Corruption - Knowledge

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well aware of the high level of corruption in colleges and universities, including thanks to the media. Doctoral education is no exception, with dissertations and doctoral degrees available for sale, including for politicians. Russian Parliament is notorious for "highly educated" MPs High levels of corruption are a result of universities not being able to break away from their Stalinist past, over bureaucratization, and a clear lack of university autonomy. Both quantitative and qualitative methodologies are employed to study education corruption, but the topic remains largely unattended by the scholars. In many societies and international organizations, education corruption remains a taboo. In some countries, such as certain eastern European countries, some Balkan countries and certain Asian countries, corruption occurs frequently in universities. This can include bribes to bypass bureaucratic procedures and bribing faculty for a grade. The willingness to engage in corruption such as accepting bribe money in exchange for grades decreases if individuals perceive such behavior as very objectionable, i.e. a violation of social norms and if they fear sanctions regarding the severity and probability of sanctions.

2033: 175:, David Whyte reveals that corruption exists "across a wide range of venerated institutions" in the UK, which is ranked one of the least corrupt countries by the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). In a 2022 speech on "Modern Corruption," USAID Administrator Samantha Power stated: "corruption is no longer just about individual autocrats pilfering their nation's wealth to live large," but also involves sophisticated transnational networks, including financial institutions hidden in secrecy. Responding to Whyte's book, George Monbiot criticized the CPI for its narrow definition of corruption that surveys mostly only Western executives about bribery. Similarly, others point out that "global metrics systematically under-measure 'corruption of the rich' - which tends to be legalized, institutionalized, and ambiguously unethical - as opposed to 'corruption of the poor'". 338:, corruption is permitted as a result of the cultural norms of the institution. In countries like the United States, there is a relatively strong sense of trust among strangers, one that is not found in Latin American countries. In Latin American countries, this trust does not exist, whereas the social norms imply that no stranger is responsible for the wellbeing or happiness of another stranger. Instead, the trust is found in acquaintances. Acquaintances are treated with trust and respect—a level of trust that is not found among acquaintances in countries like the United States. This is what permits for corruption in Latin American countries. If there is a strong enough trust within an administration that no one will betray the rest, corruptive policies will take place with ease. 2666:

the cause of the just. Such a savior would be like a man who has fallen among wild beasts—unable to join in the wickedness of his fellows, neither would he be able alone to resist all their fierce natures, and therefore he would be of no use to the State or to his friends, and would have to throw away his life before he had done any good to himself or others. And he reflects upon all this, and holds his peace, and does his own business. He is like one who retires under the shelter of a wall in the storm of dust and sleet which the driving wind hurries along; and when he sees the rest of mankind full of wickedness, he is content if only he can live his own life and be pure from evil or unrighteousness, and depart in peace and good will, with bright hopes.

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Djankov and other researchers have independently addressed the role information plays in fighting corruption with evidence from both developing and developed countries. Disclosing financial information of government officials to the public is associated with improving institutional accountability and eliminating misbehavior such as vote buying. The effect is specifically remarkable when the disclosures concern politicians' income sources, liabilities and asset level instead of just income level. Any extrinsic aspects that might reduce morality should be eliminated. Additionally, a country should establish a culture of ethical conduct in society with the government setting the good example in order to enhance the intrinsic morality.

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present age" and not to be ashamed to be peculiar or singular. They are advised not be friends of the corrupt world, because "friendship with the world is enmity with God." They are advised not to love the corrupt world or the things of the world. The rulers of this world, Paul explains, "are coming to nothing" While readers must obey corrupt rulers in order to live in the world, the spirit is subject to no law but to love God and love our neighbors as ourselves. New Testament readers are advised to adopt a disposition in which they are "in the world, but not of the world." This disposition, Paul claims, shows us a way to escape "slavery to corruption" and experience the freedom and glory of being innocent "children of God".

721: 830: 2029:) can be an effective way for job-seekers to gain a competitive edge over others in the job-market. The idea is to cultivate personal relationships with prospective employers, selection panelists, and others, in the hope that these personal affections will influence future hiring decisions. This form of networking has been described as an attempt to corrupt formal hiring processes, where all candidates are given an equal opportunity to demonstrate their merits to selectors. The networker is accused of seeking non-meritocratic advantage over other candidates; advantage that is based on personal fondness rather than on any objective appraisal of which candidate is most qualified for the position. 247:

pay to bureaucrats to get around hurdles or speed things up." This is the kind of corruption associated with the "efficient grease hypothesis," which economists found burdensome to businesses in practice. Ang defines access money as "high-stakes rewards extended by business actors to powerful officials, not just for speed, but to access exclusive, valuable privileges." Most theories about bribery focus on speed money, but neglects access money. "From a businessperson's point of view, access money is less a tax than an investment... making it more sludge than grease." The Unbundled Corruption Index measures the prevalence of these four types of corruption.

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democracy, and yet London is a hub for money laundering. In a critique of the failures and politics leading up to the US financial crisis, a Stanford financial economist noted, "In the real world, it turned out, important economic outcomes are often the consequences of political forces. During 2010, people within regulatory bodies told me privately that false and misleading claims were affecting key policy decisions... I saw confusion, willful blindness, political forces, various and sometimes subtle forms of corruption, and moral disengagement, first hand."

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contemporaries; so long as he rests content with this position, he is only a φίλαυτος , not a φιλόσοφος . For this title of honor is well and wisely conceived precisely by its stating that one should love the truth earnestly and with one's whole heart, and thus unconditionally and unreservedly, above all else, and, if need be, in defiance of all else. Now the reason for this is the one previously stated that the intellect has become free, and in this state, it does not even know or understand any other interest than that of truth.

2266:. There, for the first time the old principal-agent approach was moved back where mainly the victim (a society, private or public) and a passive corrupt member (an individual) were considered, whereas the active corrupt part was not in the focus of legal prosecution. Unprecedented, the law of an industrial country directly condemned active corruption, particularly in international business transactions, which was at that time in contradiction to anti-bribery activities of the World Bank and its spin-off organization 741:

anti-corruption investigation into those who had created it and the local municipality even considered demolishing the building at one point. The group of public servants involved in the toilet's procurement received various prison sentences for recklessness, malfeasance, misuse of power and document falsifications in a 2012 court case, but were cleared of their corruption charges and received compensation, which pushed the total construction cost and subsequent related financial losses to 352,000 euros.

2549:. Moreover, in order to further strengthen active corruption the prosecution of tax evasion during that decade had been severely limited. German tax authorities were instructed to refuse any disclosure of bribe recipients' names from tax declarations to the German criminal prosecution. As a result, German corporations have been systematically increasing their informal economy from 1980 until today up to 350 bn € per annum (see diagram on the right), thus continuously feeding their black money reserves. 9072:"Nach Auffassung der Fraktion der SPD belegt auch der Bericht der Bundesregierung eindeutig, daß in den meisten ausländischen Industriestaaten Schmier- und Bestechungsgelder in wesentlich geringerem Umfang als in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland steuerlich abgesetzt werden könnten. So müsse in fast allen Staaten bei Zahlungen in das Ausland der Empfänger angegeben werden... Die Abzugsfähigkeit der genannten Ausgaben (Schmier- und Bestechungsgelder) stelle eine steuerliche Subvention dar..." 1836: 1479: 1065: 2517:

co-financing thus a specific nationalistic corruption practice (§4 Abs. 5 Nr. 10 EStG, valid until 19 March 1999) in contradiction to the 1994 OECD recommendation. The respective law was not changed before the OECD Convention also in Germany came into force (1999). According to the Parliamentary Financial Commission's study, however, in 1994 most countries' corruption practices were not nationalistic and much more limited by the respective laws compared to Germany.

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actions, and it can involve only corrupt individuals or entire institutions where no person is individually liable for corruption. "Illegal forms of access money entail large bribes and kickbacks, but they can also include ambiguously or completely legal exchanges that omit cash bribes, for example, cultivating political connections, campaign finance, “revolving door” practices."

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draining public and private wealth while delivering no benefits in return. Speed money is akin to painkillers; it may relieve a headache but doesn't improve one's strength. Access money, on the other hand, is like steroids. It spurs muscle growth and allows one to perform superhuman feats, but it comes with serious side effects, including the possibility of a complete meltdown."

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Neither the law nor the administration is authorized to determine which expenses are not operationally justified and therefore not deductible. For the business expense deduction it is not a requirement that the recipient is specified. It is sufficient to elucidate to the satisfaction of the tax authorities that the payments are in the interest of the operation.

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also included, "embezzlement, nepotism, smuggling, extortion, cronyism, kickbacks, deception, fraud, squandering of public money, illegal business transactions, stock manipulation and real estate fraud." Given the repeated anti-corruption campaigns it was a prudent precaution to move as much of the fraudulent money as possible overseas.

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governmental subsidization (tax deduction), up to extreme cases as in Germany, where foreign corruption was fostered, whereas domestic was legally prosecuted. The German Parliamentary Financial Commission rejected a Parliamentary Proposal by the opposition, which had been aiming to limit German foreign corruption on the basis of the US

9061:, page VII (Introduction): "Durch die OECD-Konvention und europaweite Abkommen wurden auch in Deutschland neue Anti-Korruptions-Gesetze geschaffen, so dass nun die Auslandsbestechung durch deutsche Unternehmen dem Strafrecht unterfällt und die Bestechungsgelder nicht mehr als Betriebsausgaben von der Steuer abgesetzt werden können." 1388:

public health sectors and may appear as theft, embezzlement, nepotism, bribery up til extortion, or as undue influence. and occurs anywhere within the sector, be it in service provision, purchasing, construction and hiring. In 2019, Transparency International has described the 6 most common ways of service corruption as follows:

323:. Specific acts of corruption include "bribery, extortion, and embezzlement" in a system where "corruption becomes the rule rather than the exception." Scholars distinguish between centralized and decentralized systemic corruption, depending on which level of state or government corruption takes place; in countries such as the 1004:, with the use of unethical and/or illegal conduct such as making false or misleading statements, hiding evidence from prosecutors, failing to disclose all relevant facts about the case, or even giving clients advice on how to commit crimes in ways that would make prosecution more difficult for any investigating authorities. 347:

finance and its consequences for democracy. Kristin Surak at the London School of Economics explores the controversial practice of millionaires buying "golden passports" with no intention of actually migrating. In her words, "a full-blown citizenship industry that thrives on global inequalities" has arisen."

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Canada: there is no general rule on the deductibility or non-deductibility of kickbacks and bribes. Hence the rule is that necessary expenses for obtaining the income (contract) are deductible. Payments to members of the public service and domestic administration of justice, to officers and employees

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France: basically all operating expenses can be deducted. However, staff costs must correspond to an actual work done and must not be excessive compared to the operational significance. This also applies to payments to foreign parties. Here, the receiver shall specify the name and address, unless the

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Creating bottom-up mechanisms, promoting citizens participation and encouraging the values of integrity, accountability, and transparency are crucial components of fighting corruption. As of 2012, the implementation of the "Advocacy and Legal Advice Centres (ALACs)” in Europe had led to a significant

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Rule of Law Index measures to evaluate adherence to the rule of law in 140 countries and jurisdictions around the globe. The annual index measures three forms of government corruption across the executive branch, the judiciary, the military and police, and the legislature: bribery, improper influence

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involve the favouring of not the perpetrator of corruption but someone related to them, such as a friend, family member or member of an association. Examples would include hiring or promoting a family member or staff member to a role they are not qualified for, who belongs to the same political party

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corruption is the illegitimate use of public power to benefit a private interest. Economist Ian Senior defined corruption as an action to secretly provide a good or a service to a third party to influence certain actions which benefit the corrupt, a third party, or both in which the corrupt agent has

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Particularly, the non-disclosure of the bribe money recipients' name in tax declarations had been a powerful instrument for Legal Corruption during the 1990s for German corporations, enabling them to block foreign legal jurisdictions which intended to fight corruption in their countries. Hence, they

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Austria: bribes justified by the operation (of a company) are deductible as business expenses. However, the tax authority may require that the payer names the recipient of the deducted payments exactly. If the indication of the name is denied e.g. because of business comity, the expenses claimed are

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corruption occurs when any institution, entity or person that is not controlled by the public sector company, household and institution that is not controlled by the public sector engages in corrupt acts. Private sector corruption may overlap with public sector corruption, for example when a private

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is not common in law enforcement in part because officers who do so normally face reprisal by being fired, being forced to transfer to another department, being demoted, being shunned, losing friends, not being given back-up during emergencies, receiving professional or even physical threats as well

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Public corruption includes corruption of the political process and of government agencies such as tax collectors and the police, as well as corruption in processes of allocating public funds for contracts, grants, and hiring. Recent research by the World Bank suggests that who makes policy decisions

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occurs at a smaller scale and takes place at the implementation end of public services when public officials meet the public. For example, in many small places such as registration offices, police stations, state licensing boards, and many other private and government sectors. It may seem minor, but

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Essay in Memory for Rolf Keller, 2003, Edited by Criminal Law professors from the Law Faculty of Tübingen and the Ministry of Justice of Baden-Wuerttemberg, Germany, page 104: "Nach der Legaldefinition des §11 I Nr.2a StGB versteht man unter einem Amtsträger u. a. eine Person, die >>nach

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acknowledges his readers must inevitably "deal with the world," and recommends they adopt an attitude of "as if not" in all their dealings. When they buy a thing, for example, they should relate to it "as if it were not theirs to keep." New Testament readers are advised to refuse to "conform to the

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As early as 1989 the OECD had established an ad hoc Working Group in order to explore "the concepts fundamental to the offense of corruption, and the exercise of national jurisdiction over offenses committed wholly or partially abroad." Based on the FCPA concept, the Working Group presented in 1994

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in the higher education sector. Authoritarian regimes, including those in former Soviet republics, encourage educational corruption and control universities, especially during the election campaigns. This is typical for Russia, Ukraine, and Central Asian regimes, among others. The general public is

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tennis club acquired a very similar, but more advanced solution for 4,500 euros. Because of the inflated cost of the outdoor toilet, it was nicknamed the "Golden Toilet". Despite the investment, the "Golden Toilet" remained closed for years due to the dysfunctionality and was a subject of a lengthy

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The political act of "graft" (American English), is a well known and now global form of political corruption, being the unscrupulous and illegal use of a politician's authority for personal gain, when funds intended for public projects are intentionally misdirected in order to maximize the benefits

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Since a high degree of monopoly and discretion accompanied by a low degree of transparency does not automatically lead to corruption, a fourth variable of "morality" or "integrity" has been introduced by others. The moral dimension has an intrinsic component and refers to a "mentality problem", and

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is defined as corruption occurring at the highest levels of government in a way that requires significant subversion of the political, legal and economic systems. Such corruption is commonly found in countries with authoritarian or dictatorial governments but also in those without adequate policing

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Political economist Yuen Yuen Ang "unbundles corruption" into four types, encompassing both petty and grand corruption as well as legal and illegal versions: petty theft, grand theft, speed money, access money. According to her definition, speed money "means petty bribes that businesses or citizens

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Disciples of philosophy ... have tasted how sweet and blessed a possession philosophy is, and have also seen and been satisfied of the madness of the multitude, and known that there is no one who ever acts honestly in the administration of States, nor any helper who will save any one who maintains

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that were established specifically for such purposes. Because the crime was committed in 1999, after the OECD convention had come into force, this foreign corrupt practice could be prosecuted. It was the first time a German court of law convicted foreign corrupt practices like a national practice,

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governance" are key to economic development. This criticism is based on the observed fact that a variety of countries, such as Korea and China but also the US in the 19th and early 20th century, saw high economic growth and broader socio-economic development coinciding with significant corruption

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which was signed in 1997 by all member countries and came finally into force in 1999. However, because of ongoing concealed corruption in international transactions several instruments of Country Monitoring have been developed since then by the OECD in order to foster and evaluate related national

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Corruption creates the opportunity for increased inequality, reduces the return of productive activities, and, hence, makes rent-seeking and corruption activities more attractive. This opportunity for increased inequality not only generates psychological frustration to the underprivileged but also

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While petty, grand, and systemic corruption, described above, are largely found in poor countries with weak institutions, a newer literature has turned to money politics in wealthy democracies and extreme global inequalities. Simon Weschle at Syracuse University examines the prevalence of campaign

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Corruption has been a major issue in China, where society depends heavily on personal relationships. By the late 20th century that combined with the new lust for wealth, produced escalating corruption. Historian Keith Schoppa says that bribery was only one of the tools of Chinese corruption, which

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Japan: in Japan, bribes are deductible as business expenses that are justified by the operation (of the company) if the name and address of the recipient is specified. This also applies to payments to foreigners. If the indication of the name is refused, the expenses claimed are not recognized as

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acknowledged that academics, including philosophers, are subject to the same sources of corruption as the societies which they inhabit. He distinguished the corrupt "university" philosophers, whose "real concern is to earn with credit an honest livelihood for themselves and ... to enjoy a certain

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In recent years, anti-corruption efforts have also been criticised for overemphasising the benefits of the eradication of corruption for economic growth and development, following a diversity of literature which has suggested that anti-corruption efforts, the right kind of institutions and "good

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One neglected example of high growth with corruption is America during the Gilded Age, which Yuen Yuen Ang has compared to China's Gilded Age. In both, she noted, "corruption evolved over time from thuggery and theft to more sophisticated exchanges of power and profit," and resultingly, both saw

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Corruption is a complex phenomenon and can occur on different scales. Corruption ranges from small favors between a small number of people (petty corruption), to corruption that affects the government on a large scale (grand corruption), and corruption that is so prevalent that it is part of the

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According to the amended Klitgaard equation, limitation of monopoly and regulator discretion of individuals and a high degree of transparency through independent oversight by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the media plus public access to reliable information could reduce the problem.

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The Global Corruption Index (GCI), designed by the Global Risk Profile to be in line with anti-corruption and anti-bribery legislation, covers 196 countries and territories. It measures the state of corruption and white-collar crimes around the world, specifically money laundering and terrorism

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Corruption in health care poses a significant danger to the public welfare. It is widespread, and yet little has been published in medical journals about this topic and as of 2019 there is no evidence on what might reduce corruption in the health sector. Corruption occurs within the private and

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Corruption in education is a worldwide phenomenon. Corruption in admissions to universities is traditionally considered one of the most corrupt areas of the education sector. Recent attempts in some countries, such as Russia and Ukraine, to curb corruption in admissions through the abolition of

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Netherlands: all expenses that are directly or closely related to the business are deductible. This also applies to expenditure outside the actual business operations if they are considered beneficial to the operation for good reasons by the management. What counts is the good merchant custom.

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In 1994, the German Parliamentary Financial Commission in Bonn presented a comparative study on "legal corruption" in industrialized OECD countries They reported that in most industrial countries foreign corruption was legal, and that their foreign corrupt practices ranged from simple, through

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According to Ang, access money "encompasses high-stakes rewards extended by business actors to powerful officials, not just for speed, but to access exclusive, valuable privileges." Whereas bribery and extortion is always illegal and unethical, access money can encompass both illegal and legal

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This includes such behavior as an influential person threatening to go to the media if they do not receive speedy medical treatment (at the expense of other patients), threatening a public official with exposure of their secrets if they do not vote in a particular manner, or demanding money in

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Corruption and crime are endemic sociological occurrences which appear with regular frequency in virtually all countries on a global scale in varying degrees and proportions. Recent data suggests corruption is on the rise. Each individual nation allocates domestic resources for the control and

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Referring to the recommendation of the above-mentioned Parliamentary Financial Commission's study, the then Kohl administration (1991–1994) decided to maintain the legality of corruption against officials exclusively in foreign transactions and confirmed the full deductibility of bribe money,

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Corruption can negatively impact the economy both directly, through for example tax evasion and money laundering, as well as indirectly by distorting fair competition and fair markets, and by increasing the cost of doing business. It is strongly negatively associated with the share of private

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Different types of corruption harm in different ways, though not all are immediately growth-impeding. Following an "Unbundled Corruption" framework, Ang describes using the analogy of drugs: "Petty theft and grand theft are like toxic drugs; they directly and unambiguously hurt the economy by

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university entrance examinations and introduction of standardized computer-graded tests have met backlash from part of society, while others appreciate the changes. Vouchers for university entrants have never materialized. The cost of corruption is that it impedes sustainable economic growth.

656:. The presence of fuel extraction and export is unambiguously associated with corruption, whereas mineral exports only increased corruption in poorer countries. In wealthier countries, mineral exports such as gold and diamonds are actually associated with reduced corruption. The international 364:

Much of existing literature focuses on explicit corrupt actions like bribery and embezzlement, endemic in poor countries (see below). For "money in politics," the causes are very different and largely ignored in conventional literature. For example, the UK is a developed economy with a robust

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extended the concept to include "legal corruption" in which power is abused within the confines of the law—as those with power often have the ability to make laws for their protection. The effect of corruption in infrastructure is to increase costs and construction time, lower the quality and

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is systemic in the health sector. The characteristics of health systems with their concentrated supply of a service, high discretionary power of its members controlling the supply, and low accountability to others are the exact constellation of the variables described by Klitgaard, on which

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Political corruption is the abuse of public power, office, or resources by elected government officials for personal gain, by extortion, soliciting or offering bribes. It can also take the form of office holders maintaining themselves in office by purchasing votes by enacting laws which use

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The judiciary may be corrupted by acts of the government, such as through budget planning and various privileges, and by private acts. Corruption in judiciary may also involve the government using its judicial arm to oppress opposition parties. Judicial corruption is difficult to completely

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To be a philosopher, that is to say, a lover of wisdom (for wisdom is nothing but truth), it is not enough for a man to love truth, in so far as it is compatible with his own interest, with the will of his superiors, with the dogmas of the church, or with the prejudices and tastes of his

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Endemic corruption in educational institutions leads to the formation of sustainable corrupt hierarchies. While higher education in Russia is distinct with widespread bribery, corruption in the US and the UK features a significant amount of fraud. The US is distinct with grey areas and

8190:"Increase in the number of civil complaints against acts of corruption. [Social Impact]. ALACs. Promotion of Participation and Citizenship in Europe through the "Advocacy and Legal Advice Centres (ALACs)" of Transparency International (2009–2012). Framework Programme 7 (FP7)" 555:

is almost completely controlled by the executive. The latter critically undermines the separation of powers, because it fosters financial dependence on the judiciary. The proper distribution of a nation's wealth, including its government's spending on the judiciary, is subject to

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Traditionally anti-corruption policies have been based on success experiences and common sense. In recent years there has been an effort to provide a more systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of anti-corruption policies. They found that this literature is still in its

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Belgium: bribe payments are generally tax deductible as business expenses if the name and address of the beneficiary is disclosed. Under the following conditions kickbacks in connection with exports abroad are permitted for deduction even without proof of the receiver:

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Bribe-taking mania as one of the causes of bribery. The concept of psychological and psychotherapeutic approaches to the problem of bribery and bribe-taking mania. J. Aktualnye Problemy Ekonomiki i Prava" ("Current Problems in Economics and Law"), no. 4(24), 2012, pp.

532:, through the receiving or giving of bribes, the improper sentencing of convicted criminals, bias in the hearing and judgement of arguments and other forms of misconduct. Judicial corruption can also be conducted by prosecutors and defense attorneys. An example of 233:

A number of indicators and tools have been developed which can measure different forms of corruption with increasing accuracy; but when those are impractical, one study suggests looking at bodyfat as a rough guide after finding that obesity of cabinet ministers in

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Another example of military corruption, is a military officer or officers using the power of their positions to commit activities that are illegal, such as skimming logistical supplies such as food, medicine, fuel, body armor or weapons to sell on the local

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Luxembourg: bribes, justified by the operation (of a company) are deductible as business expenses. However, the tax authorities may require that the payer is to designate the receiver by name. If not, the expenses are not recognized as operating expenses.

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activities in combating foreign corrupt practices. One survey shows that after the implementation of heightened review of multinational firms under the convention in 2010 firms from countries that had signed the convention were less likely to use bribery.

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accuses the rabbinical establishment of his time of hypocritically following only the ceremonial parts of the Torah and neglecting the more important elements of justice, mercy and faithfulness. Corruption was one of the important issues which led to the

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While not necessarily involving bribery, recent research documents the emergence of "a particular kind of large, non-state business group" that is akin to a mafia system in China. In this situation, the boundary between public and private actors blurs.

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In the absence of the required conditions, for corporate taxable companies paying bribes without proof of the receiver, a special tax of 200% is charged. This special tax may, however, be abated along with the bribe amount as an operating expense.

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and those charged with the collection of fees, entrance fees etc. for the purpose to entice the recipient to the violation of his official duties, can not be abated as business expenses as well as illegal payments according to the Criminal Code.

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aims to achieve zero corruption through raising awareness on the societal hazards. After the lavish spending accusations on the Armenian anti-corruption council, through action strategies with implementation and observing instruments progress is

8220:"Impact on national legislation. [Social Impact]. ALACs. Promotion of Participation and Citizenship in Europe through the "Advocacy and Legal Advice Centres (ALACs)" of Transparency International (2009–2012). Framework Programme 7 (FP7)" 5992:

Osipian, Ararat. (2015). Global and Local: Standardized Testing and Corruption in Admissions to Ukrainian Universities. In Carolyn A. Brown (Ed.). Globalisation, International Education Policy, and Local Policy Formation (pp. 215–34). New York:

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an extrinsic component referring to circumstances like poverty, inadequate remuneration, inappropriate work conditions and inoperable or over-complicated procedures which demoralize people and let them search for "alternative" solutions.

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seeks to create best practices for good governance of gas, oil, and minerals, particularly focusing on the state management of revenue from these resources. Any valued natural resource can be affected by corruption, including water for

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everyday structure of society, including corruption as one of the symptoms of organized crime (systemic corruption). "Corruption of the rich" is particularly hard to measure and largely excluded from conventional metrics like the CPI.

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Graeff, P., Sattler, S., Mehlkop, G. and Sauer, C. (2014). "Incentives and Inhibitors of Abusing Academic Positions: Analysing University Students' Decisions about Bribing Academic Staff" In: European Sociological Review 30(2) 230–41.

9203:"HRRS Februar 2008: Saliger/Gaede – Rückwirkende Ächtung der Auslandskorruption und Untreue als Korruptionsdelikt – Der Fall Siemens als Start-schuss in ein entgrenztes internationalisiertes Wirtschaftsstrafrecht? · hrr-strafrecht.de" 9173:"HRRS Februar 2008: Saliger/Gaede – Rückwirkende Ächtung der Auslandskorruption und Untreue als Korruptionsdelikt – Der Fall Siemens als Start-schuss in ein entgrenztes internationalisiertes Wirtschaftsstrafrecht? – hrr-strafrecht.de" 9094:"HRRS Februar 2008: Saliger/Gaede – Rückwirkende Ächtung der Auslandskorruption und Untreue als Korruptionsdelikt – Der Fall Siemens als Start-schuss in ein entgrenztes internationalisiertes Wirtschaftsstrafrecht? · hrr-strafrecht.de" 6819: 3987: 135:

which is undertaken by a person or an organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's personal gain. Corruption may involve many activities which include

7340: 9397: 1532:"Arms for cash" can be done by either a state-sanctioned arms dealer, firm or state itself to another party it just regards as only a good business partner and not political kindred or allies, thus making them no better than 2130:

The Unbundled Corruption Index (UCI) measures perceived levels of corruption in four categories: petty theft, grand theft, speed money, access money. It uses "stylized vignettes" instead of broadly worded survey questions.

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to illegally private interests of the corrupted individual(s) and their cronies. In some cases government institutions are "repurposed" or shifted away from their official mandate to serve other, often corrupt purposes.

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increase in the number of citizen complaints against acts of corruption received and documented and also to the development of strategies for good governance by involving citizens willing to fight against corruption.

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Osipian, Ararat. (2013). Recruitment and Admissions: Fostering Transparency on the Path to Higher Education. In Transparency International: Global Corruption Report: Education (pp. 148–54). New York: Routledge, 536

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also have a targeted goal which is supposed to substantially reduce corruption in all of its forms. Recent initiatives like the Tax Justice Network goes beyond bribery and theft and brings attention to tax abuses.

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to follow the government's development strategy. This 'profit-sharing' corruption model incentivizes government officials to support economic development, as they would personally benefit financially from it.

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Anti-corruption policies that may be in general recommended to developing countries may not be suitable for post-conflict countries. Anti-corruption policies in fragile states have to be carefully tailored.

6958: 6783: 7640: 6102:

Osipian, Ararat. (2014). Will Bribery and Fraud Converge? Comparative Corruption in Higher Education in Russia and the USA. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 44(2), pp. 252–73

1894:

Bribery can sometimes form a part of the systemic use of corruption for other ends, for example to perpetrate further corruption. Bribery can make officials more susceptible to blackmail or to extortion.

841:

designed to obtain financial benefits, personal gain, career advancement for a police officer or officers in exchange for not pursuing or selectively pursuing an investigation or arrest or aspects of the

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The use of anti-corruption agencies have proliferated in recent years after the signing of UNCAC. They found no convincing evidence on the extent of their contribution, or the best way to structure them.

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total amount in payments per beneficiary does not exceed 500 FF. If the receiver is not disclosed the payments are considered "rémunérations occult" and are associated with the following disadvantages:

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In 2013, a document produced by the economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services help-desk discusses some of the existing practices on anti-corruption. They found:

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was a major Lithuanian scandal. In 2009, the municipality of Kaunas (led by mayor Andrius Kupčinskas) ordered that a shipping container was to be converted into an outdoor toilet at a cost of 500,000

572:

Military corruption refers to the abuse of power by members in the armed forces, in order for career advancement or for personal gain by a soldier or soldiers. One form of military corruption in the

6235:

Osipian, Ararat. (2009). “Feed from the Service”: Corruption and Coercion in the State—University Relations in Central Eurasia. Research in Comparative and International Education, 4(2), pp. 182–203

5122: 3681: 7011: 6254:

Osipian, Ararat. (2012). Who is Guilty and What to Do? Popular Opinion and Public Discourse of Corruption in Russian Higher Education. Canadian and International Education Journal, 41(1), pp. 81–95

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Osipian, Ararat. (2010). Corruption in the Politicized University: Lessons for Ukraine's 2010 Presidential Elections. Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research, 23(2), pp. 101–14

5913: 1392:, informal payments from patients, embezzlement, inflating services also the costs of services, favouritism and manipulation of data (billing for goods and services that were never sent or done). 9150: 10108: 9016:

deutschem Recht Beamter oder Richter ist. Die Vorschrift enthält also eine vom Wortlaut her eindeutige Einschränkung auf das deutsche Recht. Ausländische Amtsträger werden somit nicht erfasst."

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Osipian, Ararat. (2008). Political Graft and Education Corruption in Ukraine: Compliance, Collusion, and Control. Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization, 16(4), pp. 323–44

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activities, resources will flow from productive activities to corruption activities over time. This will result in a lower stock of producible inputs like human capital in corrupted countries.

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The presence or perception of corruption also undermines environmental initiatives. In Kenya, farmers blame poor agricultural productivity on corruption, and thus are less likely to undertake

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Kaufmann, Daniel; Kraay, Aart. 2007. Governance Indicators : Where Are We, Where Should We Be Going?. Policy Research Working Paper; No. 4370. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank.

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Marquette, H. and Peiffer, C. (2018), "Grappling with the 'real politics' of systemic corruption: Theoretical debates versus 'real-world' functions", Governance Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 499-514.

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A study on foreign corrupt practices of industrialized OECD countries 1994 (Parliamentary Financial Commission study, Bonn) indicates widespread acceptance of bribes in business practices.

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at the U.S. Department of the Interior. The original caption for the cartoon is: "THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR INVESTIGATING THE INDIAN BUREAU. GIVE HIM HIS DUE, AND GIVE THEM THEIR DUES."

5625: 8738: 9935: 7571: 3482: 2569:. Siemens had paid almost €3.5 million in bribes to be selected for a €200 million project from the Italian corporation, partially owned by the government. The deal was handled through 713:

taxpayers' money. Evidence suggests that corruption can have political consequences- with citizens being asked for bribes becoming less likely to identify with their country or region.

4755: 7295: 4467: 672:

measures to prevent soil erosion and loss of nutrients. In Benin, mistrust of government due to perceived corruption led small farmers to reject the adaptation of measures to combat

300:) is corruption which is primarily due to the weaknesses of an organization or process. It can be contrasted with individual officials or agents who act corruptly within the system. 5368: 2409:

and Pedro Vicente. It might be termed as processes which are corrupt, but are protected by a "legal" (that is, specifically permitted, or at least not proscribed by law) framework.

5066: 8914:"Die Ablehnung erfolgte mit den Stimmen der Koalitionsfraktionen gegen die Stimmen der Fraktion der SPD bei Abwesenheit der Gruppen BÜNDNIS 90/DIE GRÜNEN und der PDS/Linke Liste." 2007:

is the illegal practice of using one's influence in government or connections with persons in authority to obtain favors or preferential treatment, usually in return for payment.

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and a former French Minister of the Interior, were charged, accused, indicted or convicted with illegal arms trading, tax fraud, embezzlement, money laundering and other crimes.

1700:

includes numerous examples of religious leaders calling attention to the corruption which existed in the religious practices and institutions of their time. The Jewish prophets

6369:

sipian, Ararat. (2007). Corruption in Higher Education: Conceptual Approaches and Measurement Techniques. Research in Comparative and International Education, 2(4), pp. 313–32

891:), recruit members of law enforcement into their ranks or encourage their members to join local police departments to repress minorities and covertly promote white supremacy. 7164: 6311:

Osipian, Ararat. (2010). Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme: Political Corruption of Russian Doctorates. Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization, 18(3), pp. 260–80

1945:

The political act of graft is when funds intended for public projects are intentionally misdirected to maximize the benefits to private interests of the corrupt individuals.

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Some expert have suggested that corruption actually stimulated economic growth in East and Southeast Asian countries. An often cited example is South Korea, where president

612:

and in many cases, there were allegations that many of the attacks were covered up and victims were coerced to remain silent by officers of the same rank or of higher rank.

8004: 6045:

Osipian, Ararat. (2013). Corrupt Organizations: Modeling Educators' Misconduct with Cellular Automata. Computational & Mathematical Organization Theory, 19(1), pp. 1–24

8380:"Forgues-Puccio, G.F. April 2013, Existing practices on anti-corruption, Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services helpdesk request" 7086: 6928: 6765: 1333:

part of an investigation over Odebrecht Organization bribes to executives of Petrobras, in exchange for contracts and influence. Operation Car Wash is an ongoing criminal

6197:

Osipian, Ararat. (2012). Loyalty as Rent: Corruption and Politicization of Russian Universities. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 32(3/4), pp. 153–67

8333:

Jensen, Nathan M.; Malesky, Edmund J. (2017). "Nonstate Actors and Compliance with International Agreements: An Empirical Analysis of the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention".

6121:

Osipian, Ararat. (2008). Corruption in Higher Education: Does it Differ Across the Nations and Why? Research in Comparative and International Education, 3(4), pp. 345–65

4977:"Small is beautiful, at least in high-income democracies: the distribution of policy-making responsibility, electoral accountability, and incentives for rent extraction" 6330:

Osipian, Ararat. (2014). Transforming University Governance in Ukraine: Collegiums, Bureaucracies, and Political Institutions. Higher Education Policy, 27(1), pp. 65–84

6140:

Osipian, Ararat. (2012). Grey Areas in the Higher Education Sector: Legality versus Corruptibility. Brigham Young University Education and Law Journal, 1(1), pp. 140–90

5563: 8311: 7820: 4914: 2032: 636:

to ensure that the military officers follow the laws and conduct of their respective countries but sometimes the military police have levels of corruption themselves.

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Anti-corruption policies can improve the business environment. There is evidence that lower corruption may facilitate doing business and improve firm's productivity.

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was signed by its members. It took until 1999, after the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention came into force, that Germany withdrew the legalization of foreign corruption.

875:

as having threats be made against friends or relatives of theirs or having their own misconduct exposed. In America another common form of police corruption is when

4365: 4075: 3682:"Administrator Samantha Power Delivers Remarks, "The Face of Modern Corruption," at the International Anti-Corruption Conference Plenary Session | December 6, 2022" 2058:

facilities. Examples include a judge improperly dismissing a criminal case or a customs official using their discretion to allow a banned substance through a port.

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and political benefits. The personal gain that is given can be anything from actively giving preferential treatment to having an indiscretion or crime overlooked.

327:

both types occur. Some scholars argue that there is a negative duty of western governments to protect against systematic corruption of underdeveloped governments.

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Osipian, Ararat. (2009). Corruption Hierarchies in Higher Education in the Former Soviet Bloc. International Journal of Educational Development, 29(3), pp. 321–30

179:

regulation of corruption and the deterrence of crime. Strategies which are undertaken in order to counter corruption are often summarized under the umbrella term

7632: 5677: 2661:, acknowledges the corrupt nature of political institutions, and recommends that philosophers "shelter behind a wall" to avoid senselessly martyring themselves. 736:(around 150,000 euros). It was to also require 5,000 litai (1,500 euros) in monthly maintenance costs. At the same time when Kaunas's "Golden Toilet" was built, 5599: 5440: 4793: 10169: 8071: 3921: 3742: 3618: 6902: 6751: 5651: 5501: 966:

entity operates in conjunction with corrupt government officials, or where the government involves itself in activity normally performed by private entities.

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UK: kickbacks and bribes are deductible if they have been paid for operating purposes. The tax authority may request the name and address of the recipient."

2326:

in the last decade has made tremendous progress in improving governance and the business environment providing a model to follow for post-conflict countries.

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and elsewhere improperly obtaining a share of Angolan oil revenues. The scandal has subsequently been tied to several prominent figures in French politics.

9968: 5818: 5426: 5390: 5315: 5118: 5841: 4112: 1315:, and the firm is now present in South America, Central America, North America, the Caribbean, Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Its leading company is 285:

and judicial branches in an attempt to provide independent services that are less subject to grand corruption due to their independence from one another.

9126: 7529: 6984: 6842: 6797: 6715: 5917: 5896: 5179: 5096: 4322: 1625: 7468: 5708: 9142: 8707: 5766: 5478: 8611: 8581: 5796: 6349:

Osipian, Ararat. (2008). Corruption and Coercion: University Autonomy versus State Control. European Education: Issues and Studies, 40(3), pp. 27–48

6159:

Osipian, Ararat. (2009). Investigating Corruption in American Higher Education: The Methodology. FedUni Journal of Higher Education, 4(2), pp. 49–81

2475:

For corporations and other legal entities, a tax penalty of 100% of the "rémunérations occult" and 75% for voluntary post declaration is to be paid.

544:

bribes a prosecutor to open investigations and file charges against an opposing politician or a rival crime boss, in order to hurt the competition.

585: 480:(elected officials or bureaucrats) can be critical in determining the level of corruption because of the incentives different policy-makers face. 6484: 6292:

Osipian, Ararat. (2012). Economics of Corruption in Doctoral Education: The Dissertations Market. Economics of Education Review, 31(1), pp. 76–83

5621: 4398: 2100:

corruption, as determined by expert assessments and opinion surveys." The index has been published annually by the non-governmental organization

648:

of corruption. Corruption includes industrial corruption, consisting of large bribes, as well as petty corruption such as a poacher paying off a

8730: 5950: 760:. It stated that the global corrupt and criminal actors either operated through or from Dubai. The city was also called a haven for trade-based 10004: 7575: 6563: 6390:

Heyneman, S. P., Anderson, K. H. and Nuraliyeva, N. (2008). The cost of corruption in higher education. Comparative Education Review, 51, 1–25.

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unequal and risky growth. Biased narratives about Western development and global metrics of corruption have obscured this historical pattern.

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Examples include the misdirection of company funds into "shadow companies" (and then into the pockets of corrupt employees), the skimming of

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Stephan, Constantin (2012), Industrial Health, Safety and Environmental Management, MV Wissenschaft, Muenster, 3rd edition 2012, pp. 26–28,

7730: 4456: 4287: 4221: 4049: 2352:

In some countries people travel to corruption hot spots or a specialist tour company takes them on corruption city tours, as is the case in

10240: 10220: 7843: 7282: 3587: 2252: 1400:

Labor unions leaders may be involved in corrupt action or be influenced or controlled by criminal enterprises. For example, for many years

609: 9180: 8285: 8219: 8189: 10278: 10113: 9957: 9450: 9008: 7320: 4431: 772: 450:

It has been noted that in a comparison of the most corrupt with the least corrupt countries, the former group contains nations with huge

8634: 6644: 5054: 4493: 3775: 1236:). Some negative behaviours by corporations may not be criminal; laws vary between jurisdictions. For example, some jurisdictions allow 10125: 10021: 9467:

Sharma, Vivek Swaroop. "Give Corruption a Chance" in The National Interest 128, November/December 2013: 38–45. Full text available at:

8432: 7926: 6674: 5531: 5502:"What should you do if you see police using excessive force? Legal experts say film it, just as bystanders did in George Floyd's death" 745: 250:

Whereas corruption with theft and speed money is endemic in poor countries, access money can be found in both poor and rich countries.

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Osipian, Ararat. (2007). Higher Education Corruption in Ukraine: Opinions and Estimates. International Higher Education, 49, pp. 20–21

5871: 5292: 2195: 2147:

Corruption reduces the returns of productive activities. If the returns to production fall faster than the returns to corruption and

8256: 4650: 10055: 9074: 8907: 8880: 8501: 8479:

Rodrik, D. (2014), "An African Growth Miracle?", working paper No. 20188, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, June

6083:

Osipian, Ararat. (2010). Corrupt Organizational Hierarchies in the Former Soviet Bloc. Transition Studies Review, 17(4), pp. 822–36

951: 608:

with higher-ranking officers in spite of their merit. In addition to that, the US military has also had many instances of officers

372:

corruption will occur if the corrupt gain is greater than the penalty multiplied by the likelihood of being caught and prosecuted.

4819: 4155: 1652:

prestige in the eyes of the public" from the genuine philosopher, whose sole motive is to discover and bear witness to the truth.

10097: 9962: 7996: 581: 7790: 6614: 938:. Another form of misconduct is probation officers taking bribes in exchange for allowing paroles to violate the terms of their 807:. The Saudi-led coalition was alleged of attempting to buy influence in the UK. While the MPs registered the trips and gifts at 10185: 10102: 9124:"Geschützt durch das Steuergeheimnis dürfen die Steuerbehörden Hinweise auf Korruption nicht an die Staatsanwaltschaft melden." 7700: 3387: 1447: 1401: 870:, officers are often known to respond by harassing and intimidating the witnesses as retribution for reporting the misconduct. 593: 10049: 9991: 9920: 8127: 7549: 6421: 5016: 4738: 4713: 4614: 4585: 4556: 4342: 4299: 4233: 3665: 2585:

During the judicial proceedings it was disclosed that numerous such black accounts had been established in the past decades.

768: 8307: 7812: 4906: 10268: 10263: 10044: 9974: 9505: 5209: 3467: 3317: 2773: 729: 6371: 6351: 6332: 6313: 6294: 6275: 6256: 6237: 6218: 6199: 6180: 6161: 6142: 6123: 6104: 6085: 6066: 6047: 6023: 5995: 5975: 1277:. The company's name translates to Brazilian Petroleum Corporation – Petrobras. The company was ranked No. 58 in the 2016 854:

and/or other law enforcement members from accountability. One common form of police corruption is soliciting or accepting

171:, however, more recent research and policy statements acknowledge that it also exists in wealthy capitalist economies. In 10190: 10085: 10079: 1709: 776: 9004:

the term "official" had been limited to German jurisdiction. Officials of other states legally were no "officials". See

8971: 7966: 5731: 2456:

The payer has to pay a lump-sum to the tax office to be fixed by the Finance Minister (at least 20% of the amount paid).

10358: 9915: 8677: 4937: 3557: 947: 914:. Police officers have also been known to sell forms of contraband that were taken during seizers (such as confiscated 851: 589: 496: 7670: 7493:

Wang, Peng (2013). "The rise of the Red Mafia in China: a case study of organised crime and corruption in Chongqing".

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uncontrolled established a strong network of clientelism around Europe (e.g. SIEMENS) along with the formation of the

1577:

in the 1990s. It led to arrests and judiciary actions in the 2000s, involved an illegal arms sale to Angola despite a

10091: 10015: 9442:

McCormick, Richard L. "The discovery that business corrupts politics: A reappraisal of the origins of Progressivism"

6452: 5589: 2638: 2393: 1519: 1321: 1184: 1166: 1105: 1051: 601: 4141: 3928: 3629: 2502:

Switzerland: bribe payments are tax deductible if it is clearly operation initiated and the consignee is indicated.

10283: 10273: 10180: 8839: 8802: 5647: 3258: 2883: 2684:, in keeping with the tradition of Ancient Greek thought, also frankly acknowledges the corruption of the world (ὁ 2243: 1443: 17: 8542:

Kang, D.C. (Winter 2002), "Bad Loans to Good Friends: Money Politics and the Developmental State in South Korea",

3853: 2505:

US: (rough résumé: "generally operational expenses are deductible if they are not illegal according to the FCPA")

1781: 10348: 10293: 9980: 9026: 8407: 3432: 3263: 2873: 1133: 184: 7882: 7114:"Pump & dump: How SEBI caught Arshad Warsi & others 'manipulating' stock prices in 'finfluencer' scheme" 5326: 3708: 10298: 10067: 10061: 9533: 9435:

Li, Ling. "Politics of Anticorruption in China: Paradigm Change of the Party's Disciplinary Regime 2012–2017,"

6985:"Chitra Ramkrishna arrested; CBI grills former NSE CEO in co-location scam after SEBI's mysterious yogi report" 6798:"Chitra Ramkrishna arrested; CBI grills former NSE CEO in co-location scam after SEBI's mysterious yogi report" 5833: 4101: 3412: 3108: 2651:

Philosophers and religious thinkers have responded to the inescapable reality of corruption in different ways.

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Denmark: bribe payments are deductible when a clear operational context exists and its adequacy is maintained.

1316: 1229: 1228:

that manage its activities), or by individuals acting on behalf of a corporation or other business entity (see

152:

occurs when an office-holder or other governmental employee acts with an official capacity for personal gain.

9468: 7760: 5171: 5088: 10333: 10175: 10073: 10033: 9123: 5893: 5700: 4102:"Can We Measure the Power of the Grabbing Hand? A Comparative Analysis of Different Indicators of Corruption" 3123: 3088: 3063: 2420: 2259: 1987:

with the loss of their job by their superiors, if they continued with investigating a high-ranking official.

1417: 597: 8140: 7461: 3895:

Morris, S.D. (1991), Corruption and Politics in Contemporary Mexico. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa

1920:

involves using deception to convince the owner of funds or assets to give them up to an unauthorized party.

1843:

Bribery involves the improper use of gifts and favours in exchange for personal gain. This is also known as

10235: 10225: 10119: 10009: 9564: 8699: 8565: 5470: 3417: 2848: 2425: 2387: 2275: 2262:(FCPA, USA 1977) was an early paradigmatic law for many western countries i.e. industrial countries of the 2205: 2093: 1617: 1554: 1548: 457:

Social norms have been posited as an explanation for why some environments are corrupt and others are not.

51: 8603: 8282:"OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Bearer of Transactions" 5353:

and Swilling, Mark, 2018, Shadow State: the Politics of State Capture, Johannesburg: Wits University Press

1691: 942:

or abusing their paroles. More rarely, police officers may deliberately and systematically participate in

829: 10328: 5230: 3917: 3332: 2406: 2287: 1037: 222: 38: 5405:"Alfa.lt – Kauno apskrities viršininko administracija kreipėsi į teismą dėl "auksinio" tualeto griovimo" 2309:

provide assistance to national governments in term of diagnostic and design of anti-corruption policies.

1752:

advances the thesis that business leaders in the 1930s and 1940s collaborated with clergymen, including

950:

sections to investigate suspected police corruption or misconduct. Similar entities include the British

9930: 7290: 4521: 3243: 3183: 3148: 2302: 2276:

OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions

2267: 2105: 2101: 1589: 1380: 1326:. Odebrecht is one of the 25 largest international construction companies and led by Odebrecht family. 919: 811:

as per the rules, critics called it “absolutely shameful” to accept donations from countries with poor

625: 573: 6476: 4390: 3798: 2685: 644:

Within less democratic countries, the presence of resources such as diamonds, gold, oil, and forestry

10258: 9735: 9358: 5940: 5564:"White Supremacist Infiltration of US Police Forces: Fact-Checking National Security Advisor O'Brien" 5145:"U.S. Military personnel have been convicted of $ 50 million worth of crimes in Iraq and Afghanistan" 3213: 3193: 3188: 3083: 3068: 2703: 2291: 1262: 988:. Attorney misconduct can be either conducted by individuals acting on their own accord or by entire 9951: 8056: 7265: 6592: 6559: 4185:

Blavatskyy, Pavlo (18 July 2020). "Obesity of politicians and corruption in post-Soviet countries".

2405:

Though corruption is often viewed as illegal, a concept of "legal corruption" has been described by

9688: 9498: 3797:

Lehtinen, Jere; Locatelli, Giorgio; Sainati, Tristano; Artto, Karlos; Evans, Barbara (1 May 2022).

3502: 3457: 3337: 3273: 3218: 3048: 3023: 3013: 2828: 2748: 2738: 1367: 1346: 804: 720: 705: 557: 533: 451: 46: 31: 9202: 9093: 4504: 620:. There have also been instances of military officials, providing equipment and combat support to 9569: 8924: 7722: 7462:"United Nations Handbook on Practical Anti-Corruption Measures For Prosecutors and Investigators" 4858:"Causes and Effects of Corruption: What Has Past Decade's Empirical Research Taught Us? a Survey" 4038: 3283: 3163: 3073: 3028: 3008: 2938: 2728: 2718: 1726: 757: 380: 316: 9332:

In the World But Not of the World: Christian Social Thinking at the End of the Twentieth Century

2162:

favoured a small number of companies, and later used this financial influence to pressure these

10353: 9700: 9172: 8281: 8227: 8197: 3497: 3367: 3303: 3228: 3223: 3173: 3168: 3133: 3113: 3098: 3043: 3018: 2878: 2823: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2778: 2538: 2511: 1601: 1292: 1137: 764:, as it gives space to free trade zones, with minimal regulatory laws and customs enforcement. 282: 263: 10200: 9005: 8109: 8097: 8035: 7236: 7232: 4602: 4420: 1636: 833:

A 1902 cartoon depicts a police officer whose eyes are covered with a cloth labelled "bribes".

9925: 9705: 9668: 8043: 7252: 7061: 6636: 6579: 4573: 3767: 3537: 3492: 3402: 3288: 3278: 3268: 3253: 3233: 3178: 3153: 3138: 3078: 3053: 3038: 3003: 2998: 2953: 2928: 2923: 2903: 2898: 2888: 2868: 2858: 2853: 2833: 2768: 2758: 2753: 2743: 2733: 2723: 2708: 2499:

not recognized as operating expenses. This principle also applies to payments to foreigners.

2123: 1439: 8159: 7918: 6666: 9623: 9548: 6872: 6733: 3542: 3522: 3462: 3372: 3362: 3298: 3248: 3238: 3208: 3158: 3143: 3128: 3103: 3093: 3033: 2993: 2983: 2978: 2968: 2958: 2913: 2893: 2843: 2803: 2783: 2713: 2672: 2657: 2375: 1851:. It is a common form of corruption. The types of favors given are diverse and may include 1765: 1753: 1745: 1630: 1429: 926:). Corruption and misconduct can also be done by prison officers, such as the smuggling of 788: 685: 548: 304: 149: 7783:"WJP Rule of Law Index | Explore the methodology, insights, dataset, and interactive data" 5863: 5288: 5263: 5246: 4953: 1148: 8: 10323: 9730: 9491: 8249: 7369: 7353: 4658: 3904:

Senior, I. (2006), Corruption – The World's Big C., Institute of Economic Affairs, London

3407: 3327: 3293: 3203: 3198: 3058: 2973: 2963: 2933: 2918: 2908: 2863: 2818: 2813: 2763: 2201: 2127:

by public or private interests, and misappropriation of public funds or other resources.

2051: 2046: 2022: 2016: 1814: 1785: 1697: 1648: 1451: 1257: 1233: 985: 975: 946:

themselves, either while on the job or during off hours. In most major cities, there are

529: 465:

Corruption can occur in many sectors, whether they be public or private industry or even

407: 8498: 2431: 2297:

The role of multilateral institutions has been crucial in the fight against corruption.

1687: 10343: 10131: 9813: 9673: 9618: 9378: 9071: 9027:"OECD: Recommendation of the Council on Bribery in International Business Transactions" 8904: 8869: 8547: 8445:

Kuipers, S. (2021), "Rethinking anti-corruption efforts in international development",

8358: 8171: 7614: 7510: 7415: 6506: 4887: 4494:"Political And Judicial Checks on Corruption: Evidence From American State Governments" 4202: 4007: 3988:"The Policy and Regulatory Engagement with Corruption: Insights from Complexity Theory" 3826: 3552: 3547: 3507: 3357: 3322: 3118: 2988: 2948: 2943: 2838: 2808: 2424:(FCPA from 1977), thus fostering national export corporations. In 1997 a corresponding 2109: 2004: 1976: 1844: 1683: 1613: 1330: 1312: 1285:

examined allegations of corporate and political collusion and corruption by Petrobras.

1282: 1278: 1266: 911: 899: 859: 696: 324: 141: 6527: 6510: 3953:

Locatelli, Giorgio; Mariani, Giacomo; Sainati, Tristano; Greco, Marco (1 April 2017).

196: 9861: 9808: 9636: 9631: 9543: 9390: 9382: 8642: 8573: 8426: 8362: 8350: 8123: 8105: 8031: 7890: 7863: 7618: 7545: 7514: 7401: 7228: 6606: 6540: 6532: 6458: 6448: 5812: 5420: 5384: 4957: 4879: 4775: 4734: 4709: 4610: 4581: 4552: 4338: 4295: 4229: 4206: 4011: 3830: 3818: 3716: 3661: 3582: 3567: 3392: 3352: 2444:

Payments must be necessary in order to be able to survive against foreign competition

1972: 1872: 1574: 1562: 1458: 1450:(SEBI) has barred various individuals and entities from trading on the exchanges for 1308: 903: 880: 838: 824: 669: 580:

or being given better treatment than their colleagues by their officers due to their

454:, and the latter contains nations with a high degree of social and economic justice. 412: 9473:

Wallis, John Joseph. "The concept of systematic corruption in American history." in

8175: 7782: 7692: 2620: 2582:

although the corresponding law did not yet protect foreign competitors in business.

1497: 1083: 10195: 9905: 9876: 9763: 9693: 9683: 9663: 9370: 8450: 8342: 8163: 8155: 7855: 7606: 7537: 7502: 6522: 5268: 5258: 5119:"#MeToo movement exposes failure of U.S. Military to take seriously sexual assault" 4949: 4891: 4869: 4843: 4767: 4692:

Lambsdorff, Johann. The New Institutional Economics of Corruption. Routledge, 2006.

4330: 4262: 4194: 3999: 3971: 3966: 3955:"Corruption in public projects and megaprojects: There is an elephant in the room!" 3954: 3814: 3810: 3562: 3517: 3442: 3377: 3342: 2566: 2347: 2092:

Several organizations measure corruption as part of their development indexes. The

2026: 1940: 1864: 1818: 1544:

and records are often destroyed. It often breaks UN, national or international law.

1541: 1537: 1533: 1455: 1334: 867: 761: 547:

Governmental corruption of the judiciary is broadly known in many transitional and

369: 258: 132: 9374: 6413: 5012: 10152: 9856: 9851: 9528: 9130: 9078: 9012: 8911: 8505: 6375: 6355: 6336: 6317: 6298: 6279: 6260: 6241: 6222: 6203: 6184: 6165: 6146: 6127: 6108: 6089: 6070: 6051: 5999: 5979: 5900: 5594: 4703: 3655: 3397: 3382: 3347: 2294:. Principal–agent theories seem not to be suitable to target systemic corruption. 2055: 1928: 1916:

involve someone with access to funds or assets illegally taking control of them.

1880: 1769: 1734: 1675: 1609: 1501: 1435: 1342: 1237: 1221: 1213: 1087: 1043: 1013: 1001: 943: 895: 884: 876: 847: 799:(£56,872). MPs also received gifts, including a £500 food hamper, tickets for a 633: 621: 180: 5201: 771:

received a total of £828,211 over a period of eight years from countries of the

490: 394:

Low levels of democracy, weak civil participation and low political transparency

10338: 9910: 9866: 9783: 7444: 7428: 7389: 6368: 6348: 6329: 6310: 6291: 6272: 6253: 6234: 6215: 6196: 6177: 6158: 6139: 6120: 6101: 6082: 6063: 6044: 6015: 5991: 5971: 3709:"Let's not fool ourselves. We may not bribe, but corruption is rife in Britain" 3597: 3437: 2689: 2614: 2609: 2542: 2529: 2159: 1876: 1749: 1705: 1621: 1605: 1597: 1593: 1578: 1566: 1405: 1270: 1225: 1202: 962: 935: 907: 871: 843: 673: 645: 8346: 7610: 7541: 7506: 4771: 4630:

Merle, Jean-Christophe, ed. (2013). "Global Challenges to Liberal Democracy".

4334: 2688:) and claims to offer a way of keeping the spirit "unspotted from the world." 2588: 1983:

exchange for continued secrecy. Another example can be a police officer being

1446:, have been rocked by several high-profile corruption scandals. At times, the 665:, land for livestock grazing, forests for hunting and logging, and fisheries. 10317: 9830: 9773: 9359:"Political Connections Reduce Job Creation: Firm-level Evidence from Lebanon" 8960: 8673: 8646: 8577: 8454: 8354: 7894: 7867: 6536: 5739: 4961: 4883: 4779: 4733:. Cambridge, Massachusetts ; London, England: Harvard University Press. 4366:"Mismeasuring Corruption Lets Rich Countries Off the Hook | by Yuen Yuen Ang" 4159: 4076:"Mismeasuring Corruption Lets Rich Countries Off the Hook | by Yuen Yuen Ang" 4039:"Corruption as an international policy problem: overview and recommendations" 3822: 3720: 3527: 3452: 2681: 2578: 2097: 1884: 1868: 1860: 1797: 1780:" themselves through the appropriation of religion. In organizations such as 1777: 1761: 1757: 1730: 1717: 1679: 1421: 1304: 577: 335: 156: 7012:"Rs 144 crore wrongful profit! Sebi finds stock manipulation in 5 smallcaps" 6462: 5441:"Dubai's Role in Facilitating Corruption and Global Illicit Financial Flows" 4846:(1998), Controlling Corruption, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA 779:. The money was granted in the form of all-expenses-paid trips to 96 MPs by 632:, without approval from their superiors. As a result, many countries have a 9871: 9823: 9818: 9778: 9678: 9648: 9599: 9408: 8731:"Tour Bus Offers Sightseeing of Emblematic Corruption Spots in Mexico City" 8027: 7662: 7087:"I-T Department, SEBI begin crackdown on penny stock firms in PMO-led push" 6544: 5622:"Former corrections officer sentenced for smuggling contraband into prison" 5536: 5350: 2369: 2148: 1909: 1904: 1835: 1793: 1462: 1425: 898:

in order to secure convictions of suspects—for example, through the use of

888: 863: 812: 800: 780: 617: 440: 383:

study, the following factors have been attributed as causes of corruption:

235: 145: 54:

in the world in 2023; a higher score indicates lower levels of corruption.

9478: 7859: 7597:

Dobos, Ned (14 September 2015). "Networking, Corruption, and Subversion".

5590:"Police officer guilty of selling seized drugs back to dealers for profit" 1821:, multiple methods of corruption are used concurrently with similar aims. 1565:

over the secret and illegal sale and shipment of arms from the nations of

737: 9835: 9793: 9788: 9753: 9720: 9603: 8098:"Why has China's economy grown despite corruption and is now stagnating?" 5247:"Corruption and Anti-Corruption in Environmental and Resource Management" 3572: 3532: 3487: 3472: 2574: 2570: 2361: 2080: 1924: 1389: 1379:

Corruption, the abuse of entrusted power for private gain, as defined by

1350: 1296: 1217: 1209: 808: 701: 649: 281:

The government system in many countries is divided into the legislative,

168: 164: 160: 8828: 8791: 8167: 6959:""Who'll Invest in India if Scams Like This Happen?": Judge in NSE Case" 6784:""Who'll Invest in India if Scams Like This Happen?": Judge in NSE Case" 4681:

Revolution and Its Past: Identities and Change in Modern Chinese History

4003: 2520: 10288: 10109:

Commission for the Prevention of Corruption of the Republic of Slovenia

9803: 9758: 9715: 8551: 8400: 8379: 6929:"Trading 'queen' and mystery guru: Strange tale engulfs NSE in scandal" 6766:"Trading 'queen' and mystery guru: Strange tale engulfs NSE in scandal" 5941:"Brazil Supreme Court judge handling graft probe killed in plane crash" 5471:"MPs accept £800,000 worth of trips from states in Saudi-led coalition" 5273: 4936:

Kubbe, Ina; Baez-Camargo, Claudia; Scharbatke-Church, Cheyanne (2024).

4874: 4857: 4198: 3845: 3577: 2306: 1888: 1789: 1738: 1558: 997: 927: 662: 541: 537: 308: 128: 8072:"How Exceptional Is China's Crony-Capitalist Boom? | by Yuen Yuen Ang" 7449:

One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America

7433:

One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America

5231:

https://www.unodc.org/documents/treaties/publications/core_factors.pdf

3743:"How Exceptional Is China's Crony-Capitalist Boom? | by Yuen Yuen Ang" 866:

rings or other illegal activities. When civilians become witnesses to

397:

Higher levels of bureaucracy and inefficient administrative structures

241: 9725: 9653: 9613: 9594: 7997:"Challenging the chaebol: big business and corruption in South Korea" 7325: 5055:"Corruption in Our Courts: What It Looks Like and Where It Is Hidden" 4578:

Corruption and the secret of law: a legal anthropological perspective

3799:"The grand challenge: Effective anti-corruption measures in projects" 3512: 2562: 2432:

Foreign corrupt practices of industrialized OECD countries 1994 study

1968: 1964: 1954: 1848: 1300: 1288: 1249: 989: 939: 629: 521: 509: 201: 148:

and it may also involve practices which are legal in many countries.

8531: