantitative phytolith analysis: The key to understanding buried soils and to reconstructing paleoenvironments. Oklahoma State University.

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and soil condition, absorbed silica can range from 0.1% to 10% of the plant's total dry weight. When deposited, the silica replicates the structure of the

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silica concretions form, so traces are retained in the phytoliths. Such immobilised elements, in particular carbon, are valuable in that they permit

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lineage split off from this grass about six to seven thousand years ago. Phytolith analyses from Bolivia suggest that several varieties of

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https://web.archive.org/web/20070506230653/http://research.history.org/Archaeological_Research/Collections/CollArchaeoBot/PhytoFAQs.cfm

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and to track vegetational change. More and more studies are acknowledging phytolith records as a valuable tool for reconstructing pre-

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Huang et al., "Intensive Management Increases Phytolith-Occluded Carbon Sequestration in Moso Bamboo Plantations in Subtropical China"

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Carter, John A (2002). "Phytolith analysis and paleoenvironmental reconstruction from Lake Poukawa Core, Hawkes Bay, New Zealand".

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Phytolith analysis is particularly useful in tropical regions, where other types of plant remains are typically not well preserved.

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Dunn, Regan E.; Le, Thien-Y. T.; Strömberg, Caroline A. E. (2015). "Light Environment and Epidermal Cell Morphology in Grasses".

200:, an expert in the field of phytolith analysis, there have been four important stages of phytolith research throughout history. 3522: 3397: 3378: 3359: 3297: 3217: 3185: 1928: 3437: 2216: 1456: 1447: 1438: 1429: 1420: 1409:

Japanese and Korean archaeologists refer to grass and crop plant phytoliths as "plant opal" in archaeological literature.

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An annotated bibliography of phytolith analysis and atlas of selected New Zealand subantarctic and subalphine phytoliths

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Piperno, Dolores R. (2006). Phytoliths: A Comprehensive Guide for Archaeologists and Paleoecologists. AltaMira Press

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concentrations and other paleoclimatological records, can help constrain estimates of certain long-term terrestrial,

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onwards. Robustness of phytoliths make them available to be found in various remains including sedimentary deposits,

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lens, it will usually appear clear against the microscope's light. However phytoliths dark in color are found in the

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Pearsall, D (2004). "Maize in ancient Ecuador: results of residue analysis of stone tools from the Real Alto site".

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Phytolith analysis has been useful in identifying early agriculture in South East Asia during the Early Holocene.

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of rice phytoliths has been significantly documented, studies concerning the domestication of rice, as well as

1175:, or water. The target phytolith count is dependent on the objectives, research design, and conditions of the 3196: 2217:"Grains of truth or transparent blindfolds? A review of current debates in archaeological phytolith analysis" 2153:

Piperno, D. R. (2003). "Phytolith Evidence for Early Holocene Cucurbita Domestication in Southwest Ecuador".

373: 219: 127:, and extreme temperatures. Phytoliths can also protect the plant against biotic threats such as insects and 1204:

of darkness can be used to calculate past environmental fires. Darker phytoliths are correlated with higher

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Kealhofer, L (2002). "Changing perceptions of risk: The development of agro-ecosystems in Southeast Asia".

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from diverse environmental conditions. In addition to reconstructing human-plant interactions since the

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has been removed and they are placed in storage. Phytoliths can either be stored in a dry setting or in

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Kealhofer, L (2003). "Looking into the gap: land use and the tropical forests of southern Thailand".

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https://web.archive.org/web/20080820003629/http://www.sandstonearchaeology.com/paleoethnobotany.html

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securely in soils for the long term, in the form of carbon inclusions in durable silica phytoliths.

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Kistler et al., (2013). Experimental investigation of pathogenic stress on phytolith formation in

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Song, Zhaoliang; Liu, Hongyan; Strömberg, Caroline A.E.; Yang, Xiaomin; Zhang, Xiaodong (2017).

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Strömberg, Caroline A. E.; Di Stilio, Verónica S.; Song, Zhaoliang; De Gabriel, Jane (2016).

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For extended examples of phytolith taxonomy, see the University of Sheffield's comprehensive

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matrix involves removing all non-soil and non-sediment material. This can include stone or

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https://web.archive.org/web/20070422163808/http://web.missouri.edu/~umcasphyto/index.shtml

8: 2212: 1984:"Investigating crop processing using phytolith analysis: the example of rice and millets" 1698:

Rajendiran et al., (2012).Role of phytolith occluded carbon of crop plants for enhancing

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in phytoliths may help to alleviate the damaging effects of toxic heavy metals, such as

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Carter, J.A. (1999). "Late Devonian, Permian and Triassic phytoliths from Antarctica".

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Phytoliths occur abundantly in the fossil record, and have been reported from the Late

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stressors. Silica is bioactive, meaning it is able to change the expression of certain

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can also be added to the sample and lit on fire, leaving only the phytoliths behind

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has a strong ability for holding onto phytoliths and also must be removed using a

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Multiplicity: different parts of a single plant may produce different phytoliths.

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Neumann, Chevalier, and Vrydaghs, "Phytoliths in archaeology: recent advances":

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Parr, J. F.; Sullivan, L. A. (2005). "Soil carbon sequestration in Phytoliths".

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find and identify phytoliths associated with extinct plant-eating animals (i.e.

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In 2009, researchers at the Rock Springs Agricultural Experiment Station at The

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Modern period of archaeological and paleoenvironmental research (1978–present):

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Plants and people in ancient Ecuador: the ethnobotany of the Jama River Valley

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Some plants produce large numbers of phytoliths while others produce only few.

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Cenozoic of Patagonia: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, p. 317–340.

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in reconstructing past vegetation patterns. The silica in phytoliths has a

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Phytolith records in the context of the global silica cycle, along with CO

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investigated the effects of pathogenic viruses on phytolith production in

3527:"What are Phytoliths?" Sandstone Archaeology Paleoethnobotany Laboratory 2900:"Functions of phytoliths in vascular plants: an evolutionary perspective" 2772: 2747: 1789: 1699: 1350: 1044: 1024: 992: 984: 952: 932: 928: 916: 888: 788: 760: 696: 642: 594: 548: 536: 508: 488: 460: 37: 3204:

Jr, George V. Roberts; Susan C. Mulholland; Rapp, George Robert (1992).

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Parr, J; Sullivan, L (2005). "Soil carbon sequestration in phytoliths".

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The first report on phytoliths was published by a German botanist named

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Hart, Thomas C. (2016). "Issues and directions in phytolith analysis".

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crystals of calcium oxalate, silicates, or carbonates present in plants

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to jumpstart a defensive response against these stressors. In terms of

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Redundancy: different plants can produce the same kind of phytolith.

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yielded 1,072 phytoliths from forty-five plants. Plants affected by

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Piperno, D.R.; Hans-Dieter, S. (2005). "Dinosaurs Dined on Grass".

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To date, phytolith analyses have also been popular for studies of

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http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Publications/Bulletins/GB5/Twiss/index.html

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Phytolith analysis: an archaeological and geological perspective

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Hunt, JW; Dean, AP; Webster, RE; Johnson, GN; Ennos, AR (2008).

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Wilding, L.P. (1967). "Radiocarbon dating of biogenetic opal".

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production and therefore more silica and carbon uptake. Proper

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Types of phytoliths found on broad-leaved trees in China

185: 145: 111:, cell lumen, and intercellular spaces. Depending on the plant 1304: 48: 29: 3117:"Phytolith carbon sequestration in global terrestrial biomes" 1726:

Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology

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Families where phytolith production is rare or not observed:

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use this property to make their trunks more flame-resistant.

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One of the most effective methods of phytolith isolation is

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https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00334-016-0598-3

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or non-anthropogenic sources and can be determined through

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is teosinte, a wild grass found in southwest Mexico. The

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in 1835. During this time another German scientist named

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Dr. Sanjay Eksambekar's 'Phytolith Research Institute':

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Contrasting phytolith forms found on leaved trees

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Fires which cause burned phytoliths can be ignited by

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Russian Scientific Association for Phytolith Research

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Families where phytolith production may not be high;

382:

var. Texana. The plants that were affected by either

3390:

The origins of agriculture in the lowland neotropics

3368: 3349: 3114: 1918: 1617:"Phytoliths in selected broad-leaved trees in China" 1615:

Ge, Yong; Lu, Houyuan; Wang, Can; Gao, Xing (2020).

1488:

process which creates the phytolith, many different

1333:

Palaeontology and paleoenvironmental reconstructions

3283: 1872: 428: 3510:http://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/ben/ben282.html 3388:Pearsall, Deborah M.; Piperno, Dolores R. (1998). 3309:"Morphological classification of grass phytoliths" 3285: 3205: 2983: 2640: 2839: 2520:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2454:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2411:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1830:. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. 1099:The first step in extracting phytoliths from the 433:Because identification of phytoliths is based on 3553: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1942: 1940: 191: 3508:Terry B. Ball, "Phytolith Literature Review": 3227:Ciochon, RL; Piperno, DR; Thompson, RG (1990). 2802: 2729:"Fossil dung reveals dinosaurs did graze grass" 2677: 1289:Tracing the history of plant-human interactions 1261:region of Bolivia almost 1000 years before the 648:Families where phytolith production is common; 3307:Twiss, P. C.; Suess, E.; Smith, R. M. (1969). 3174:Fabrice Colin; Jean Dominique Meunier (2001). 1718: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1320:Taxonomic resolution issues deriving from the 1159:can be used. The sample should be placed in a 1043:Phytoliths are very robust, and are useful in 2445: 2402: 2308: 2306: 2304: 1937: 702:Families where phytolith productions varies; 3547:https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/10/10/883/htm 3354:. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning. 3077: 2946: 2312: 1981: 1552:and soil conditions. Proper upkeep of these 326:rich substrate with high water availability 205:Discovery and exploratory stage (1835–1895): 3442:Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 2146: 1982:Harvey, Emma L.; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2005). 1923:(2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. 1765: 1709: 1614: 1594:elongate calcium oxalate crystals in plants 1305:Problems with phytolith analysis of remains 3521:Deborah Pearsall's MU Phytolith Database, 3371:Paleoethnobotany: a handbook of procedures 2796: 2739: 2349: 2301: 1921:Paleoethnobotany: A Handbook of Procedures 1361:vegetation changes (e.g.,). Occasionally, 1236:Contribution to archaeobotanical knowledge 246:Period of ecological research (1955–1975): 3266: 3256: 3136: 3091: 2960: 2923: 2771: 2583: 2451: 2408: 2076: 2053: 2031: 1960: 1958: 1797: 1648: 444:Families with high phytolith production; 3492:Association of Environmental Archaeology 3406: 3373:(2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press. 3233:: implications for paleodietary studies" 3197:Opal phytoliths in Southeast Asian flora 3180:. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis. 2258: 2211: 1610: 1608: 1087: 330:Pathogenic stress on phytolith formation 264: 260: 239:Botanical phase of research (1895–1936): 3336:10.2136/sssaj1969.03615995003300010030x 3316:Soil Science Society of America Journal 3026: 2805:International Journal of Plant Sciences 2152: 1839: 1722: 1471: 3554: 3435: 3208:Phytolith systematics: emerging issues 2745: 2686:Geological Society of America Bulletin 2355: 1955: 1224:. Fire intensity depends on available 1192:When looking at a phytolith through a 1083: 1055: 95:The silica is absorbed in the form of 3482:Ecological significance of phytoliths 2726: 1605: 1520:phytoliths can yield 3.88% to 19.26% 1353:, phytoliths can be used to identify 1245:suggests that the oldest ancestor of 441:differences in phytolith production. 288:Chemical and physical characteristics 180:during the day when they close their 16:Rigid structures found in some plants 3487:Background from St. Cloud laboratory 2264: 2224:Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 1893:Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 1723:Epstein, Emanuel (1999). "Silicon". 1187: 321:Single cell and conjoined phytoliths 3501:Steve Archer, "About Phytoliths": 13: 1702:sequestration in agro-ecosystems. 1391:and interrelated climate changes. 14: 3583: 3470: 3454:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1846.002.01-02.09 3409:Journal of Archaeological Science 2267:Journal of Archaeological Science 2112:Journal of Archaeological Science 1991:Journal of Archaeological Science 1846:Journal of Archaeological Science 1564:methods could include controlled 1095:phytolith processed by dry ashing 301:ranging from 1.41 to 1.47, and a 103:), and is carried by the plant's 3517:http://www.phytolithresearch.com 3121:Science of the Total Environment 2727:Hecht, Jeff (17 November 2005). 1743:10.1146/annurev.arplant.50.1.641 1455: 1446: 1437: 1428: 1419: 1228:which usually peaks in the dry, 429:Patterns of phytolith production 47: 28: 3157: 3138:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.107 3108: 3071: 3020: 2977: 2940: 2720: 2624: 2488: 2392: 2205: 2070: 2025: 1975: 123:stressors such as salt runoff, 1898: 1833: 1814: 1038: 1: 3369:Pearsall, Deborah M. (2000). 3350:Pearsall, Deborah M. (2004). 3102:10.1016/j.soilbio.2004.06.013 3080:Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2971:10.1016/j.soilbio.2004.06.013 2949:Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2431:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00352-2 2378:10.1016/S0921-8181(02)00081-4 1919:Pearsall, Deborah M. (2000). 1598: 1466:Phytolith Interpretation page 374:Pennsylvania State University 220:Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg 192:History of phytolith research 3284:Piperno, Dolores R. (1988). 2752:Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2540:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.02.012 2474:10.1016/j.palaeo.2003.09.028 1184:from extracted phytoliths. 1157:scanning electron microscopy 134: 7: 3049:10.1126/science.156.3771.66 2869:10.1016/j.yqres.2010.08.006 2358:Global and Planetary Change 1579: 1151:When examining the sample, 406:, and plants infected with 176:use these as a reserve for 10: 3588: 3392:. Boston: Academic Press. 3292:. Boston: Academic Press. 3212:. New York: Plenum Press. 2746:Conley, Daniel J. (2002). 2570:(5949): 65–65, 65e1–65e5. 1641:10.1038/s41598-020-72547-w 1412: 1163:on the slide which can be 1153:polarized light microscopy 1107:, teeth, or other various 437:, it is important to note 3429:10.1016/j.jas.2003.09.010 2287:10.1016/j.jas.2016.03.001 2244:10.1007/s00334-011-0341-z 2132:10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.017 2091:10.1525/aa.2002.104.1.178 2011:10.1016/j.jas.2004.12.010 1866:10.1016/j.jas.2009.06.028 1502:Phytolith Occluded Carbon 1574:Greenhouse gas emissions 54:Phytolith from the tree 35:Phytolith from the tree 3258:10.1073/pnas.87.20.8120 2998:10.1126/science.1121020 2925:10.1111/1365-2435.12692 2594:10.1126/science.1175817 2175:10.1126/science.1080365 2079:American Anthropologist 1548:, and is influenced by 402:, plants infected with 231:, off the coast of the 3477:What is the phytolith? 3231:Gigantopithecus blacki 2733:New Scientist Magazine 2501:Vertebrata PalAsiatica 1840:Jenkins, Emma (2009). 1512:can hold 5.0% to 5.8% 1492:are absorbed from the 1279:crop processing models 1096: 276: 164:serve as a reserve of 2046:10.1353/asi.2003.0022 1389:biogeochemical cycles 1148:to prevent abrasion. 1091: 337:is not considered an 268: 261:Development in plants 184:to avoid water loss; 38:Pittosporum truncatum 3194:Kealhofer, L. 1998. 3123:. 603–604: 502–509. 2773:10.1029/2002GB001894 1506:carbon sequestration 1472:Carbon sequestration 1257:were present in the 1198:archeological record 710:-specific phytolith 656:-specific phytolith 586:-specific phytolith 452:-specific phytolith 394:disease (carried by 273:Scale bars are 20 μm 209:Gustav Adolph Struve 170:Alarm photosynthesis 22:Phytolith structures 3436:Darwin, C. (1846). 3421:2004JArSc..31..423P 3328:1969SSASJ..33..109T 3249:1990PNAS...87.8120C 3164:Thorn, V. C. 2004. 3129:2017ScTEn.603..502S 3041:1967Sci...156...66W 2992:(5751): 1126–1128. 2916:2016FuEco..30.1286S 2861:2010QuRes..74..333A 2849:Quaternary Research 2764:2002GBioC..16.1121C 2698:2012GSAB..124.1577M 2692:(9–10): 1577–1589. 2576:2009Sci...326...65W 2532:2007PPP...250...18S 2495:Strömberg, C.A.E.; 2466:2004PPP...207..239S 2423:2002PPP...177...59S 2399:(CSIC), p. 255–265. 2370:2002GPC....33..257C 2327:1999MiPal..45...56C 2279:2016JArSc..68...24H 2236:2013VegHA..22...71S 2167:2003Sci...299.1054P 2161:(5609): 1054–1057. 2124:2007JArSc..34.1262T 2003:2005JArSc..32..739H 1858:2009JArSc..36.2402J 1633:2020NatSR..1015577G 1177:archaeological site 1084:Laboratory analysis 1056:Sampling strategies 341:for plants such as 2904:Functional Ecology 2034:Asian Perspectives 1826:2010-10-03 at the 1821:Phytoliths Gallery 1790:10.1093/aob/mcn130 1706:, 103(8), 911-920. 1621:Scientific Reports 1355:palaeoenvironments 1097: 1062:Cultural contexts: 339:essential nutrient 295:radiometric dating 277: 233:Cape Verde Islands 57:Paulownia fargesii 3399:978-0-12-557180-7 3380:978-0-12-548042-0 3361:978-0-534-61321-1 3299:978-0-12-557175-3 3243:(20): 8120–8124. 3219:978-0-306-44208-7 3187:978-90-5809-345-5 2315:Micropaleontology 1930:978-0-12-548042-0 1895:, 22(3), 165-170. 1852:(10): 2402–2407. 1222:lightning strikes 1188:Burned phytoliths 1134:hydrochloric acid 1069:Natural contexts: 367:fungal infections 274: 3579: 3572:Plant physiology 3562:Plant morphology 3465: 3432: 3403: 3384: 3365: 3346: 3344: 3338:. Archived from 3313: 3303: 3291: 3280: 3270: 3260: 3223: 3211: 3191: 3151: 3150: 3140: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3095: 3075: 3069: 3068: 3024: 3018: 3017: 2981: 2975: 2974: 2964: 2944: 2938: 2937: 2927: 2910:(8): 1286–1297. 2895: 2889: 2888: 2843: 2837: 2836: 2800: 2794: 2793: 2775: 2758:(4): 68-1–68-8. 2743: 2737: 2736: 2724: 2718: 2717: 2706:10.1130/B30548.1 2681: 2675: 2674: 2638: 2632: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2587: 2558: 2552: 2551: 2515: 2509: 2508: 2492: 2486: 2485: 2460:(3–4): 239–275. 2449: 2443: 2442: 2406: 2400: 2396: 2390: 2389: 2364:(3–4): 257–267. 2353: 2347: 2346: 2310: 2299: 2298: 2262: 2256: 2255: 2221: 2209: 2203: 2202: 2150: 2144: 2143: 2118:(8): 1262–1275. 2106: 2095: 2094: 2074: 2068: 2067: 2057: 2029: 2023: 2022: 1988: 1979: 1973: 1962: 1953: 1950: 1935: 1934: 1916: 1905: 1902: 1896: 1881: 1870: 1869: 1837: 1831: 1818: 1812: 1811: 1801: 1769: 1763: 1762: 1720: 1707: 1696: 1687: 1676: 1663: 1662: 1652: 1612: 1479:sequester carbon 1459: 1450: 1441: 1432: 1423: 1076:Modern surfaces: 949:Potamogetonaceae 881:Lentibulariaceae 849:Hydrocharitaceae 665:Aristolochiaceae 603:Dipterocarpaceae 529:Hymenophyllaceae 493:Chrysobalanaceae 396:cucumber beetles 303:specific gravity 299:refractive index 272: 217: 162:calcium oxalates 97:monosilicic acid 90:calcium oxalates 88:are composed of 67:scale bars 20 μm 51: 32: 3587: 3586: 3582: 3581: 3580: 3578: 3577: 3576: 3552: 3551: 3473: 3468: 3400: 3381: 3362: 3342: 3311: 3300: 3220: 3188: 3160: 3155: 3154: 3113: 3109: 3093:10.1.1.517.9272 3076: 3072: 3035:(3771): 66–67. 3025: 3021: 2982: 2978: 2962:10.1.1.517.9272 2945: 2941: 2896: 2892: 2844: 2840: 2801: 2797: 2744: 2740: 2725: 2721: 2682: 2678: 2655:10.1666/09067.1 2639: 2635: 2629: 2625: 2585:10.1.1.719.9802 2559: 2555: 2516: 2512: 2493: 2489: 2450: 2446: 2407: 2403: 2397: 2393: 2354: 2350: 2335:10.2307/1486202 2311: 2302: 2263: 2259: 2219: 2210: 2206: 2151: 2147: 2107: 2098: 2075: 2071: 2030: 2026: 1986: 1980: 1976: 1963: 1956: 1951: 1938: 1931: 1917: 1908: 1903: 1899: 1882: 1873: 1838: 1834: 1828:Wayback Machine 1819: 1815: 1770: 1766: 1721: 1710: 1704:Current Science 1697: 1690: 1677: 1666: 1613: 1606: 1601: 1582: 1474: 1460: 1451: 1442: 1433: 1424: 1415: 1386: 1363:paleontologists 1347:dental calculus 1335: 1307: 1291: 1238: 1190: 1171:, silicon oil, 1169:Benzyl Benzoate 1086: 1058: 1041: 901:Melastomataceae 809:Cartonemataceae 619:Flagellariaceae 561:Selaginellaceae 431: 413:Analysis after 332: 323: 290: 275: 271: 263: 211: 198:Dolores Piperno 194: 154:silicon dioxide 137: 129:fungal diseases 105:vascular system 102: 71: 70: 69: 68: 66: 62: 61: 60: 52: 43: 42: 41: 33: 24: 23: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3585: 3575: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3550: 3549: 3543: 3537: 3531: 3525: 3519: 3513: 3506: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3472: 3471:External links 3469: 3467: 3466: 3448:(1–2): 26–30. 3433: 3415:(4): 423–442. 3404: 3398: 3385: 3379: 3366: 3360: 3347: 3345:on 2010-06-24. 3322:(1): 109–115. 3304: 3298: 3281: 3224: 3218: 3201: 3192: 3186: 3171: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3153: 3152: 3107: 3086:(1): 117–124. 3070: 3019: 2976: 2939: 2890: 2855:(3): 333–343. 2838: 2817:10.1086/683278 2811:(9): 832–847. 2795: 2738: 2719: 2676: 2633: 2623: 2553: 2526:(1–4): 18–49. 2510: 2487: 2444: 2417:(1–2): 59–75. 2401: 2391: 2348: 2300: 2257: 2213:Shillito, L-M. 2204: 2145: 2096: 2085:(1): 178–194. 2069: 2024: 1997:(5): 739–752. 1974: 1954: 1936: 1929: 1906: 1897: 1891:(wild gourd). 1885:Cucurbita pepo 1871: 1832: 1813: 1784:(4): 653–656. 1764: 1735:Annual Reviews 1708: 1688: 1664: 1603: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1596: 1595: 1589: 1586:Druse (botany) 1581: 1578: 1486:mineralization 1473: 1470: 1462: 1461: 1454: 1452: 1445: 1443: 1436: 1434: 1427: 1425: 1418: 1414: 1411: 1384: 1334: 1331: 1318: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1306: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1295: 1290: 1287: 1286: 1285: 1282: 1273:. Because the 1267: 1242: 1237: 1234: 1189: 1186: 1161:mounting media 1093:Elephant grass 1085: 1082: 1081: 1080: 1073: 1066: 1057: 1054: 1040: 1037: 1036: 1035: 1033:Zygophyllaceae 945:Pontederiaceae 869:Lacistemnaceae 817:Convolvulaceae 813:Chenopodiaceae 777:Asclepiadaceae 753:Amaryllidaceae 734: 733: 700: 699: 685:Menispermaceae 669:Chloranthaceae 646: 645: 623:Joinvilleaceae 615:Flacourtiaceae 576: 575: 430: 427: 423:bacterial wilt 419:mosaic disease 408:bacterial wilt 404:mosaic disease 392:bacterial wilt 379:Cucurbita pepo 331: 328: 322: 319: 289: 286: 269: 262: 259: 258: 257: 250: 243: 236: 225:Charles Darwin 193: 190: 178:photosynthesis 166:carbon dioxide 150:leather corals 136: 133: 125:metal toxicity 100: 64: 63: 53: 46: 45: 44: 34: 27: 26: 25: 21: 20: 19: 18: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3584: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3567:Plant anatomy 3565: 3563: 3560: 3559: 3557: 3548: 3544: 3542: 3538: 3536: 3532: 3530: 3526: 3524: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3511: 3507: 3504: 3500: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3490: 3488: 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1218: 1214: 1213:anthropogenic 1209: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1185: 1183: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1165:Canada Balsam 1162: 1158: 1154: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1123: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1094: 1090: 1077: 1074: 1070: 1067: 1063: 1060: 1059: 1053: 1049: 1046: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 989:Saxifragaceae 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 961:Ranunculaceae 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 937:Podocarpaceae 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 909:Myristicaceae 906: 902: 898: 894: 893:Malpighiaceae 890: 886: 882: 878: 877:Lecythidaceae 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 837:Eriocaulaceae 834: 830: 829:Dioscoreaceae 826: 825:Cyclanthaceae 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 801:Campanulaceae 798: 794: 793:Burmanniaceae 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 773:Araucariaceae 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 749:Amaranthaceae 746: 742: 739: 738: 737: 732: 731:Sterculiaceae 728: 724: 720: 717: 716: 715: 714:is uncommon: 713: 709: 705: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 677:Hernandiaceae 674: 670: 666: 663: 662: 661: 660:is uncommon: 659: 655: 651: 644: 640: 636: 632: 631:Polypodiaceae 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 607:Euphorbiaceae 604: 600: 596: 593: 592: 591: 589: 585: 581: 574: 573:Zingiberaceae 570: 566: 562: 558: 557:Podostemaceae 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 525:Heliconiaceae 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 505:Cucurbitaceae 502: 498: 497:Commelinaceae 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 459: 458: 457: 455: 451: 447: 442: 440: 436: 426: 424: 420: 416: 411: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 380: 375: 370: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 327: 318: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 285: 283: 267: 254: 251: 247: 244: 240: 237: 234: 230: 226: 221: 215: 210: 206: 203: 202: 201: 199: 196:According to 189: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 132: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 98: 93: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 59: 58: 50: 40: 39: 31: 3445: 3441: 3412: 3408: 3389: 3370: 3351: 3340:the original 3319: 3315: 3287: 3240: 3236: 3230: 3207: 3195: 3176: 3165: 3158:Bibliography 3120: 3110: 3083: 3079: 3073: 3032: 3028: 3022: 2989: 2985: 2979: 2952: 2948: 2942: 2907: 2903: 2893: 2852: 2848: 2841: 2808: 2804: 2798: 2755: 2751: 2741: 2732: 2722: 2689: 2685: 2679: 2649:(1): 50–71. 2646: 2643:Paleobiology 2642: 2636: 2626: 2567: 2563: 2556: 2523: 2519: 2513: 2504: 2500: 2490: 2457: 2453: 2447: 2414: 2410: 2404: 2394: 2361: 2357: 2351: 2321:(1): 56–61. 2318: 2314: 2270: 2266: 2260: 2230:(1): 71–82. 2227: 2223: 2207: 2158: 2154: 2148: 2115: 2111: 2082: 2078: 2072: 2040:(1): 72–95. 2037: 2033: 2027: 1994: 1990: 1977: 1920: 1900: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1849: 1845: 1835: 1816: 1781: 1777: 1767: 1730: 1724: 1703: 1627:(1): 15577. 1624: 1620: 1570: 1562:conservation 1524:. Different 1501: 1500:which forms 1483: 1475: 1463: 1408: 1404: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1382: 1336: 1325: 1322:multiplicity 1321: 1319: 1297: 1210: 1191: 1150: 1129:heavy liquid 1126: 1120:wet ashing. 1098: 1075: 1068: 1061: 1050: 1042: 1009:Trioridaceae 941:Polygonaceae 921:Nymphaeaceae 857:Juglandaceae 781:Bignoniaceae 745:Alismataceae 735: 701: 681:Loranthaceae 673:Combretaceae 647: 635:Restionaceae 599:Cupressaceae 577: 533:Magnoliaceae 521:Equisetaceae 517:Dilleniaceae 485:Bromeliaceae 481:Boraginaceae 443: 432: 412: 386:(carried by 384:mosaic virus 377: 371: 333: 324: 291: 278: 252: 245: 238: 228: 204: 195: 138: 94: 73: 72: 55: 36: 2955:: 117–124. 2497:Friis, E.M. 2055:10125/17181 1737:: 641–664. 1700:soil carbon 1484:During the 1351:Pleistocene 1230:fall season 1111:artifacts. 1109:prehistoric 1045:archaeology 1039:Archaeology 1025:Winteraceae 993:Smilacaceae 985:Sapindaceae 953:Primulaceae 933:Pedaliaceae 929:Oxalidaceae 917:Myrsinaceae 889:Loganiaceae 789:Bombacaceae 761:Apocynaceae 697:Verbenaceae 643:Taxodiaceae 595:Capparaceae 590:is common: 549:Orchidaceae 537:Marantaceae 509:Cyatheaceae 489:Burseraceae 461:Acanthaceae 456:is common: 439:taxonomical 363:plant genes 212: [ 160:. Finally, 3556:Categories 3177:Phytoliths 2562:ramidus". 1970:0549717765 1684:0759103852 1599:References 1568:or fires. 1556:can boost 1554:ecosystems 1530:subspecies 1496:including 1378:coprolites 1367:herbivores 1359:Quaternary 1343:coprolites 1326:redundancy 1275:morphology 1194:microscope 1117:centrifuge 1105:bone tools 1029:Xyridaceae 997:Solanaceae 981:Salicaceae 965:Rhamnaceae 957:Proteaceae 897:Mayacaceae 845:Guttiferae 821:Cycadaceae 805:Caricaceae 769:Araliaceae 719:Clusiaceae 712:morphology 693:Sapotaceae 689:Piperaceae 658:morphology 588:morphology 569:Urticaceae 513:Cyperaceae 477:Asteraceae 469:Annonaceae 454:morphology 435:morphology 347:phosphorus 242:published. 109:cell walls 74:Phytoliths 3462:131416813 3088:CiteSeerX 2957:CiteSeerX 2934:0269-8463 2877:0033-5894 2825:1058-5893 2790:128672790 2782:0886-6236 2714:0016-7606 2663:0094-8373 2602:0036-8075 2580:CiteSeerX 2548:0031-0182 2482:0031-0182 2439:0031-0182 2386:0921-8181 2295:0305-4403 2273:: 24–31. 2183:0036-8075 2140:0305-4403 2064:162916204 1751:1040-2519 1538:grassland 1518:sugarcane 1490:nutrients 1298:Cucurbita 1202:Gradation 1021:Violaceae 1013:Typhaceae 1005:Tiliaceae 973:Rubiaceae 925:Olacaceae 913:Myrtaceae 905:Meliaceae 885:Liliaceae 873:Lauraceae 861:Juncaceae 853:Iridaceae 841:Gnetaceae 833:Ericaceae 797:Cactaceae 741:Agavaceae 727:Malvaceae 501:Costaceae 473:Arecaceae 465:Aceraceae 410:disease. 400:herbivory 351:resilient 135:Functions 3147:28645048 3057:17798627 3014:83493897 3006:16293745 2885:56078161 2833:86879405 2671:27909150 2618:11646395 2610:19810191 2252:51811480 2215:(2013). 2199:34871175 2191:12586940 1824:Archived 1808:18697757 1759:15012222 1659:32968165 1580:See also 1546:cropland 1536:such as 1371:dinosaur 1339:Devonian 1263:Tiwanaku 1251:Zea mays 1247:Zea mays 1217:charcoal 1173:glycerin 1017:Vitaceae 1001:Theaceae 977:Rutaceae 969:Rosaceae 865:Labiatae 785:Bixaceae 757:Apiaceae 723:Fabaceae 639:Taxaceae 627:Pinaceae 611:Fagaceae 565:Ulmaceae 545:Musaceae 541:Moraceae 353:against 343:nitrogen 307:families 249:popular. 158:aluminum 142:spicules 3417:Bibcode 3324:Bibcode 3277:2236026 3245:Bibcode 3125:Bibcode 3065:1250064 3037:Bibcode 3029:Science 2986:Science 2912:Bibcode 2857:Bibcode 2760:Bibcode 2694:Bibcode 2572:Bibcode 2564:Science 2528:Bibcode 2462:Bibcode 2419:Bibcode 2366:Bibcode 2343:1486202 2323:Bibcode 2275:Bibcode 2232:Bibcode 2163:Bibcode 2155:Science 2120:Bibcode 1999:Bibcode 1854:Bibcode 1799:2701777 1778:Ann Bot 1650:7512002 1629:Bibcode 1592:Raphide 1566:grazing 1558:biomass 1550:climate 1526:species 1413:Gallery 1226:biomass 1146:ethanol 1142:solvent 1122:Ethanol 765:Araceae 553:Poaceae 415:harvest 359:abiotic 315:species 186:baobabs 146:sponges 121:abiotic 107:to the 99:(Si(OH) 3460: 3396: 3377: 3358: 3296: 3275: 3265: 3216: 3184: 3145: 3090: 3063: 3055: 3012: 3004: 2959: 2932: 2883: 2875: 2831: 2823: 2788: 2780: 2712: 2669: 2661: 2616: 2608: 2600: 2582: 2546: 2480: 2437: 2384: 2341: 2293: 2250: 2197: 2189: 2181: 2138: 2062: 2017: 1968: 1927: 1889:texana 1806: 1796: 1757: 1749: 1682: 1657: 1647: 1542:forest 1522:carbon 1516:while 1514:carbon 1498:carbon 1345:, and 1206:carbon 1079:ideal. 704:family 650:family 580:family 446:family 388:aphids 355:biotic 335:Silica 311:genera 229:Beagle 82:silica 76:(from 3458:S2CID 3343:(PDF) 3312:(PDF) 3268:54904 3061:S2CID 3010:S2CID 2881:S2CID 2829:S2CID 2786:S2CID 2667:S2CID 2614:S2CID 2339:JSTOR 2248:S2CID 2220:(PDF) 2195:S2CID 2060:S2CID 2015:JSTOR 1987:(PDF) 1887:var. 1733:(1). 1544:, or 1534:biome 1255:maize 1138:water 708:genus 654:genus 584:genus 450:genus 390:) or 282:xylem 216:] 182:pores 174:Cacti 117:cells 86:cacti 78:Greek 3394:ISBN 3375:ISBN 3356:ISBN 3294:ISBN 3273:PMID 3214:ISBN 3182:ISBN 3143:PMID 3053:PMID 3002:PMID 2930:ISSN 2873:ISSN 2821:ISSN 2778:ISSN 2710:ISSN 2659:ISSN 2606:PMID 2598:ISSN 2544:ISSN 2478:ISSN 2435:ISSN 2382:ISSN 2291:ISSN 2187:PMID 2179:ISSN 2136:ISSN 2019:5647 1966:ISBN 1925:ISBN 1804:PMID 1755:PMID 1747:ISSN 1680:ISBN 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