55:
768:
902:
481:
626:
6323:
6003:
5413:
1487:
428:
760:
6347:
6335:
6013:
1051:
1188:
949:. Both cutin and suberin are polyesters that function as permeability barriers to the movement of water. The relative composition of carbohydrates, secondary compounds and proteins varies between plants and between the cell type and age. Plant cells walls also contain numerous enzymes, such as hydrolases, esterases, peroxidases, and transglycosylases, that cut, trim and
988:, and the primary cell wall is then deposited inside the middle lamella. The actual structure of the cell wall is not clearly defined and several models exist - the covalently linked cross model, the tether model, the diffuse layer model and the stratified layer model. However, the primary cell wall, can be defined as composed of
999:, which is proposed to be made of a hexameric rosette that contains three cellulose synthase catalytic subunits for each of the six units. Microfibrils are held together by hydrogen bonds to provide a high tensile strength. The cells are held together and share the gelatinous membrane (the middle lamella), which contains
1025:
is constructed between the plasma membrane and primary wall. Unlike the primary wall, the cellulose microfibrils are aligned parallel in layers, the orientation changing slightly with each additional layer so that the structure becomes helicoidal. Cells with secondary cell walls can be rigid, as in
533:
Think of the cell wall as a wicker basket in which a balloon has been inflated so that it exerts pressure from the inside. Such a basket is very rigid and resistant to mechanical damage. Thus does the prokaryote cell (and eukaryotic cell that possesses a cell wall) gain strength from a flexible
1357:. Significantly, relative to the organic cell walls produced by other groups, silica frustules require less energy to synthesize (approximately 8%), potentially a major saving on the overall cell energy budget and possibly an explanation for higher growth rates in diatoms.
488:
Cell walls serve similar purposes in those organisms that possess them. They may give cells rigidity and strength, offering protection against mechanical stress. The chemical composition and mechanical properties of the cell wall are linked with plant cell growth and
704:. Plants later evolved various genes from CesA, including the Csl (cellulose synthase-like) family of proteins and additional Ces proteins. Combined with the various glycosyltransferases (GT), they enable more complex chemical structures to be built.
359:
in 1665. However, "the dead excrusion product of the living protoplast" was forgotten, for almost three centuries, being the subject of scientific interest mainly as a resource for industrial processing or in relation to animal or human health.
963:
Cell walls in some plant tissues also function as storage deposits for carbohydrates that can be broken down and resorbed to supply the metabolic and growth needs of the plant. For example, endosperm cell walls in the seeds of cereal grasses,
216:. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. Primarily, it provides the cell with structural support, shape, protection, and functions as a selective barrier. Another vital role of the cell wall is to help the cell withstand
846:. In grass cell walls, xyloglucan and pectin are reduced in abundance and partially replaced by glucuronoarabinoxylan, another type of hemicellulose. Primary cell walls characteristically extend (grow) by a mechanism called
382:(1858, 1862, 1863) believed that the growth of the wall in thickness and in area was due to a process termed intussusception. Each theory was improved in the following decades: the apposition (or lamination) theory by
493:. In multicellular organisms, they permit the organism to build and hold a definite shape. Cell walls also limit the entry of large molecules that may be toxic to the cell. They further permit the creation of stable
1720:
peptidoglycan superficially resembles that of bacterial peptidoglycan, there are a number of significant chemical differences. Like the peptidoglycan found in bacterial cell walls, pseudopeptidoglycan consists of
1154:
polymers. β-glucans are glucose molecules linked via β-(1,3)- or β-(1,6)- bonds and provide rigidity to the cell wall while α-glucans are defined by α-(1,3)- and/or α-(1,4) bonds and function as part of the
3625:
1070:) have been transferred out of the Kingdom Fungi, in part because of fundamental biochemical differences in the composition of the cell wall. Most true fungi have a cell wall consisting largely of
1560:, respectively. The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria, although
917:
proteins (AGP), glycine-rich proteins (GRPs), and proline-rich proteins (PRPs). Each class of glycoprotein is defined by a characteristic, highly repetitive protein sequence. Most are
1161:: enzymes necessary for cell wall synthesis and lysis in addition to structural proteins are all present in the cell wall. Most of the structural proteins found in the cell wall are
897:, 10-25%, a complex phenolic polymer that penetrates the spaces in the cell wall between cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin components, driving out water and strengthening the wall.
842:
are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is
968:
and other species, are rich in glucans and other polysaccharides that are readily digested by enzymes during seed germination to form simple sugars that nourish the growing embryo.
5243:
1426:) do have chitin in their walls. The fraction of cellulose in the walls is no more than 4 to 20%, far less than the fraction of glucans. Oomycete cell walls also contain the
751:
that result from the difference in solute concentration between the cell interior and external solutions. Plant cell walls vary from 0.1 to several μm in thickness.
521:
creates this rigidity, along with the wall structure. The flexibility of the cell walls is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop, or in
2488:
Popper ZA, Michel G, Hervé C, Domozych DS, Willats WG, Tuohy MG, et al. (2011). "Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: from algae to flowering plants".
5248:
792:, a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is fully grown. It is not found in all cell types. Some cells, such as the conducting cells in
3633:
858:
and cellulose. This functions to increase cell wall extensibility. The outer part of the primary cell wall of the plant epidermis is usually impregnated with
2982:
2234:
5381:
1820:, giving the wall an overall negative charge. The result is an unstable structure that is stabilized by the presence of large quantities of positive
1597:
Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing
3127:"Contents of soluble, cell-wall-bound and exuded phlorotannins in the brown alga Fucus vesiculosus, with implications on their ecological functions"
2438:
Harvey Lodish; Arnold Berk; Chris A. Kaiser; Monty
Krieger; Matthew P. Scott; Anthony Bretscher; Hidde Ploegh; Paul Matsudaira (1 September 2012).
925:(Hyp) and become cross-linked in the cell wall. These proteins are often concentrated in specialized cells and in cell corners. Cell walls of the
371:
proved that cells had independent cell walls. Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and that fluid passed between them this way.
3771:
1316:
6385:
5299:
410:
By the 1980s, some authors suggested replacing the term "cell wall", particularly as it was used for plants, with the more precise term "
2466:
873:
Secondary cell walls contain a wide range of additional compounds that modify their mechanical properties and permeability. The major
3030:
1613:(previously known as the low G+C and high G+C gram-positive bacteria, respectively) have the alternative gram-positive arrangement.
1320:
3186:
5115:
1864:. S-layers are common in bacteria, where they serve as either the sole cell-wall component or an outer layer in conjunction with
3744:
1568:
is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse. The
666:(so-called plant and algae) is one group with cellulose cell walls, where the cell wall is closely related to the evolution of
3720:
3608:
3575:
3540:
3255:
3227:
3013:
2939:
2857:
2711:
2682:
2449:
2422:
2346:
2133:
763:
Cell wall in multicellular plants – its different layers and their placement with respect to protoplasm (highly diagrammatic)
517:. The apparent rigidity of primary plant tissues is enabled by cell walls, but is not due to the walls' stiffness. Hydraulic
513:
In most cells, the cell wall is flexible, meaning that it will bend rather than holding a fixed shape, but has considerable
5942:
1465:
wall. The spore wall has three layers, the middle one composed primarily of cellulose, while the innermost is sensitive to
1018:, which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of adjacent cells across the cell wall.
715:
to perform the task, suggesting that such an enzyme is very ancient within the eukaryotes. Their glycoproteins are rich in
2217:
719:. The cell wall might have evolved to deter viral infections. Proteins embedded in cell walls are variable, contained in
6181:
6146:
5709:
5449:
5305:
3764:
467:
7461:
6378:
6049:
4200:
996:
671:
5699:
5626:
4639:
3833:
2338:
Esau's Plant
Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development
5823:
5554:
5120:
449:
368:
4570:
3935:
553:
is a thicker additional layer of cellulose which increases wall rigidity. Additional layers may be formed by
3098:
growth rates of marine phytoplankton : Approaches to measurement, community and species growth rates".
913:(1-5%) are found in most plant cell walls; they are classified as hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP),
6486:
5289:
4876:
4391:
3757:
1738:
1191:
174:
6371:
6351:
5371:
5125:
905:
Photomicrograph of onion root cells, showing the centrifugal development of new cell walls (phragmoplast)
136:
7482:
5664:
5105:
1828:
1042:
in the secondary cell wall that allow plasmodesmata to connect cells through the secondary cell walls.
445:
17:
7356:
3487:
538:
The apparent rigidity of the cell wall thus results from inflation of the cell contained within. This
7567:
6308:
6016:
5255:
1528:
Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are made of
180:
3146:
7080:
5818:
5741:
5704:
5500:
5393:
5238:
4288:
3930:
2235:"The Cell-Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique: Part III. The Cell as a Morphological Unit"
2043:
1523:
1503:
732:
724:
712:
711:
cell wall. They share the 1,3-β-glucan synthesis pathway with plants, using homologous GT48 family
2626:"Analysis of the phylogenetic relationships and evolution of the cell walls from yeasts and fungi"
2073:"Bacterial cell wall composition and the influence of antibiotics by cell-wall and whole-cell NMR"
7320:
6104:
3187:"Interactions between Plants and Fungi: the Evolution of their Parasitic and Symbiotic Relations"
2271:
2121:
1641:
1617:
1233:
1170:
689:
438:
2931:
2674:
1021:
In some plants and cell types, after a maximum size or point in development has been reached, a
813:. This outermost layer forms the interface between adjacent plant cells and glues them together.
637:
7517:
7456:
7395:
7109:
6339:
5894:
5813:
5792:
5442:
5223:
5147:
3895:
3870:
3141:
1636:
1630:
1507:
1491:
1303:
polysaccharides: They occur in the cell walls of most algae; those common in red algae include
854:, extracellular proteins activated by acidic conditions that modify the hydrogen bonds between
4952:
2845:
2561:
7477:
7468:
7054:
6298:
5934:
5576:
5388:
4134:
3920:
3813:
3272:
2976:
2158:
Micrographia: or, Some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses
2026:
1658:
1590:
Gram-positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and
708:
3005:
2998:
2553:
2474:
6293:
6042:
5774:
5649:
5632:
5470:
5110:
5007:
4962:
4634:
4193:
4167:
2038:
2018:
2010:
1885:
1734:
1062:
There are several groups of organisms that have been called "fungi". Some of these groups (
748:
501:
and helping to retain water. Their composition, properties, and form may change during the
411:
4610:
3416:(1884). "Über die isolierte Färbung der Schizomyceten in Schnitt- und Trockenpräparaten".
3038:
2501:
735:. The pathway leading to 1,6-β-glucan synthesis is not sufficiently known in either case.
8:
7572:
7405:
6303:
5899:
5784:
5779:
5672:
5642:
5495:
5480:
5280:
4825:
3793:
3739:
3413:
3194:
1693:
1686:
1113:
1101:
995:
aligned at all angles. Cellulose microfibrils are produced at the plasma membrane by the
788:
613:. The pH is an important factor governing the transport of molecules through cell walls.
570:
336:
328:
2366:
2265:
2077:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
6654:
6363:
6075:
5929:
5828:
5637:
5549:
5542:
5218:
5083:
4861:
4553:
4339:
4235:
3688:
3663:
3390:
3365:
3167:
3076:
3072:
2924:
2922:
Campbell NA, Reece JB, Urry LA, Cain ML, Wasserman SA, Minorsky PV, Jackson RB (2008).
2899:
2874:
2667:
2665:
Campbell NA, Reece JB, Urry LA, Cain ML, Wasserman SA, Minorsky PV, Jackson RB (2008).
2601:
2576:
2523:
2097:
2072:
1897:
1598:
1226:
926:
383:
87:
3749:
3591:
Preisig HR (1994). "Terminology and nomenclature of protist cell surface structures".
3463:
3436:
3366:"Unstable Escherichia coli L forms revisited: growth requires peptidoglycan synthesis"
3341:
3316:
1616:
These differences in structure produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility. The
7451:
7410:
6763:
6476:
6242:
6006:
5869:
5835:
5802:
5659:
5654:
5612:
5559:
5435:
5376:
4225:
4220:
4117:
3955:
3838:
3716:
3693:
3604:
3571:
3536:
3510:
3468:
3395:
3346:
3294:
3251:
3223:
3159:
3009:
2968:
2935:
2904:
2853:
2826:
2821:
2796:
2777:
2707:
2700:
2678:
2647:
2642:
2625:
2606:
2554:
2515:
2445:
2418:
2388:
2342:
2317:
2313:
2300:
Roberts K (October 1994). "The plant extracellular matrix: in a new expansive mood".
2198:
2193:
2176:
2129:
2102:
1963:
1868:. Most Archaea are Gram-negative, though at least one Gram-positive member is known.
1511:
1392:
743:
The walls of plant cells must have sufficient tensile strength to withstand internal
3453:
3080:
2527:
2437:
7425:
7269:
7216:
7168:
7127:
7092:
7085:
7022:
6899:
6825:
6262:
6071:
5721:
5597:
5532:
5162:
5068:
5063:
5017:
4910:
4895:
4856:
4781:
4622:
4546:
4443:
4385:
3683:
3675:
3596:
3502:
3458:
3448:
3385:
3377:
3336:
3328:
3284:
3171:
3151:
3107:
3068:
2964:
2894:
2886:
2816:
2808:
2767:
2736:
2637:
2596:
2588:
2505:
2497:
2378:
2309:
2246:
2188:
2092:
2084:
1999:
1983:
1979:
1925:
1844:
1792:
1706:
965:
783:, generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is growing.
744:
667:
610:
590:
514:
248:
217:
154:
6454:
4957:
3332:
1677:
is a standard component of all bacterial cell walls, all archaeal cell walls lack
54:
7201:
6433:
6035:
5947:
5846:
5731:
5607:
5537:
5490:
5416:
5398:
5260:
5089:
5039:
5027:
4989:
4925:
4752:
4720:
4681:
4654:
4483:
4478:
4369:
4305:
4186:
3818:
3563:
3126:
2473:. Washington DC: National Council for Science and the Environment. Archived from
2439:
2341:(3rd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 65–66.
2336:
1921:
1865:
1850:
1561:
1384:
1354:
1133:
1086:
942:
934:
914:
693:
539:
518:
344:
186:
69:
3977:
3600:
2797:"Glycerol is a suberin monomer. New experimental evidence for an old hypothesis"
1575:
There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria, called
731:-based cell wall and later acquired the GT-48 enzymes for the 1,3-β-glucans via
7385:
7226:
7136:
7122:
6923:
6779:
6727:
6584:
6503:
6327:
6201:
6119:
5602:
5566:
5310:
5275:
5228:
5210:
5174:
4930:
4757:
4735:
4701:
4676:
4659:
4649:
4644:
4526:
4344:
4329:
4283:
4278:
3781:
3111:
1987:
1933:
1769:
1758:
1712:
1610:
1533:
1430:
1237:
1222:
1206:
1075:
977:
922:
805:
681:
660:
387:
304:
264:
3506:
3289:
3155:
901:
394:
379:
374:
The mode of formation of the cell wall was controversial in the 19th century.
7561:
7315:
7287:
7191:
7164:
7161:
7095:
6589:
6563:
6513:
6196:
6089:
5956:
5841:
5797:
5769:
5760:
5750:
5726:
5622:
5346:
5094:
5012:
4984:
4947:
4915:
4851:
4820:
4771:
4671:
4473:
4456:
4379:
4359:
4300:
4295:
4243:
4064:
4024:
3999:
3915:
3828:
3803:
2955:
Abeysekera RM, Willison JH (1987). "A spiral helicoid in a plant cell wall".
2250:
1917:
1797:
1678:
1674:
1625:
1591:
1580:
1576:
1529:
1519:
1499:
1495:
1328:
1162:
1109:
918:
867:
831:
767:
720:
685:
676:
582:
526:
490:
375:
364:
316:
272:
213:
115:
63:
3570:(7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 818–819, 824.
3273:"Formation of the glycan chains in the synthesis of bacterial peptidoglycan"
331:, or polysaccharides. Fungi possess cell walls constructed from the polymer
7502:
7472:
7332:
6983:
6835:
6830:
6732:
6668:
6537:
6532:
6398:
6394:
6165:
6099:
6058:
5986:
5971:
5851:
5592:
5510:
5458:
5341:
5331:
5233:
4942:
4451:
4418:
4044:
4016:
3994:
3987:
3967:
3907:
3823:
3808:
3697:
3514:
3472:
3399:
3350:
3298:
3163:
2908:
2830:
2781:
2651:
2610:
2519:
2392:
2202:
2106:
2088:
1971:
1955:
1947:
1788:
1750:
1697:
1442:
1365:
1346:
1290:
1261:
1214:
1039:
992:
823:
593:
may acquire similar reinforcement to resist the strain of physical forces.
566:
480:
356:
300:
193:
148:
142:
35:
3488:"Microbiology and drug resistance mechanisms of fully resistant pathogens"
2890:
2812:
2321:
1457:
under certain conditions. Cells of the reproductive stalk, as well as the
407:
from the "dead" plant region, the latter of which included the cell wall.
7532:
7507:
7495:
7310:
7264:
7065:
7032:
7012:
6933:
6846:
6717:
6685:
6623:
6613:
6548:
6523:
6471:
6206:
6094:
5874:
5427:
5157:
5142:
5137:
5073:
4935:
4715:
4686:
4585:
4580:
4428:
4268:
4263:
4248:
4146:
4112:
4039:
4034:
3925:
3317:"Bacterial wall as target for attack: past, present, and future research"
2740:
2383:
1937:
1913:
1780:. Structure in this type of wall is complex and not fully investigated.
1649:
1602:
1564:
can be produced in the laboratory that lack a cell wall. The antibiotic
1422:
1410:. Unlike fungi, oomycetes typically possess cell walls of cellulose and
1403:
1308:
1294:
1240:
1067:
1015:
1011:
985:
847:
839:
697:
308:
260:
224:, including animals, cell walls are prevalent in other organisms such as
81:
3381:
2367:"Relating the mechanics of the primary plant cell wall to morphogenesis"
2156:
960:
crystals, which may strengthen the wall and protect it from herbivores.
625:
378:(1853, 1858) advocated the idea that the cell wall grows by apposition.
7546:
7541:
7522:
7512:
7490:
7146:
7070:
6890:
6861:
6789:
6768:
6639:
6527:
6481:
6423:
6227:
6186:
6173:
6027:
5981:
5966:
5884:
5617:
5186:
5179:
5169:
5152:
4835:
4830:
4766:
4558:
4405:
4364:
4258:
4141:
4081:
4074:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4004:
3950:
3940:
3890:
3885:
3875:
3679:
2048:
1884:
produce other cell surface structures apart from cell walls, external (
1817:
1802:
1764:
1701:
1689:. There are four types of cell wall currently known among the Archaea.
1682:
1653:
1645:
1621:
1584:
1565:
1541:
1454:
1446:
1427:
1396:
1381:
1361:
1300:
1255:
1218:
1194:
1121:
1105:
981:
956:
Secondary walls - especially in grasses - may also contain microscopic
950:
938:
843:
602:
574:
502:
452: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
355:
A plant cell wall was first observed and named (simply as a "wall") by
323:
cell walls vary in composition, potentially consisting of glycoprotein
256:
241:
237:
221:
121:
44:
2795:
Moire L, Schmutz A, Buchala A, Yan B, Stark RE, Ryser U (March 1999).
2772:
2755:
2510:
1387:
like fungi. Until recently they were widely believed to be fungi, but
7527:
7400:
7390:
7254:
7236:
7141:
6993:
6973:
6959:
6938:
6866:
6746:
6649:
6628:
6574:
6466:
6445:
6156:
6151:
5976:
5807:
5677:
5571:
5294:
5191:
4920:
4725:
4706:
4617:
4541:
4461:
4354:
4334:
4273:
4124:
4097:
4069:
3962:
3945:
3880:
3853:
3785:
2592:
2014:
2003:
1995:
1967:
1951:
1606:
1553:
1466:
1462:
1400:
1388:
1350:
1266:
1079:
1000:
989:
827:
701:
663:
498:
268:
209:
160:
127:
107:
3059:
Raven JA (1983). "The transport and function of silicon in plants".
1587:, a test long-employed for the classification of bacterial species.
1205:
Like plants, algae have cell walls. Algal cell walls contain either
427:
7420:
7415:
7327:
7292:
7221:
7206:
7196:
7075:
6998:
6949:
6913:
6880:
6794:
6706:
6603:
6558:
6438:
6418:
6277:
6232:
6191:
6169:
6109:
5485:
5462:
5336:
5326:
5270:
5265:
5032:
4905:
4881:
4798:
4468:
4253:
4107:
3863:
3848:
3843:
3711:
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002).
3363:
2756:"My body is a cage: mechanisms and modulation of plant cell growth"
2022:
1959:
1942:
1905:
1893:
1881:
1836:
1768:. This type of cell wall is composed entirely of a thick layer of
1569:
1377:
1312:
1271:
1151:
1129:
1117:
1063:
1027:
851:
404:
399:
320:
315:, distinct from those in land plants. Bacterial cell walls contain
168:
3364:
Joseleau-Petit D, Liébart JC, Ayala JA, D'Ari R (September 2007).
3124:
1486:
759:
414:", as used for animal cells, but others preferred the older term.
7337:
6856:
6810:
6449:
6402:
6114:
5915:
5879:
5515:
4521:
4516:
4433:
4423:
4129:
4029:
3982:
3858:
3125:
Koivikko R, Loponen J, Honkanen T, Jormalainen V (January 2005).
1975:
1929:
1877:
1860:
1855:
1810:
1784:
1773:
1730:
1722:
1670:
1537:
1470:
1332:
1166:
1158:
1143:
1097:
1085:
In fungi, the cell wall is the outer-most layer, external to the
1007:
1004:
946:
910:
874:
716:
606:
562:
543:
522:
494:
324:
288:
280:
252:
101:
1445:
are another group formerly classified among the fungi. They are
1327:
Other compounds that may accumulate in algal cell walls include
7259:
7117:
6820:
6696:
6428:
6062:
5961:
5716:
4974:
4866:
4786:
4740:
4730:
4691:
4629:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4209:
3972:
2177:"The apoplast and its significance for plant mineral nutrition"
1909:
1901:
1821:
1726:
1557:
1450:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1343:
1277:
1249:
1244:
1210:
1198:
1147:
1139:
1125:
1093:
1071:
1055:
1035:
957:
894:
855:
835:
810:
797:
775:
Up to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell walls:
728:
554:
340:
332:
284:
276:
233:
3250:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 99–100.
1605:. Most bacteria have the gram-negative cell wall and only the
7231:
6799:
6461:
6272:
6222:
6160:
6137:
5889:
5198:
5132:
5054:
5022:
4979:
4871:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4791:
4776:
4745:
4666:
4324:
4315:
2623:
1991:
1889:
1549:
1545:
1458:
1339:
1284:
1089:. The fungal cell wall is a matrix of three main components:
930:
888:
859:
793:
558:
296:
292:
229:
225:
2727:
Fry SC (1989). "The
Structure and Functions of Xyloglucan".
2122:"Biomineralization: Peptide-Mediated Synthesis of Materials"
1544:. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of
6267:
5049:
5044:
4696:
4536:
4511:
4506:
4490:
4349:
1814:
1304:
1031:
878:
586:
578:
312:
3562:
2415:
The
Surprising Archaea: Discovering Another Domain of Life
1236:: They form microfibrils in the cell walls of a number of
1187:
4969:
4531:
4178:
4102:
2487:
1824:
1100:
consisting mainly of unbranched chains of β-(1,4)-linked-
1050:
863:
6393:
3217:
1583:. The names originate from the reaction of cells to the
589:
have secondary walls. Other parts of plants such as the
3779:
3710:
2753:
1982:
produces a shell-like protective outer covering called
1733:
connections. However, unlike peptidoglycan, the sugar
727:. An alternative scenario is that fungi started with a
605:
is freely permeable to small molecules including small
484:
Diagram of the plant cell, with the cell wall in green.
3535:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 6, 12–21.
2794:
2706:(1st ed.). American society of plant physiology.
2126:
1038:
fruit. Cell to cell communication is possible through
771:
Molecular structure of the primary cell wall in plants
3222:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 687–688.
3004:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p.
2921:
2697:
2664:
2560:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp.
2219:
Grundlehren der anatomie und physiologie der pflanzen
1628:) only work against gram-negative pathogens, such as
1293:: It is a common polysaccharide in the cell walls of
3437:"Exploring prokaryotic diversity in the genomic era"
2930:(8th ed.). Pearson Benjamin Cummings. pp.
2673:(8th ed.). Pearson Benjamin Cummings. pp.
1749:,1-4. Additionally, the cross-linking peptides are
1656:) only work against gram-positive pathogens such as
1225:
in algal cells walls is used as a feature for algal
822:
In the primary (growing) plant cell wall, the major
3661:
3213:
3211:
2417:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 69–71.
2170:
2168:
1966:. In each case, the wall is rigid and essentially
1753:rather than D-amino acids as they are in bacteria.
1692:One type of archaeal cell wall is that composed of
534:
plasma membrane pressing against a rigid cell wall.
2997:
2954:
2923:
2846:"Carbohydrate metabolism:structural carbohydrates"
2754:Braidwood L, Breuer C, Sugimoto K (January 2014).
2699:
2666:
1685:have a cell wall made of a similar polymer called
1414:rather than chitin, although some genera (such as
1169:, thus these proteins are called mannoproteins or
7020:
3715:(4th ed.). New York: Garland. p. 1065.
3662:Frantz C, Stewart KM, Weaver VM (December 2010).
3646:
3218:Alexopoulos CJ, Mims W, Blackwell M (1996). "4".
2981:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
2577:"On the evolution of fungal and yeast cell walls"
1854:, the wall may be composed only of surface-layer
656:Cell walls evolved independently in many groups.
295:are anchored to or embedded in plant cell walls.
7559:
3270:
3208:
2624:Ruiz-Herrera J, Ortiz-Castellanos L (May 2010).
2364:
2165:
2070:
1756:A second type of archaeal cell wall is found in
1201:showing the external appearance of the cell wall
386:(1882, 1889), and the intussusception theory by
3649:Algae: anatomy, biochemistry, and biotechnology
3630:The Flagellates. Unity, diversity and evolution
3595:(Protoplasma special ed.). pp. 1–28.
2547:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2539:
2537:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2402:
1970:. It is the non-living component of cell. Some
3533:The Physiology and Biochemistry of Prokaryotes
3178:
2702:Biochemistry & molecular biology of plants
2119:
1453:, but aggregate into a reproductive stalk and
1395:evidence has led to their reclassification as
1177:
866:, forming a permeability barrier known as the
670:, terrestrialization and vascularization. The
6981:
6379:
6043:
5443:
4194:
3765:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3526:
3524:
3241:
3239:
2875:"Cellulose biosynthesis: counting the chains"
2441:Loose-leaf Version for Molecular Cell Biology
2155:Hooke R (1665). Martyn J, Allestry J (eds.).
1669:Although not truly unique, the cell walls of
1572:enzyme can also damage bacterial cell walls.
1502:-containing cell wall (the purple layer). No
800:, which strengthens and waterproofs the wall.
5300:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
3632:. London: Taylor and Francis. Archived from
3566:, Madigan MT, Martinko JM, Parker J (1994).
2551:
2534:
2399:
2174:
609:, with size exclusion estimated to be 30-60
247:The composition of cell walls varies across
220:and mechanical stress. While absent in many
1716:. While the overall structure of archaeal
1433:, which is not found in fungal cell walls.
6386:
6372:
6050:
6036:
5457:
5450:
5436:
4201:
4187:
3772:
3758:
3549:
3521:
3485:
3434:
3236:
2948:
2698:Buchanan BB, Gruissem W, Jones RL (2000).
2066:
2064:
208:is a structural layer that surrounds some
7180:
6888:
3687:
3462:
3452:
3389:
3340:
3288:
3245:
3184:
3145:
3037:. biologie.uni-hamburg.de. Archived from
3028:
2898:
2820:
2771:
2641:
2600:
2509:
2382:
2192:
2096:
1532:(also called murein), which is made from
1476:
508:
468:Learn how and when to remove this message
6057:
5244:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
3357:
2574:
2365:Bidhendi AJ, Geitmann A (January 2016).
2071:Romaniuk JA, Cegelski L (October 2015).
1835:thrives only under conditions with high
1498:, seen here in light brown, and a thick
1485:
1368:may be a constituent of the cell walls.
1186:
1049:
900:
881:(largely secondary cell walls) include:
766:
758:
577:, making the secondary wall stiff. Both
479:
3590:
3310:
3308:
2720:
2412:
2299:
2061:
1871:
1741:, and the two sugars are bonded with a
1700:). This type of wall is found in some
1481:
1221:) or both. The inclusion of additional
14:
7560:
3664:"The extracellular matrix at a glance"
3623:
3093:
2995:
2872:
2481:
2360:
2358:
1912:extracted from the surrounding water;
1664:
796:, possess a secondary wall containing
6367:
6031:
5431:
4182:
3753:
3628:. In Leadbeater BS, Green JC (eds.).
3530:
3058:
2502:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103809
2469:. In Monosson E, Cleveland C (eds.).
2464:
2334:
2284:
2263:
2232:
2154:
1514:, is distinct from the cell envelope.
6334:
6012:
3412:
3406:
3314:
3305:
3000:Magical Mushrooms, Mischievous Molds
2852:. Academic Press. pp. 205–236.
2843:
2837:
2215:
1745:,1-3 glycosidic linkage instead of
1506:is present, as would be the case in
1132:are synthesized and extruded at the
1054:Chemical structure of a unit from a
1045:
980:is laid down first, formed from the
620:
450:adding citations to reliable sources
421:
343:have a unique cell wall composed of
59:Components of a typical plant cell:
6346:
2726:
2355:
2124:. In Lukehart CM, Scott RA (eds.).
1813:in the wall have a high content of
738:
24:
3626:"The cell surface of flagellates."
3073:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1983.tb00385.x
2957:Cell Biology International Reports
2289:. Jena: Verlag von Gustav Fischer.
2287:Die Stoffbewegungen in der Pflanze
403:in order to separate the "living"
263:, the primary cell wall comprises
25:
7584:
5249:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
3733:
2848:. In Dey PM, Harborne JB (eds.).
2270:. New York: McGraw Hill. p.
1380:, also known as water molds, are
891:, 20-35%, a type of hemicellulose
505:and depend on growth conditions.
236:, and are commonly found in most
6345:
6333:
6322:
6321:
6011:
6002:
6001:
5412:
5411:
3647:Barsanti L, Gualtieri P (2006).
2643:10.1111/j.1567-1364.2009.00589.x
2194:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2001.00034.x
1494:. The cell envelope comprises a
1349:their cell walls (also known as
1265:as well as in the walls of some
692:events transferred it (with the
624:
569:cell walls. These compounds are
426:
212:, found immediately outside the
53:
5700:Bacterial cellular morphologies
3704:
3655:
3640:
3617:
3584:
3479:
3454:10.1186/gb-2002-3-2-reviews0003
3428:
3264:
3118:
3087:
3052:
3022:
2989:
2915:
2866:
2788:
2747:
2691:
2658:
2617:
2575:Xie X, Lipke PN (August 2010).
2568:
2458:
2431:
2328:
2302:Current Opinion in Cell Biology
2120:Rutledge RD, Wright DW (2013).
1783:A third type of wall among the
1536:chains cross-linked by unusual
596:
437:needs additional citations for
299:exhibit cell walls composed of
7133:Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous
2729:Journal of Experimental Botany
2490:Annual Review of Plant Biology
2371:Journal of Experimental Botany
2293:
2278:
2257:
2226:
2209:
2148:
2113:
1510:. The red layer, known as the
1461:formed at the apex, possess a
1436:
1371:
817:
601:The primary cell wall of most
13:
1:
7103:Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid
3936:Microtubule organizing center
3713:Molecular biology of the cell
3333:10.1128/CMR.16.4.673-687.2003
3321:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
2054:
1928:also produce a skeleton from
1892:have a sheath or envelope of
417:
27:Outermost layer of some cells
5290:History of plant systematics
4877:Thorns, spines, and prickles
2969:10.1016/0309-1651(87)90106-8
2552:Webster J, Weber RW (2007).
2314:10.1016/0955-0674(89)90074-4
1739:N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid
1146:that function to cross-link
971:
945:cells of plant bark contain
616:
175:Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
132:k. Small membranous vesicles
7:
3601:10.1007/978-3-7091-9378-5_1
3185:Sengbusch PV (2003-07-31).
3134:Journal of Chemical Ecology
3029:Sengbusch PV (2003-07-31).
2873:Jarvis MC (December 2013).
2032:
1831:the charge. Consequently,
1178:Other eukaryotic cell walls
529:. As John Howland explains
497:environments by preventing
137:Rough endoplasmic reticulum
10:
7589:
5943:Bacteria (classifications)
5665:Primary nutritional groups
5106:Alternation of generations
4208:
3651:. Florida, USA: CRC Press.
3593:The Protistan Cell Surface
3246:Raper KB, Rahn AW (1984).
2021:varies between cells, but
1958:, encase their cells in a
1842:In other Archaea, such as
1517:
1490:Illustration of a typical
1078:. True fungi do not have
997:cellulose synthase complex
350:
7442:
7376:
7301:
7278:
7245:
7178:
7052:
7045:
7011:
6972:
6947:
6921:
6912:
6879:
6844:
6808:
6777:
6754:
6745:
6715:
6694:
6676:
6667:
6637:
6611:
6602:
6572:
6546:
6511:
6502:
6495:
6409:
6317:
6309:List of mycology journals
6286:
6255:
6215:
6135:
6128:
6082:
6069:
5997:
5928:
5908:
5860:
5749:
5740:
5692:
5585:
5523:
5509:
5469:
5407:
5355:
5319:
5256:Cultivated plant taxonomy
5219:Biological classification
5209:
5082:
4998:
4894:
4844:
4569:
4499:
4442:
4404:
4378:
4314:
4234:
4216:
4155:
4090:
4015:
3906:
3792:
3568:Biology of Microorganisms
3507:10.1016/j.mib.2004.08.007
3486:Walsh F, Amyes S (2004).
3271:van Heijenoort J (2001).
3156:10.1007/s10886-005-0984-2
2013:(ECM) is also present in
1896:outside the cell made of
1449:that feed as unicellular
1243:including those from the
1112:, or poly-β-(1,4)-linked-
1014:). Cells interact though
909:Additionally, structural
754:
713:1,3-Beta-glucan synthases
52:
43:
34:
6424:Mastigophora/Flagellates
5819:Bacterial outer membrane
5116:Evolutionary development
3931:Prokaryotic cytoskeleton
3740:Cell wall ultrastructure
3315:Koch AL (October 2003).
3112:10.1093/plankt/12.6.1117
2267:Introduction To Cytology
2251:10.1242/jcs.s3-93.22.157
2044:Bacterial cell structure
1642:glycopeptide antibiotics
1524:Bacterial cell structure
1182:
733:horizontal gene transfer
725:homologous recombination
240:, with the exception of
7462:Baas-Becking hypothesis
4767:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
3668:Journal of Cell Science
3370:Journal of Bacteriology
3290:10.1093/glycob/11.3.25R
2239:Journal of Cell Science
2175:Sattelmacher B (2000).
1618:beta-lactam antibiotics
1492:gram-positive bacterium
696:proteins) further into
690:secondary endosymbiosis
672:CesA cellulose synthase
544:passive uptake of water
7457:Microbial biogeography
5814:Gram-negative bacteria
5793:Gram-positive bacteria
5382:by author abbreviation
5306:Plant taxonomy systems
5224:Botanical nomenclature
2971:(inactive 2024-09-11).
2233:Baker JR (June 1952).
2089:10.1098/rstb.2015.0024
1936:in some groups. Many
1729:cross-linked by short
1637:Pseudomonas aeruginosa
1631:Haemophilus influenzae
1515:
1508:gram-negative bacteria
1477:Prokaryotic cell walls
1209:(such as cellulose (a
1202:
1059:
906:
772:
764:
536:
509:Rigidity of cell walls
485:
6477:Fungus-like organisms
6299:List of fungal orders
5669:Substrate preference
5389:Botanical expeditions
3921:Intermediate filament
3814:Endoplasmic reticulum
3435:Hugenholtz P (2002).
3220:Introductory Mycology
3031:"Cell Walls of Algae"
2891:10.1104/pp.113.231092
2813:10.1104/pp.119.3.1137
2556:Introduction to Fungi
2471:Encyclopedia of Earth
1673:are unusual. Whereas
1659:Staphylococcus aureus
1518:Further information:
1489:
1190:
1082:in their cell walls.
1053:
904:
770:
762:
709:chitin-glucan-protein
531:
483:
255:, cell type, and the
7192:Simple cell membrane
7128:Pseudoparenchymatous
7116:Filamentous/trichal/
7100:Colonial flagellated
7033:Collar of microvilli
6294:Glossary of mycology
5650:Microbial metabolism
5121:Evolutionary history
5111:Double fertilization
4963:Cellular respiration
4168:Extracellular matrix
3041:on November 28, 2005
2128:. EIC Books. Wiley.
2039:Extracellular matrix
2029:protein in the ECM.
2011:extracellular matrix
1888:) or internal. Many
1886:extracellular matrix
1872:Other cell coverings
1791:, and occurs in the
1735:N-acetylmuramic acid
1504:outer lipid membrane
1482:Bacterial cell walls
749:atmospheric pressure
446:improve this article
412:extracellular matrix
7406:Contractile vacuole
7357:Meiosis in protists
7338:Mitosis in protists
7316:Multinucleate cells
6538:Flagellar apparatus
6487:Ambiregnal protists
6429:Sarcodina/Amoeboids
6304:List of mycologists
5900:Non-motile bacteria
5496:Pathogenic bacteria
4340:Non-vascular plants
3871:Cytoplasmic granule
3674:(Pt 24): 4195–200.
3495:Curr Opin Microbiol
3382:10.1128/JB.00273-07
3197:on December 8, 2006
3094:Furnas MJ (1990). "
2760:The New Phytologist
2630:FEMS Yeast Research
2413:Howland JL (2000).
1694:pseudopeptidoglycan
1687:pseudopeptidoglycan
1665:Archaeal cell walls
1599:lipopolysaccharides
1213:)) or a variety of
1114:N-Acetylglucosamine
1102:N-Acetylglucosamine
789:secondary cell wall
551:secondary cell wall
542:is a result of the
337:N-acetylglucosamine
329:pseudopeptidoglycan
7237:Periplast/pellicle
6960:Periplast/pellicle
6900:Cruciform division
6076:Outline of lichens
5829:Lipopolysaccharide
4845:Surface structures
4640:Flower development
3896:Weibel–Palade body
3780:Structures of the
3680:10.1242/jcs.023820
3447:(2): REVIEWS0003.
2996:Hudler GW (1998).
2850:Plant Biochemistry
2741:10.1093/jxb/40.1.1
2384:10.1093/jxb/erv535
2083:(1679): 20150024.
1898:exopolysaccharides
1552:which are made of
1516:
1203:
1060:
907:
809:, a layer rich in
773:
765:
636:. You can help by
486:
384:Eduard Strasburger
88:Thylakoid membrane
46:Plant cell diagram
7555:
7554:
7452:Microbial ecology
7438:
7437:
7434:
7433:
7411:Eyespot apparatus
7041:
7040:
7023:Choanoflagellates
7007:
7006:
6968:
6967:
6908:
6907:
6875:
6874:
6741:
6740:
6663:
6662:
6598:
6597:
6361:
6360:
6251:
6250:
6147:teleomorph/sexual
6025:
6024:
5924:
5923:
5870:Bacterial capsule
5836:Periplasmic space
5803:Lipoteichoic acid
5688:
5687:
5660:Microbial ecology
5655:Nitrogen fixation
5425:
5424:
5064:Herbaceous plants
4890:
4889:
4176:
4175:
3956:Spindle pole body
3722:978-0-8153-4072-0
3624:Becker B (2000).
3610:978-3-7091-9380-8
3577:978-0-13-042169-2
3542:978-0-19-508439-9
3257:978-0-691-08345-2
3248:The Dictyostelids
3229:978-0-471-52229-4
3015:978-0-691-02873-6
2941:978-0-8053-6844-4
2859:978-0-12-214674-9
2773:10.1111/nph.12473
2713:978-0-943088-39-6
2684:978-0-8053-6844-4
2465:Hogan CM (2010).
2451:978-1-4641-2746-5
2444:. W. H. Freeman.
2424:978-0-19-511183-5
2348:978-0-470-04737-8
2335:Evert RF (2006).
2264:Sharp LW (1921).
2135:978-1-118-62522-4
2000:coccolithophorids
1980:choanoflagellates
1964:calcium carbonate
1926:silicoflagellates
1793:hyperthermophiles
1192:Scanning electron
1046:Fungal cell walls
885:cellulose, 35-50%
781:primary cell wall
747:of several times
745:osmotic pressures
654:
653:
478:
477:
470:
202:
201:
16:(Redirected from
7580:
7568:Plant physiology
7426:Mastigont system
7379:
7304:
7281:
7270:Gliding motility
7248:
7185:
7130:/plektenchymatic
7086:Amoeboflagellate
7059:
7050:
7049:
7026:
7018:
7017:
6987:
6979:
6978:
6953:
6927:
6919:
6918:
6893:
6886:
6885:
6850:
6814:
6783:
6757:
6752:
6751:
6721:
6700:
6679:
6674:
6673:
6643:
6617:
6609:
6608:
6578:
6552:
6516:
6509:
6508:
6500:
6499:
6388:
6381:
6374:
6365:
6364:
6349:
6348:
6337:
6336:
6325:
6324:
6182:anamorph/asexual
6133:
6132:
6072:Outline of fungi
6052:
6045:
6038:
6029:
6028:
6015:
6014:
6005:
6004:
5953:Former groupings
5747:
5746:
5598:Human microbiome
5521:
5520:
5452:
5445:
5438:
5429:
5428:
5415:
5414:
5394:Individual trees
5069:Secondary growth
5040:Succulent plants
5028:Prostrate shrubs
4911:Apical dominance
4896:Plant physiology
4857:Epicuticular wax
4402:
4401:
4395:
4386:Plant morphology
4203:
4196:
4189:
4180:
4179:
3774:
3767:
3760:
3751:
3750:
3727:
3726:
3708:
3702:
3701:
3691:
3659:
3653:
3652:
3644:
3638:
3637:
3621:
3615:
3614:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3560:
3547:
3546:
3531:White D (1995).
3528:
3519:
3518:
3492:
3483:
3477:
3476:
3466:
3456:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3410:
3404:
3403:
3393:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3344:
3312:
3303:
3302:
3292:
3268:
3262:
3261:
3243:
3234:
3233:
3215:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3202:
3193:. Archived from
3182:
3176:
3175:
3149:
3131:
3122:
3116:
3115:
3106:(6): 1117–1151.
3091:
3085:
3084:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3026:
3020:
3019:
3003:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2980:
2972:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2929:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2902:
2879:Plant Physiology
2870:
2864:
2863:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2824:
2801:Plant Physiology
2792:
2786:
2785:
2775:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2705:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2672:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2645:
2621:
2615:
2614:
2604:
2593:10.1002/yea.1787
2572:
2566:
2565:
2559:
2549:
2532:
2531:
2513:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2467:"Abiotic factor"
2462:
2456:
2455:
2435:
2429:
2428:
2410:
2397:
2396:
2386:
2362:
2353:
2352:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2285:Münch E (1930).
2282:
2276:
2275:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2216:Link HF (1807).
2213:
2207:
2206:
2196:
2172:
2163:
2162:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2100:
2068:
1845:Methanomicrobium
1707:Methanobacterium
1353:or valves) from
838:. The cellulose
739:Plant cell walls
680:and was part of
668:multicellularity
649:
646:
628:
621:
515:tensile strength
473:
466:
462:
459:
453:
430:
422:
397:coined the term
249:taxonomic groups
218:osmotic pressure
155:Nuclear envelope
57:
47:
38:
32:
31:
21:
7588:
7587:
7583:
7582:
7581:
7579:
7578:
7577:
7558:
7557:
7556:
7551:
7444:
7430:
7377:
7372:
7302:
7297:
7279:
7274:
7246:
7241:
7182:
7179:
7174:
7056:
7053:
7037:
7021:
7003:
6982:
6964:
6948:
6943:
6922:
6904:
6889:
6871:
6845:
6840:
6809:
6804:
6780:Dinoflagellates
6778:
6773:
6755:
6737:
6716:
6711:
6695:
6690:
6677:
6659:
6638:
6633:
6612:
6594:
6573:
6568:
6547:
6542:
6512:
6491:
6412:classifications
6411:
6405:
6392:
6362:
6357:
6313:
6282:
6263:Dimorphic fungi
6256:Growth patterns
6247:
6211:
6124:
6105:Medicinal fungi
6078:
6065:
6056:
6026:
6021:
5993:
5948:Bacterial phyla
5932:
5920:
5904:
5862:
5856:
5847:Arabinogalactan
5752:
5736:
5684:
5581:
5525:
5513:
5505:
5491:Lysogenic cycle
5472:
5465:
5456:
5426:
5421:
5403:
5372:Botanical terms
5365:
5351:
5315:
5261:Citrus taxonomy
5239:Author citation
5205:
5099:
5078:
5000:
4994:
4990:Turgor pressure
4898:
4886:
4840:
4655:Floral symmetry
4573:
4565:
4495:
4484:Vascular bundle
4479:Vascular tissue
4438:
4398:
4389:
4388:
4374:
4345:Vascular plants
4310:
4306:Plant pathology
4230:
4212:
4207:
4177:
4172:
4151:
4086:
4011:
3902:
3819:Golgi apparatus
3795:
3788:
3778:
3736:
3731:
3730:
3723:
3709:
3705:
3660:
3656:
3645:
3641:
3622:
3618:
3611:
3589:
3585:
3578:
3561:
3550:
3543:
3529:
3522:
3490:
3484:
3480:
3433:
3429:
3411:
3407:
3376:(18): 6512–20.
3362:
3358:
3313:
3306:
3269:
3265:
3258:
3244:
3237:
3230:
3216:
3209:
3200:
3198:
3183:
3179:
3147:10.1.1.320.5895
3129:
3123:
3119:
3100:J. Plankton Res
3092:
3088:
3057:
3053:
3044:
3042:
3027:
3023:
3016:
2994:
2990:
2974:
2973:
2953:
2949:
2942:
2920:
2916:
2871:
2867:
2860:
2844:Reid J (1997).
2842:
2838:
2793:
2789:
2752:
2748:
2725:
2721:
2714:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2663:
2659:
2622:
2618:
2573:
2569:
2550:
2535:
2486:
2482:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2436:
2432:
2425:
2411:
2400:
2363:
2356:
2349:
2333:
2329:
2298:
2294:
2283:
2279:
2262:
2258:
2231:
2227:
2214:
2210:
2181:New Phytologist
2173:
2166:
2153:
2149:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2118:
2114:
2069:
2062:
2057:
2035:
1988:dinoflagellates
1922:testate amoebae
1874:
1866:polysaccharides
1851:Desulfurococcus
1776:in the case of
1772:, which may be
1770:polysaccharides
1737:is replaced by
1667:
1562:L-form bacteria
1526:
1496:plasma membrane
1484:
1479:
1439:
1385:plant pathogens
1374:
1223:polysaccharides
1207:polysaccharides
1185:
1180:
1134:plasma membrane
1087:plasma membrane
1076:polysaccharides
1048:
974:
953:wall polymers.
935:Casparian strip
915:arabinogalactan
820:
757:
741:
694:arabinogalactan
650:
644:
641:
634:needs expansion
619:
599:
561:cell walls, or
519:turgor pressure
511:
474:
463:
457:
454:
443:
431:
420:
353:
345:biogenic silica
335:, specifically
305:polysaccharides
279:. Often, other
265:polysaccharides
198:
187:Golgi apparatus
92:e. Starch grain
70:Plasma membrane
45:
36:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7586:
7576:
7575:
7570:
7553:
7552:
7550:
7549:
7544:
7539:
7538:
7537:
7536:
7535:
7530:
7520:
7515:
7510:
7500:
7499:
7498:
7487:
7486:
7485:
7480:
7466:
7465:
7464:
7459:
7448:
7446:
7440:
7439:
7436:
7435:
7432:
7431:
7429:
7428:
7423:
7418:
7413:
7408:
7403:
7398:
7393:
7388:
7382:
7380:
7374:
7373:
7371:
7370:
7369:
7368:
7365:
7362:
7354:
7353:
7352:
7349:
7346:
7343:
7335:
7330:
7325:
7324:
7323:
7313:
7307:
7305:
7299:
7298:
7296:
7295:
7290:
7284:
7282:
7276:
7275:
7273:
7272:
7267:
7262:
7257:
7251:
7249:
7243:
7242:
7240:
7239:
7234:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7214:
7209:
7204:
7199:
7194:
7188:
7186:
7176:
7175:
7173:
7172:
7159:
7158:
7157:
7156:
7155:
7154:Siphonocladous
7152:
7144:
7137:Multinucleated
7134:
7131:
7125:
7123:Parenchymatous
7120:
7114:
7113:
7112:
7107:
7104:
7101:
7090:
7089:
7088:
7083:
7078:
7073:
7062:
7060:
7047:
7043:
7042:
7039:
7038:
7036:
7035:
7029:
7027:
7015:
7009:
7008:
7005:
7004:
7002:
7001:
6996:
6990:
6988:
6976:
6970:
6969:
6966:
6965:
6963:
6962:
6956:
6954:
6945:
6944:
6942:
6941:
6936:
6930:
6928:
6924:Kinetoplastids
6916:
6910:
6909:
6906:
6905:
6903:
6902:
6896:
6894:
6883:
6877:
6876:
6873:
6872:
6870:
6869:
6864:
6859:
6853:
6851:
6842:
6841:
6839:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6817:
6815:
6806:
6805:
6803:
6802:
6797:
6792:
6786:
6784:
6775:
6774:
6772:
6771:
6766:
6760:
6758:
6749:
6743:
6742:
6739:
6738:
6736:
6735:
6730:
6724:
6722:
6713:
6712:
6710:
6709:
6703:
6701:
6692:
6691:
6689:
6688:
6682:
6680:
6671:
6665:
6664:
6661:
6660:
6658:
6657:
6652:
6646:
6644:
6635:
6634:
6632:
6631:
6626:
6620:
6618:
6606:
6600:
6599:
6596:
6595:
6593:
6592:
6590:Phycobilisomes
6587:
6585:Pit connection
6581:
6579:
6570:
6569:
6567:
6566:
6564:Phycobilisomes
6561:
6555:
6553:
6544:
6543:
6541:
6540:
6535:
6530:
6519:
6517:
6514:Chloroplastida
6506:
6504:Archaeplastida
6497:
6493:
6492:
6490:
6489:
6484:
6479:
6474:
6469:
6464:
6459:
6458:
6457:
6452:
6443:
6442:
6441:
6436:
6426:
6415:
6413:
6407:
6406:
6391:
6390:
6383:
6376:
6368:
6359:
6358:
6356:
6355:
6343:
6331:
6318:
6315:
6314:
6312:
6311:
6306:
6301:
6296:
6290:
6288:
6284:
6283:
6281:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6259:
6257:
6253:
6252:
6249:
6248:
6246:
6245:
6240:
6235:
6230:
6225:
6219:
6217:
6213:
6212:
6210:
6209:
6204:
6199:
6194:
6189:
6177:
6176:
6163:
6154:
6142:
6140:
6130:
6126:
6125:
6123:
6122:
6120:Mycotoxicology
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6097:
6092:
6086:
6084:
6080:
6079:
6070:
6067:
6066:
6055:
6054:
6047:
6040:
6032:
6023:
6022:
6020:
6019:
6009:
5998:
5995:
5994:
5992:
5991:
5990:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5964:
5959:
5950:
5945:
5939:
5937:
5926:
5925:
5922:
5921:
5919:
5918:
5912:
5910:
5906:
5905:
5903:
5902:
5897:
5892:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5866:
5864:
5858:
5857:
5855:
5854:
5849:
5838:
5833:
5832:
5831:
5826:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5789:
5788:
5787:
5782:
5777:
5763:
5757:
5755:
5744:
5738:
5737:
5735:
5734:
5729:
5724:
5719:
5714:
5713:
5712:
5707:
5705:cell structure
5696:
5694:
5690:
5689:
5686:
5685:
5683:
5682:
5681:
5680:
5678:Saccharophilic
5675:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5646:
5645:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5595:
5589:
5587:
5583:
5582:
5580:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5567:Microaerophile
5564:
5563:
5562:
5557:
5547:
5546:
5545:
5540:
5529:
5527:
5518:
5507:
5506:
5504:
5503:
5498:
5493:
5488:
5483:
5477:
5475:
5467:
5466:
5455:
5454:
5447:
5440:
5432:
5423:
5422:
5420:
5419:
5408:
5405:
5404:
5402:
5401:
5396:
5391:
5386:
5385:
5384:
5374:
5368:
5366:
5364:
5363:
5362:Related topics
5360:
5356:
5353:
5352:
5350:
5349:
5344:
5339:
5334:
5329:
5323:
5321:
5317:
5316:
5314:
5313:
5311:Taxonomic rank
5308:
5303:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5286:
5285:
5284:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5263:
5253:
5252:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5231:
5229:Botanical name
5221:
5215:
5213:
5211:Plant taxonomy
5207:
5206:
5204:
5203:
5202:
5201:
5196:
5195:
5194:
5187:Megasporangium
5184:
5183:
5182:
5175:Microsporangia
5167:
5166:
5165:
5160:
5155:
5150:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5129:
5128:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5102:
5100:
5098:
5097:
5092:
5086:
5080:
5079:
5077:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5060:
5059:
5058:
5057:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5036:
5035:
5030:
5020:
5015:
5013:Cushion plants
5004:
5002:
4996:
4995:
4993:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4966:
4965:
4960:
4950:
4948:Plant hormones
4945:
4940:
4939:
4938:
4931:Photosynthesis
4928:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4908:
4902:
4900:
4892:
4891:
4888:
4887:
4885:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4848:
4846:
4842:
4841:
4839:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4817:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4796:
4795:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4769:
4764:
4763:
4762:
4761:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4749:
4748:
4743:
4723:
4718:
4713:
4712:
4711:
4710:
4709:
4704:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4664:
4663:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4650:Floral formula
4647:
4645:Floral diagram
4642:
4637:
4627:
4626:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4614:
4613:
4608:
4598:
4588:
4583:
4577:
4575:
4574:(incl. Flower)
4567:
4566:
4564:
4563:
4562:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4550:
4549:
4544:
4534:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4503:
4501:
4497:
4496:
4494:
4493:
4488:
4487:
4486:
4476:
4474:Storage organs
4471:
4466:
4465:
4464:
4454:
4448:
4446:
4440:
4439:
4437:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4410:
4408:
4399:
4397:
4396:
4382:
4376:
4375:
4373:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4360:Spermatophytes
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4330:Archaeplastida
4327:
4321:
4319:
4312:
4311:
4309:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4284:Phytogeography
4281:
4279:Phytochemistry
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4240:
4238:
4236:Subdisciplines
4232:
4231:
4229:
4228:
4223:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4206:
4205:
4198:
4191:
4183:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4170:
4165:
4159:
4157:
4153:
4152:
4150:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4138:
4137:
4132:
4122:
4121:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4100:
4094:
4092:
4091:Other internal
4088:
4087:
4085:
4084:
4079:
4078:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4027:
4021:
4019:
4013:
4012:
4010:
4009:
4008:
4007:
4002:
3992:
3991:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3965:
3960:
3959:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3912:
3910:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3900:
3899:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3868:
3867:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3800:
3798:
3790:
3789:
3777:
3776:
3769:
3762:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3742:
3735:
3734:External links
3732:
3729:
3728:
3721:
3703:
3654:
3639:
3636:on 2013-02-12.
3616:
3609:
3583:
3576:
3548:
3541:
3520:
3478:
3441:Genome Biology
3427:
3405:
3356:
3304:
3283:(3): 25R–36R.
3263:
3256:
3235:
3228:
3207:
3191:Biology Online
3177:
3140:(1): 195–212.
3117:
3086:
3067:(2): 179–207.
3051:
3021:
3014:
2988:
2947:
2940:
2914:
2865:
2858:
2836:
2807:(3): 1137–46.
2787:
2766:(2): 388–402.
2746:
2719:
2712:
2690:
2683:
2657:
2616:
2567:
2533:
2480:
2477:on 2013-06-08.
2457:
2450:
2430:
2423:
2398:
2354:
2347:
2327:
2292:
2277:
2256:
2245:(22): 157–90.
2225:
2208:
2187:(2): 167–192.
2164:
2147:
2134:
2112:
2059:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2034:
2031:
1918:foraminiferans
1873:
1870:
1858:, known as an
1759:Methanosarcina
1713:Methanothermus
1681:, though some
1666:
1663:
1611:Actinomycetota
1592:teichoic acids
1534:polysaccharide
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1438:
1435:
1431:hydroxyproline
1373:
1370:
1325:
1324:
1298:
1288:
1282:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1156:
1137:
1047:
1044:
1023:secondary wall
978:middle lamella
973:
970:
923:hydroxyproline
899:
898:
892:
886:
850:, mediated by
819:
816:
815:
814:
806:middle lamella
801:
784:
756:
753:
740:
737:
721:tandem repeats
682:Archaeplastida
661:photosynthetic
652:
651:
631:
629:
618:
615:
598:
595:
527:water currents
510:
507:
476:
475:
434:
432:
425:
419:
416:
388:Julius Wiesner
352:
349:
273:hemicelluloses
200:
199:
197:
196:
190:
183:
181:Golgi vesicles
177:
171:
165:
164:
163:
157:
151:
139:
133:
130:
124:
118:
112:
111:
110:
104:
95:
94:
93:
90:
78:
72:
66:
58:
50:
49:
41:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7585:
7574:
7571:
7569:
7566:
7565:
7563:
7548:
7545:
7543:
7540:
7534:
7531:
7529:
7526:
7525:
7524:
7521:
7519:
7516:
7514:
7511:
7509:
7506:
7505:
7504:
7501:
7497:
7494:
7493:
7492:
7488:
7484:
7483:Fertilization
7481:
7479:
7476:
7475:
7474:
7470:
7467:
7463:
7460:
7458:
7455:
7454:
7453:
7450:
7449:
7447:
7441:
7427:
7424:
7422:
7419:
7417:
7414:
7412:
7409:
7407:
7404:
7402:
7399:
7397:
7394:
7392:
7389:
7387:
7384:
7383:
7381:
7375:
7366:
7363:
7360:
7359:
7358:
7355:
7351:Pleuromitosis
7350:
7347:
7344:
7341:
7340:
7339:
7336:
7334:
7331:
7329:
7326:
7322:
7319:
7318:
7317:
7314:
7312:
7309:
7308:
7306:
7300:
7294:
7291:
7289:
7288:Hydrogenosome
7286:
7285:
7283:
7277:
7271:
7268:
7266:
7263:
7261:
7258:
7256:
7253:
7252:
7250:
7244:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7195:
7193:
7190:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7177:
7170:
7166:
7163:
7162:Multicellular
7160:
7153:
7150:
7149:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7139:
7138:
7135:
7132:
7129:
7126:
7124:
7121:
7119:
7115:
7111:
7108:
7105:
7102:
7099:
7098:
7097:
7094:
7091:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7077:
7074:
7072:
7069:
7068:
7067:
7064:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7051:
7048:
7044:
7034:
7031:
7030:
7028:
7024:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7010:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6991:
6989:
6985:
6984:Dictyostelids
6980:
6977:
6975:
6971:
6961:
6958:
6957:
6955:
6951:
6946:
6940:
6937:
6935:
6932:
6931:
6929:
6925:
6920:
6917:
6915:
6911:
6901:
6898:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6878:
6868:
6865:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6854:
6852:
6848:
6847:Apicomplexans
6843:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6818:
6816:
6812:
6807:
6801:
6798:
6796:
6793:
6791:
6788:
6787:
6785:
6781:
6776:
6770:
6767:
6765:
6762:
6761:
6759:
6753:
6750:
6748:
6744:
6734:
6731:
6729:
6726:
6725:
6723:
6719:
6714:
6708:
6705:
6704:
6702:
6698:
6693:
6687:
6684:
6683:
6681:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6669:Stramenopiles
6666:
6656:
6653:
6651:
6648:
6647:
6645:
6641:
6636:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6622:
6621:
6619:
6615:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6601:
6591:
6588:
6586:
6583:
6582:
6580:
6576:
6571:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6556:
6554:
6550:
6545:
6539:
6536:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6520:
6518:
6515:
6510:
6507:
6505:
6501:
6498:
6494:
6488:
6485:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6473:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6456:
6453:
6451:
6447:
6444:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6431:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6421:
6420:
6417:
6416:
6414:
6408:
6404:
6400:
6396:
6389:
6384:
6382:
6377:
6375:
6370:
6369:
6366:
6354:
6353:
6344:
6342:
6341:
6332:
6330:
6329:
6320:
6319:
6316:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6291:
6289:
6285:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6260:
6258:
6254:
6244:
6241:
6239:
6236:
6234:
6231:
6229:
6226:
6224:
6221:
6220:
6218:
6214:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6197:Chlamydospore
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6179:
6178:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6144:
6143:
6141:
6139:
6136:Reproduction/
6134:
6131:
6127:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6090:Ethnomycology
6088:
6087:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6073:
6068:
6064:
6060:
6053:
6048:
6046:
6041:
6039:
6034:
6033:
6030:
6018:
6010:
6008:
6000:
5999:
5996:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5969:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5957:Schizomycetes
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5940:
5938:
5936:
5931:
5927:
5917:
5914:
5913:
5911:
5907:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5867:
5865:
5859:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5821:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5798:Teichoic acid
5796:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5783:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5772:
5771:
5770:Peptidoglycan
5767:
5764:
5762:
5761:Cell membrane
5759:
5758:
5756:
5754:
5748:
5745:
5743:
5739:
5733:
5730:
5728:
5725:
5723:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5702:
5701:
5698:
5697:
5695:
5691:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5670:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5628:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5600:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5590:
5588:
5584:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5552:
5551:
5548:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5536:
5535:
5534:
5531:
5530:
5528:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5512:
5508:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5478:
5476:
5474:
5468:
5464:
5460:
5453:
5448:
5446:
5441:
5439:
5434:
5433:
5430:
5418:
5410:
5409:
5406:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5390:
5387:
5383:
5380:
5379:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5361:
5358:
5357:
5354:
5348:
5347:Phytochemical
5345:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5324:
5322:
5318:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5268:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5258:
5257:
5254:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5226:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5216:
5214:
5212:
5208:
5200:
5197:
5193:
5190:
5189:
5188:
5185:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5176:
5173:
5172:
5171:
5168:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5145:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5127:
5124:
5123:
5122:
5119:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5103:
5101:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5087:
5085:
5081:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5056:
5053:
5052:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5025:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5010:
5009:
5006:
5005:
5003:
4997:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4985:Transpiration
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4955:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4937:
4934:
4933:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4903:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4849:
4847:
4843:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4801:
4800:
4797:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4773:
4772:Inflorescence
4770:
4768:
4765:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4738:
4737:
4734:
4733:
4732:
4729:
4728:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4699:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4669:
4668:
4665:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4632:
4631:
4628:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4603:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4593:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4578:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4539:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4529:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4504:
4502:
4498:
4492:
4489:
4485:
4482:
4481:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4463:
4460:
4459:
4458:
4457:Ground tissue
4455:
4453:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4445:
4441:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4411:
4409:
4407:
4403:
4400:
4393:
4387:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4380:Plant anatomy
4377:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4313:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4301:Plant ecology
4299:
4297:
4296:Plant anatomy
4294:
4290:
4287:
4286:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4244:Archaeobotany
4242:
4241:
4239:
4237:
4233:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4215:
4211:
4204:
4199:
4197:
4192:
4190:
4185:
4184:
4181:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4158:
4154:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4127:
4126:
4123:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4095:
4093:
4089:
4083:
4080:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4065:Proteinoplast
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4025:Mitochondrion
4023:
4022:
4020:
4018:
4017:Endosymbionts
4014:
4006:
4003:
4001:
4000:Lamellipodium
3998:
3997:
3996:
3993:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3970:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3938:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3916:Microfilament
3914:
3913:
3911:
3909:
3905:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3872:
3869:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3836:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3829:Autophagosome
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3804:Cell membrane
3802:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3794:Endomembrane
3791:
3787:
3783:
3775:
3770:
3768:
3763:
3761:
3756:
3755:
3752:
3746:
3745:The Cell Wall
3743:
3741:
3738:
3737:
3724:
3718:
3714:
3707:
3699:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3658:
3650:
3643:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3620:
3612:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3587:
3579:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3544:
3538:
3534:
3527:
3525:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3501:(5): 439–44.
3500:
3496:
3489:
3482:
3474:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3423:
3419:
3418:Fortschr. Med
3415:
3409:
3401:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3352:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3327:(4): 673–87.
3326:
3322:
3318:
3311:
3309:
3300:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3267:
3259:
3253:
3249:
3242:
3240:
3231:
3225:
3221:
3214:
3212:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3181:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3128:
3121:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3090:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3055:
3040:
3036:
3035:Botany Online
3032:
3025:
3017:
3011:
3007:
3002:
3001:
2992:
2984:
2978:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2951:
2943:
2937:
2933:
2928:
2927:
2918:
2910:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2885:(4): 1485–6.
2884:
2880:
2876:
2869:
2861:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2840:
2832:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2723:
2715:
2709:
2704:
2703:
2694:
2686:
2680:
2676:
2671:
2670:
2661:
2653:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2636:(3): 225–43.
2635:
2631:
2627:
2620:
2612:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2587:(8): 479–88.
2586:
2582:
2578:
2571:
2563:
2558:
2557:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2484:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2461:
2453:
2447:
2443:
2442:
2434:
2426:
2420:
2416:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2394:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2377:(2): 449–61.
2376:
2372:
2368:
2361:
2359:
2350:
2344:
2340:
2339:
2331:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2308:(5): 688–94.
2307:
2303:
2296:
2288:
2281:
2273:
2269:
2268:
2260:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2222:. Danckwerts.
2221:
2220:
2212:
2204:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2171:
2169:
2160:
2159:
2151:
2137:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2116:
2108:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2065:
2060:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2030:
2028:
2025:are the most
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1852:
1847:
1846:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1833:Halobacterium
1830:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1807:Halobacterium
1804:
1800:
1799:
1798:Halobacterium
1794:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1766:
1761:
1760:
1754:
1752:
1751:L-amino acids
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1708:
1703:
1699:
1696:(also called
1695:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1679:peptidoglycan
1676:
1675:peptidoglycan
1672:
1662:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1638:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1626:cephalosporin
1623:
1619:
1614:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1593:
1588:
1586:
1582:
1581:gram-negative
1578:
1577:gram-positive
1573:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1540:containing D-
1539:
1535:
1531:
1530:peptidoglycan
1525:
1521:
1520:Cell envelope
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1500:peptidoglycan
1497:
1493:
1488:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1443:dictyostelids
1434:
1432:
1429:
1425:
1424:
1419:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1402:
1399:, related to
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1383:
1379:
1369:
1367:
1366:phlorotannins
1363:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1345:
1342:known as the
1341:
1338:The group of
1336:
1334:
1330:
1329:sporopollenin
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1274:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1257:
1252:
1251:
1246:
1242:
1239:
1235:
1232:
1231:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1215:glycoproteins
1212:
1208:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1110:Basidiomycota
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1058:polymer chain
1057:
1052:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1017:
1016:plasmodesmata
1013:
1009:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
991:
987:
983:
979:
969:
967:
961:
959:
954:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
903:
896:
893:
890:
887:
884:
883:
882:
880:
877:that make up
876:
871:
869:
868:plant cuticle
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
832:hemicellulose
829:
825:
824:carbohydrates
812:
808:
807:
802:
799:
795:
791:
790:
785:
782:
778:
777:
776:
769:
761:
752:
750:
746:
736:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
705:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
686:endosymbiosis
683:
679:
678:
677:Cyanobacteria
673:
669:
665:
662:
657:
648:
639:
635:
632:This section
630:
627:
623:
622:
614:
612:
608:
604:
594:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
549:In plants, a
547:
545:
541:
535:
530:
528:
525:that bend in
524:
520:
516:
506:
504:
500:
499:osmotic lysis
496:
492:
491:morphogenesis
482:
472:
469:
461:
458:November 2017
451:
447:
441:
440:
435:This section
433:
429:
424:
423:
415:
413:
408:
406:
402:
401:
396:
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
376:Hugo von Mohl
372:
370:
366:
365:Karl Rudolphi
361:
358:
348:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
317:peptidoglycan
314:
310:
306:
302:
301:glycoproteins
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
245:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
214:cell membrane
211:
207:
195:
191:
188:
184:
182:
178:
176:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
156:
152:
150:
146:
145:
144:
140:
138:
134:
131:
129:
125:
123:
119:
117:
116:Mitochondrion
113:
109:
105:
103:
99:
98:
96:
91:
89:
85:
84:
83:
79:
77:
73:
71:
67:
65:
64:Plasmodesmata
61:
60:
56:
51:
48:
42:
39:
33:
30:
19:
7503:Heterotrophy
7473:Reproduction
7348:Orthomitosis
7333:Heterokaryon
7280:Mitochondria
7211:
7181:Cell surface
7057:organization
7013:Opisthokonta
6836:Micronucleus
6831:Macronucleus
6733:Pneumatocyst
6549:Glaucophytes
6533:Phragmoplast
6472:Thallophytes
6399:Protistology
6395:Microbiology
6350:
6338:
6326:
6237:
6180:
6166:Basidiospore
6145:
6100:Marine fungi
6059:Microbiology
5987:Mendosicutes
5972:Gracilicutes
5952:
5852:Mycolic acid
5842:Mycobacteria
5840:
5812:
5791:
5765:
5727:Coccobacilli
5627:in pregnancy
5593:Extremophile
5577:Aerotolerant
5511:Biochemistry
5473:microbiology
5459:Microbiology
5342:Horticulture
5332:Floriculture
5234:Correct name
5084:Reproduction
5074:Woody plants
4999:Plant growth
4958:Gas Exchange
4943:Phytomelanin
4821:Plant embryo
4571:Reproductive
4419:Phragmoplast
4413:
4162:
4045:Gerontoplast
3995:Pseudopodium
3988:Radial spoke
3968:Undulipodium
3908:Cytoskeleton
3824:Parenthesome
3712:
3706:
3671:
3667:
3657:
3648:
3642:
3634:the original
3629:
3619:
3592:
3586:
3567:
3532:
3498:
3494:
3481:
3444:
3440:
3430:
3421:
3417:
3408:
3373:
3369:
3359:
3324:
3320:
3280:
3277:Glycobiology
3276:
3266:
3247:
3219:
3199:. Retrieved
3195:the original
3190:
3180:
3137:
3133:
3120:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3089:
3064:
3060:
3054:
3043:. Retrieved
3039:the original
3034:
3024:
2999:
2991:
2977:cite journal
2963:(2): 75–79.
2960:
2956:
2950:
2925:
2917:
2882:
2878:
2868:
2849:
2839:
2804:
2800:
2790:
2763:
2759:
2749:
2732:
2728:
2722:
2701:
2693:
2668:
2660:
2633:
2629:
2619:
2584:
2580:
2570:
2555:
2493:
2489:
2483:
2475:the original
2470:
2460:
2440:
2433:
2414:
2374:
2370:
2337:
2330:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2286:
2280:
2266:
2259:
2242:
2238:
2228:
2218:
2211:
2184:
2180:
2157:
2150:
2139:. Retrieved
2125:
2115:
2080:
2076:
2008:
1998:plates, and
1972:golden algae
1962:skeleton of
1956:Corallinales
1948:Dasycladales
1941:
1914:radiolarians
1875:
1859:
1849:
1843:
1841:
1832:
1806:
1796:
1789:glycoprotein
1787:consists of
1782:
1777:
1763:
1757:
1755:
1746:
1742:
1717:
1711:
1705:
1698:pseudomurein
1691:
1668:
1657:
1635:
1629:
1615:
1603:lipoproteins
1596:
1589:
1574:
1527:
1440:
1421:
1415:
1382:saprotrophic
1375:
1359:
1355:silicic acid
1337:
1333:calcium ions
1326:
1291:Alginic acid
1276:
1270:
1262:Acetabularia
1260:
1254:
1248:
1204:
1165:and contain
1163:glycosylated
1084:
1061:
1022:
1020:
993:microfibrils
975:
962:
955:
929:may contain
919:glycosylated
908:
872:
840:microfibrils
821:
804:
787:
780:
774:
742:
707:Fungi use a
706:
675:
658:
655:
645:October 2013
642:
638:adding to it
633:
600:
597:Permeability
550:
548:
537:
532:
512:
487:
464:
455:
444:Please help
439:verification
436:
409:
398:
392:
373:
362:
357:Robert Hooke
354:
246:
205:
203:
194:Cytoskeleton
189:(Golgi body)
149:Nuclear pore
75:
37:Cell biology
29:
7533:Necrotrophy
7518:Saprotrophy
7508:Phagotrophy
7496:Phototrophy
7489:Nutrition:
7478:Life cycles
7469:Development
7443:Ecology and
7311:Nucleomorph
7265:Pseudopodia
7066:Unicellular
6950:Euglenoidea
6934:Kinetoplast
6718:Brown algae
6686:Mastigoneme
6624:Mastigoneme
6614:Cryptophyta
6524:green algae
6482:Slime molds
6352:WikiProject
6207:Pycniospore
6095:Lichenology
5875:Slime layer
5555:Facultative
5543:Facultative
5158:Pollen tube
5153:Pollinators
5143:Pollination
5138:Germination
4953:Respiration
4936:Chlorophyll
4782:Pedicellate
4716:Gametophyte
4635:Aestivation
4586:Antheridium
4581:Archegonium
4429:Plasmodesma
4406:Plant cells
4269:Paleobotany
4264:Ethnobotany
4249:Astrobotany
4147:Magnetosome
4113:Spliceosome
4040:Chromoplast
4035:Chloroplast
3926:Microtubule
2735:(1): 1–11.
2019:composition
1950:, and some
1938:green algae
1818:amino acids
1803:methanogens
1801:, and some
1702:methanogens
1683:methanogens
1650:teicoplanin
1542:amino acids
1447:slime molds
1437:Slime molds
1423:Saprolegnia
1404:brown algae
1401:autotrophic
1397:heterokonts
1372:Water molds
1362:brown algae
1317:furcelleran
1309:carrageenan
1295:brown algae
1241:green algae
1195:micrographs
1068:Myxogastria
1026:the gritty
1012:pectic acid
986:cytokinesis
848:acid growth
818:Composition
723:subject to
698:brown algae
674:evolved in
603:plant cells
395:Ernst Münch
380:Carl Nägeli
369:J.H.F. Link
309:carrageenan
261:land plants
238:prokaryotes
97:2. Vacuole
82:Chloroplast
7573:Organelles
7562:Categories
7547:Auxotrophy
7542:Mixotrophy
7523:Parasitism
7513:Osmotrophy
7491:Autotrophy
7445:physiology
7321:Plasmodium
7247:Locomotion
7183:structures
7147:Coenocytic
6891:Phytomyxea
6862:Apicoplast
6790:Dinokaryon
6769:Trichocyst
6640:Haptophyte
6528:Phycoplast
6496:Morphology
6467:Cryptogams
6228:Haustorium
6187:Sporangium
6174:Teliospore
5982:Mollicutes
5977:Firmicutes
5967:Prokaryota
5885:Glycocalyx
5710:plasticity
5673:Lipophilic
5526:preference
5501:Resistance
5180:Microspore
5170:Sporangium
5148:Artificial
4836:Sporophyte
4831:Sporophyll
4826:Receptacle
4721:Gynandrium
4591:Androecium
4500:Vegetative
4370:Angiosperm
4365:Gymnosperm
4259:Dendrology
4142:Proteasome
4135:Inclusions
4082:Nitroplast
4075:Apicoplast
4060:Elaioplast
4055:Amyloplast
4050:Leucoplast
4005:Filopodium
3951:Basal body
3941:Centrosome
3891:Peroxisome
3886:Glyoxysome
3876:Melanosome
3786:organelles
3424:: 185–189.
3201:2007-10-29
3045:2007-10-29
2511:10379/6762
2496:: 567–90.
2141:2016-03-14
2055:References
2049:Plant cell
2004:coccoliths
1940:, such as
1829:neutralize
1778:Halococcus
1765:Halococcus
1725:chains of
1704:, such as
1654:telavancin
1646:vancomycin
1622:penicillin
1585:Gram stain
1566:penicillin
1455:sporangium
1428:amino acid
1389:structural
1376:The group
1347:synthesize
1301:Sulfonated
1256:Dasycladus
1219:Volvocales
1142:: glucose
1122:Zygomycota
1106:Ascomycota
1074:and other
1010:(salts of
982:cell plate
966:nasturtium
951:cross-link
941:roots and
939:endodermis
921:, contain
844:xyloglucan
664:eukaryotes
591:leaf stalk
575:waterproof
503:cell cycle
418:Properties
307:, such as
257:cell cycle
244:bacteria.
222:eukaryotes
210:cell types
122:Peroxisome
18:Cell walls
7528:Biotrophy
7401:Extrusome
7391:Cytostome
7255:Flagellum
7212:Cell wall
7171:/histonal
7151:Siphonous
7142:Syncytial
7110:Coenobial
7106:Sarcinoid
7055:Levels of
6994:Macrocyst
6974:Amoebozoa
6939:Glycosome
6867:Microneme
6747:Alveolata
6655:Haptonema
6650:Coccolith
6629:Periplast
6575:Red algae
6559:Cyanelles
6446:Infusoria
6243:Sporocarp
6238:Cell wall
6157:Ascospore
6152:Zygospore
6129:Structure
5935:evolution
5909:Composite
5808:Endospore
5766:Cell wall
5742:Structure
5633:Placental
5572:Nanaerobe
5550:Anaerobic
5481:Infection
5377:Botanists
5295:Herbarium
5192:Megaspore
5090:Evolution
5033:Subshrubs
5001:and habit
4926:Nutrition
4921:Cellulose
4916:Bulk flow
4899:Materials
4862:Epidermis
4726:Gynoecium
4707:Endosperm
4702:Dispersal
4618:Staminode
4554:Sessility
4542:Cataphyll
4462:Mesophyll
4414:Cell wall
4355:Lycophyte
4335:Bryophyte
4289:Geobotany
4274:Phycology
4163:Cell wall
4125:Cytoplasm
4098:Nucleolus
4070:Tannosome
3978:Flagellum
3963:Myofibril
3946:Centriole
3881:Microbody
3854:Phagosome
3142:CiteSeerX
3061:Biol. Rev
2161:. London.
2023:collagens
2015:metazoans
1996:cellulose
1968:inorganic
1952:red algae
1932:, called
1607:Bacillota
1554:cellulose
1467:cellulase
1463:cellulose
1393:molecular
1378:Oomycetes
1351:frustules
1313:porphyran
1267:red algae
1120:) in the
1080:cellulose
1030:cells in
1001:magnesium
990:cellulose
972:Formation
927:epidermis
852:expansins
828:cellulose
702:oomycetes
617:Evolution
585:cells of
540:inflation
393:In 1930,
363:In 1804,
269:cellulose
242:mollicute
206:cell wall
161:Nucleolus
128:Cytoplasm
108:Tonoplast
76:Cell wall
7421:Axostyle
7416:Pyrenoid
7396:Fimbriae
7328:Dikaryon
7293:Mitosome
7222:Skeleton
7207:Frustule
7197:Mucilage
7169:tissular
7093:Colonial
7076:Amoeboid
7071:Monadoid
6999:Sorocarp
6914:Excavate
6881:Rhizaria
6811:Ciliates
6795:Dinocyst
6756:General:
6707:Frustule
6678:General:
6604:Hacrobia
6455:Sporozoa
6450:Ciliates
6439:Heliozoa
6419:Protozoa
6403:Protists
6328:Category
6278:Mushroom
6233:Mycelium
6192:Conidium
6170:Basidium
6110:Mycology
6007:Category
5930:Taxonomy
5863:envelope
5753:envelope
5643:Salivary
5560:Obligate
5538:Obligate
5486:Exotoxin
5463:Bacteria
5417:Category
5337:Forestry
5327:Agronomy
5320:Practice
5271:Cultivar
5266:Cultigen
5126:timeline
5018:Rosettes
4906:Aleurone
4882:Trichome
4799:Perianth
4611:Filament
4469:Meristem
4392:glossary
4254:Bryology
4156:External
4108:Ribosome
3864:Acrosome
3849:Endosome
3844:Lysosome
3698:21123617
3564:Brock TD
3515:15451497
3473:11864374
3414:Gram, HC
3400:17586646
3351:14557293
3299:11320055
3164:15839490
3081:86067386
2909:24296786
2831:10069853
2782:24033322
2652:19891730
2611:20641026
2528:11961888
2520:21351878
2393:26689854
2203:33874640
2107:26370936
2033:See also
2027:abundant
1976:ciliates
1960:secreted
1946:and the
1943:Halimeda
1930:minerals
1906:frustule
1904:build a
1894:mucilage
1882:bacteria
1878:protists
1856:proteins
1837:salinity
1811:proteins
1774:sulfated
1570:lysozyme
1538:peptides
1272:Porphyra
1227:taxonomy
1159:proteins
1152:chitosan
1144:polymers
1130:chitosan
1118:chitosan
1098:polymers
1064:Oomycete
1028:sclereid
1008:pectates
911:proteins
875:polymers
607:proteins
523:seaweeds
405:symplast
400:apoplast
390:(1886).
325:S-layers
321:archaeal
319:, while
283:such as
281:polymers
169:Ribosome
7364:Zygotic
7361:Gametic
7303:Nucleus
7081:Coccoid
7046:General
6857:Rhoptry
6764:Alveoli
6697:Diatoms
6434:Testate
6340:Commons
6115:Mycosis
6017:Commons
5916:Biofilm
5895:Fimbria
5880:S-layer
5861:Outside
5722:Bacilli
5638:Uterine
5623:Vaginal
5533:Aerobic
5516:ecology
5471:Medical
5095:Ecology
4852:Cuticle
4682:Capsule
4672:Anatomy
4623:Tapetum
4547:Petiole
4522:Rhizome
4517:Rhizoid
4444:Tissues
4434:Vacuole
4424:Plastid
4226:Outline
4221:History
4130:Cytosol
4030:Plastid
3983:Axoneme
3859:Vacuole
3839:Exosome
3834:Vesicle
3809:Nucleus
3689:2995612
3391:2045188
3172:1540749
3096:In situ
2926:Biology
2900:3850196
2669:Biology
2602:3074402
2322:7833049
2098:4632600
1990:have a
1986:. Some
1902:Diatoms
1861:S-layer
1785:Archaea
1731:peptide
1723:polymer
1671:Archaea
1512:capsule
1471:pronase
1451:amoebae
1412:glucans
1408:diatoms
1344:diatoms
1321:funoran
1305:agarose
1269:, like
1234:Mannans
1199:diatoms
1171:mannans
1167:mannose
1155:matrix.
1140:glucans
1124:. Both
1104:in the
1005:calcium
984:during
947:suberin
937:in the
811:pectins
717:mannose
563:suberin
495:osmotic
351:History
341:diatoms
289:suberin
253:species
143:Nucleus
102:Vacuole
7367:Sporic
7345:Closed
7260:Cilium
7217:Lorica
7118:hyphal
6826:Cirrus
6821:Cilium
6728:Lamina
6410:Former
6202:Oidium
6083:Branch
6063:Fungus
5962:Monera
5732:Spiral
5524:Oxygen
5399:Plants
5302:(IAPT)
5055:Lianas
5023:Shrubs
4975:Starch
4867:Nectar
4787:Raceme
4753:Stigma
4741:Locule
4731:Carpel
4692:Pyrena
4630:Flower
4606:Anther
4601:Stamen
4596:Pollen
4318:groups
4210:Botany
3973:Cilium
3796:system
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1954:, the
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1805:. In
1727:glycan
1718:pseudo
1644:(e.g.
1640:. The
1620:(e.g.
1558:chitin
1546:plants
1459:spores
1417:Achlya
1285:Xylans
1278:Bangia
1259:, and
1250:Codium
1245:genera
1238:marine
1211:glucan
1148:chitin
1126:chitin
1094:chitin
1072:chitin
1056:chitin
1036:quince
958:silica
933:. The
895:lignin
856:pectin
836:pectin
798:lignin
755:Layers
729:chitin
684:since
555:lignin
333:chitin
285:lignin
277:pectin
275:, and
234:plants
7378:Other
7232:Theca
7202:Scale
6800:Theca
6462:Algae
6273:Yeast
6223:Hypha
6216:Other
6161:Ascus
6138:spore
5890:Pilus
5844:only:
5824:Porin
5816:only:
5795:only:
5717:Cocci
5693:Shape
5613:Mouth
5586:Other
5359:Lists
5276:Group
5199:Spore
5133:Flora
5050:Vines
5045:Trees
5008:Habit
4980:Sugar
4872:Stoma
4814:Sepal
4809:Petal
4804:Tepal
4792:Umbel
4777:Bract
4758:Style
4746:Ovule
4736:Ovary
4677:Berry
4667:Fruit
4660:Whorl
4527:Shoot
4325:Algae
4316:Plant
4118:Vault
3491:(PDF)
3168:S2CID
3130:(PDF)
3077:S2CID
2822:32096
2581:Yeast
2524:S2CID
2002:have
1992:theca
1908:from
1890:algae
1876:Many
1827:that
1550:fungi
1340:algae
1183:Algae
931:cutin
889:xylan
860:cutin
794:xylem
587:trees
571:rigid
559:xylem
297:Algae
293:cutin
267:like
259:. In
230:algae
226:fungi
7386:Cyst
7342:Open
7227:Test
7165:s.s.
7096:s.s.
6287:List
6268:Mold
5933:and
5751:Cell
5618:Skin
5608:Lung
5514:and
5281:Grex
5163:Self
4697:Seed
4559:Stem
4537:Leaf
4512:Root
4507:Bulb
4491:Wood
4452:Cork
4350:Fern
3782:cell
3717:ISBN
3694:PMID
3605:ISBN
3572:ISBN
3537:ISBN
3511:PMID
3469:PMID
3396:PMID
3347:PMID
3295:PMID
3252:ISBN
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2854:ISBN
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2607:PMID
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2318:PMID
2199:PMID
2130:ISBN
2103:PMID
1978:and
1934:test
1924:and
1880:and
1848:and
1825:ions
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1040:pits
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879:wood
862:and
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700:and
659:The
583:bark
581:and
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573:and
567:cork
367:and
313:agar
311:and
303:and
232:and
6526:":
5785:DAP
5780:NAG
5775:NAM
5603:Gut
4970:Sap
4687:Nut
4532:Bud
4103:RNA
3684:PMC
3676:doi
3672:123
3597:doi
3503:doi
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3378:doi
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1994:of
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