135:. These are sophisticated methods of reducing the variation displayed by organisms to a manageable degree. In practice this means measuring dozens of variables, and then presenting them as two- or three-dimensional graphs. Much of the technical challenge of phenetics concerns balancing the loss of information due to such a reduction against the ease of interpreting the resulting graphs.
216:, which has more modern traits. But only the latter are a group of closest relatives; the former are numerous independent and ancient lineages which are related about as distantly to each other as each single one of them is to the Passerida. For a phenetic analysis, the large degree of overall similarity found among the Corvida will make them seem to be
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songbirds already. It is the loss of these ancestral traits rather than their presence that signifies which songbirds are more closely related to each other than to other songbirds. However, the requirement that taxa be monophyletic – rather than paraphyletic as for the case of the
Corvida – is
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from another. Classifying diverse groups of closely related organisms that differ very subtly is difficult using a cladistic method. Phenetics provides numerical methods for examining patterns of variation, allowing researchers to identify discrete groups that can be classified as species.
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The two methods are not mutually exclusive. There is no reason why, e.g., species identified using phenetics cannot subsequently be subjected to cladistic analysis, to determine their evolutionary relationships. Phenetic methods can also be superior to cladistics when only the
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Many systematists continue to use phenetic methods, particularly to address species-level questions. While a major goal of taxonomy remains describing the 'tree of life' – the evolutionary relationships of all species – for
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Traditionally there was much debate between pheneticists and cladists, as both methods were proposed initially to resolve evolutionary relationships. One of the most noteworthy applications of phenetics were the
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which is concerned with the use of numerical methods for taxonomic classification. Many people contributed to the development of phenetics, but the most influential were
335:, phenetic techniques of botany – though less informative altogether – may, for these special cases, be less prone to errors compared with cladistic analysis of
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Legendre, Pierre & Louis
Legendre. 1998. Numerical ecology. 2nd English edition. Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam. xv + 853 pages.
146:) because of two shared basic principles – overall similarity and equal weighting – and modern pheneticists are sometimes termed
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289:") have been rejected. However, with computers growing increasingly powerful and widespread, more refined cladistic
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In addition, many of the techniques developed by phenetic taxonomists have been adopted and extended by
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for research into evolutionary relationships among species. However, certain phenetic methods, such as
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itself part of the cladistic method of taxonomy, not necessarily obeyed absolutely by other methods.
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Science as a process: an evolutionary account of the social and conceptual development of science
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109:. Their books are still primary references for this sub-discipline, although now out of print.
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This article is about the classification of organisms. For the study of speech sounds, see
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The history of pheneticism and cladism as rival taxonomic systems is analysed in
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anew in one or several lineages. A common problem with phenetic analysis is that
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Numerical taxonomy – The principles and practice of numerical classification
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of related taxa is important, as the computational requirements are less.
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Schuh, Randall. 2000. Biological
Systematics, p. 6. Cornell U. Press.
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Integrative
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185:. Phenetic analyses are also liable to be rendered inaccurate by
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281:) have been vindicated, while others (e.g. the all-inclusive "
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too, but their shared traits were present in the ancestors of
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became available which could test the suggestions of
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97:or evolutionary relation. It is related closely to
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166:, traits that are inherited from an ancestor, and
468:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
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313:Modern applications of phenetics are common for
93:or other observable traits, regardless of their
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127:Phenetic techniques include various forms of
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413:. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco. xv + 573 p.
204:, which retains ancient characteristics of
409:Sneath, P. H. A. & R. R. Sokal. 1973.
138:The method can be traced back to 1763 and
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112:Phenetics has been largely superseded by
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305:one needs to be able to separate one
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391:Operational taxonomic unit
154:Difference from cladistics
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495:Biological classification
443:. University of Berkeley
325:horizontal gene transfer
271:Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy
462:Hull, David L. (1988).
158:Phenetic analyses are "
255:DNA-DNA hybridization
196:Consider for example
344:community ecologists
242:Science as a Process
187:convergent evolution
144:Familles des plantes
432:Lindberg, David R.
366:Form classification
329:polyploid complexes
179:evolutionary grades
267:Burt L. Monroe Jr.
191:adaptive radiation
122:Bayesian inference
99:numerical taxonomy
371:Linnaean taxonomy
320:Systematic Botany
259:Charles G. Sibley
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295:Willi Hennig
279:Galloanserae
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183:monophyletic
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103:Peter Sneath
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257:studies by
168:apomorphies
87:taximetrics
74:; from
447:10 October
397:References
386:Dendrogram
291:algorithms
285:" or the "
238:David Hull
133:ordination
129:clustering
114:cladistics
91:morphology
83:(phainein)
376:Phenomics
303:fieldwork
214:Passerida
206:phenotype
198:songbirds
95:phylogeny
34:phenetics
21:Phonetics
489:Category
381:Taxonomy
350:See also
333:genomics
210:genotype
160:unrooted
142:(in his
287:Corvida
202:Corvida
172:evolved
81:φαίνειν
30:biology
315:botany
212:, and
437:(PDF)
307:taxon
275:birds
176:basal
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