Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire

20: 888:

and cities of the Eastern empire, public blood sacrifices were no longer normative by the time Julian came to power and embarked on his pagan revival. Public sacrifices and communal feasting had declined as the result of a decline in the prestige of pagan priesthoods and a shift in patterns of in civic life. That shift would have occurred on a lesser scale even without the conversion of Constantine... It is easy, nonetheless, to imagine a situation in which sacrifice could decline without disappearing. Why not retain, for example, a single animal victim in order to preserve the integrity of the ancient rite? The fact that public sacrifices appear to have disappeared completely in many towns and cities must be attributed to the atmosphere created by imperial and episcopal hostility.

282:

was primarily interested in hoards of gold and silver, but he also, on occasion, confiscated temple land; he refused to support pagan beliefs and practices while also speaking out against them; he periodically forbade pagan sacrifices and closed temples, outlawed the gladiatorial shows while still attending them, made laws that threatened and menaced pagans who continued to sacrifice, while also making other laws that markedly favored Christianity; and he personally endowed Christians with gifts of money, land and government positions. Yet, Constantine did not stop the established state support of the traditional religious institutions, nor did society substantially change its pagan nature under his rule.

1199: 1664:

heretics. Most are found in Book XVI, ‘De Fide Catholica’, "On the Catholic Faith". The laws fall into three general categories: laws to encourage conversion; laws to define and punish the activities of pagans, apostates, heretics and Jews; and laws concerned with the problems of implementing the laws, that is, laws aimed at the conversion of the aristocracy and the administrative system itself. Most importantly, it details the cult activities that the emperor and the Catholic Church considered unsuitable. The language of these religious laws is uniformly vehement and the penalties are harsh and frequently horrifying.

1583:, but it was Christianization that Gibbon saw as primary. White says that, by Gibbon's own self-description, Gibbon was a "philosophical historian" who believed that the primary virtues of civilization were war and monarchy. He saw Christian teaching as pacifistic and Christians as unwilling to support the virtue of war and join the military; he said Christians were hiding their cowardice and laziness under the cloak of religion. It was this unwillingness to support war that Gibbon claimed was the primary cause of Rome's decline and fall, saying: "the last remains of the military spirit were buried in the 1651:

ill supported polemics". Antique Christian accounts proclaim uniform victory while some current historiography begins with the "infinite superiority" of the Roman Empire based on an "idealized image" of it, then proceeds to vivid accounts of its unpleasant, ignorant, and violent enemies (the barbarians and the Christians), which is all intended to frame a "grandiose theory of catastrophe from which there would be no return for half a millennia". The problem with this, according to Brown, is that "much of this 'Grand Narrative' is wrong; it is a two dimensional history".

247:

hesitation in "taking out" the Christian church which they saw as a threat to the peace of the empire, and that Constantine and his successors did what they did for the same reasons. Rome had been removing anything it saw as a challenge to Roman identity since Bacchic associations were dissolved in 186 BCE; this had become the pattern for the Roman state's response to anything it saw as a religious threat. According to Brown, that attitude and belief in what was required to maintain the peace of the empire didn't change just because the emperors were Christian.

387:, never mentions any law against sacrifices. Archaeologist Luke Lavan writes that blood sacrifice was already declining in popularity by the time of Constantine, just as construction of new temples was also declining, but that this seems to have little to do with anti-paganism. Drake has written that Constantine personally abhorred sacrifice and removed the obligation to participate in them from the list of duties for imperial officials, but evidence of an actual sweeping ban on sacrifice is slight, while evidence of its continued practice is great. 1138:'s view, is how much legislation was applied and used, which would show how dependable the laws are as a reflection of what actually happened to pagans in history. Brown says that, given the large numbers of non-Christians in every region at this time, local authorities were "notoriously lax in imposing them. Christian bishops frequently obstructed their application. The harsh imperial edicts had to face the vast following of paganism among the population, and the passive resistance of governors and magistrates, thereby limiting their impact. 1508: 1468:

and Christians alike could share... could be described as Christian "only in the narrowest sense" had developed. It is true that Christians had ensured that blood sacrifice played no part in that culture, but the sheer success and unusual stability of the Constantinian and post-Constantinian state also ensured that "the edges of potential conflict were blurred... It would be wrong to look for further signs of Christianization at this time. It is impossible to speak of a Christian empire as existing before Justinian".

262: 590: 623: 454: 1747:’ anger: “we know of many such acts of iconoclasm and arson because well-placed persons still felt free to present these incidents as flagrant departures from a more orderly norm". Scholars such as Cameron, Brown, Markus, Trombley and MacMullen have lent considerable weight to the notion that the boundaries between pagan and Christian communities in the 4th century were not as stark as some prior historians claimed because open conflict was actually something of a rarity. 7156: 1012: 684:, the deconsecration of a temple merely required the removal of the cult statue and altar, and it could be reused. The Law Codes from around the same time as Prudentius say that temples “empty of illicit things” were to suffer no further damage and idols were only “illicit” if they were still venerated. However, this was often extended to the removal or even destruction of other statues and icons, votive stelae, and all other internal imagery and decoration. 11130: 1460: 10518: 11120: 606: 1079:, who had vandalized a number of pagan shrines in the eastern provinces, Theodosius replaced him with a moderate pagan who subsequently moved to protect the temples. During his first official tour of Italy (389–391), the emperor won over the influential pagan lobby in the Roman Senate by appointing its foremost members to important administrative posts. Theodosius also nominated the last pair of pagan consuls in Roman history ( 879:

through Galatia and seeing the strength of the church and its charitable institutions, he wrote to the high priest of the province that all the new priests were to "follow a thoroughgoing programme of personal moral example and public institutions to outdo the Christians at their own game... for it is disgraceful that none of the Jews is a beggar and the impious Galilaeans provide support for our people as well as theirs".

695:, there were fewer temples constructed empire-wide, for mostly financial reasons, after the building craze of the 2nd century ended. However, Constantine's reign did not comprise the end of temple construction. In addition to destroying temples, he both permitted and commissioned temple construction. The dedication of new temples is attested in the historical and archaeological records until the end of the 4th century. 11140: 1723:, most textual scholars now accept this, although historical accounts often tend to give imperial laws the greatest prominence... we have to accept the fact that archaeology may reveal a very different story from the texts... The anti-pagan legislation of the Christian emperors drew on the same polemical rhetoric and modern scholars are now all too aware of the limitations of those laws as historical evidence. 1131:

pagan culture most abhorrent to Christians. If they could not stop the private practice of sacrifice, they could "hope to determine what would be normative and socially acceptable in public spaces". Altars used for sacrifice were routinely smashed by Christians who were deeply offended by the blood of slaughtered victims as they were reminded of their own past sufferings associated with such altars.

1071:

turned pagan holidays into workdays, but the festivals associated with them continued. A number of laws against sacrifice and divination, closing temples that continued to allow them, were issued towards the end of his reign, but historians have tended to downplay their practical effects and even the emperor's direct role in them. Most of Theodosius' religious legislation was against heresy.

653:, a site venerated and occupied by Christians, Jews and pagans alike, the literature says Constantine ordered the burning of the idols, the destruction of the altar, and erection of a church. The archaeology of the site, however, demonstrates that Constantine's church along with its attendant buildings, only occupied a peripheral sector of the precinct, leaving the rest unhindered. 1587:". Gibbon disliked religious enthusiasm and zeal and singled out the monks and martyrs for particular denigration as representative of these "vices". According to historian Patricia Craddock, Gibbon's History is a masterpiece that fails only where his biases effect his method, allowing the "desertion of the role of historian for that of prosecuting attorney". 1499:. Most pagan literature was on papyrus, and so it perished before being able to be copied onto something more durable. Herrin says it is difficult to assess the degree to which Christians are responsible for the losses of ancient documents in many cases, but in the mid-sixth century, active persecution in Constantinople destroyed many ancient texts. 1288:

prevent the damaging of many holy sites, images and objects of piety by Christian zealots. However, in 388 at Callinicum, (modern Raqqa in Syria), the bishop along with monks from the area burned a Jewish synagogue to the ground, and Theodosius responded, "The monks commit many atrocities", and he ordered them to pay to rebuild it.

688:

chiseling crosses onto them cleansed them. Once these objects were detached from "the contagion" of sacrifice, they were seen as having returned to innocence. Many statues and temples were then preserved as art. For example, the Parthenon frieze was preserved after the Christian conversion of the temple, although in modified form.

418:(AD 1–30), and carried the threat of banishment and execution even under the pagan emperors. Lavan explains these same private and secret religious rituals were not just associated with magic but also with treason and secret plots against the emperor. Kahlos says Christian emperors inherited this fear of private divination. 327:– an 'outmoded illusion.' Constantine made many derogatory and contemptuous comments relating to the old religion; writing of the "true obstinacy" of the pagans, of their "misguided rites and ceremonial", and of their "temples of lying" contrasted with "the splendours of the home of truth". In a later letter to the 964:

this unlikely and unnecessary as an explanation: Gratian was, himself, devout, and "The many differences between Gratian's religious policies and his father's, and the shifts that occurred during his own reign, are to be explained by changed political circumstances , rather than capitulation to Ambrose".

93:, non-Christians were subject to a variety of hostile and discriminatory imperial laws aimed at suppressing sacrifice and magic and closing any temples that continued their use. The majority of these laws were local, though some were thought to be valid across the whole empire, with some threatening the 748:

Christians were a minority and paganism was still popular among the population, as well as the elites at the time. The emperor's policies were therefore passively resisted by many governors, magistrates, and even bishops, rendering the anti-pagan laws largely impotent when it came to their application.

1650:

says that "religious violence in Late Antiquity is mostly restricted to violent rhetoric: 'in Antiquity, not all religious violence was that religious, and not all religious violence was that violent'". Brown contends that the fall of Rome is a highly charged issue that leads many to "tendentious and

1638:

According to MacMullan, the Christian record declares pagans were not only defeated, but fully converted, by the end of the fourth century, but he says that this claim was "far from true". Christians, in their triumphant exaggeration, and sheer bulk of material, have misrepresented religious history,

1625:

The Christian church believed that the dominance over other philosophies had begun with Jesus; they marked the conversion of Constantine as the end — the final fulfillment — of this heavenly victory, even though Christians were only about 15–18% of the empire's population at the time of Constantine's

1483:

According to Anthony Kaldellis, Justinian is remembered as "the last Roman emperor of ecumenical importance ... the arbiter of the Roman legal tradition." Yet it is as the emperor who sought, once again, to extend Roman authority around the Mediterranean, that he is often seen as a tyrant and despot.

1423:

is known to have housed a substantial population of pagans in late antiquity, including a famous school of philosophy. In Rome, Christianization was hampered significantly by the elites, many of whom remained stalwartly pagan. The institutional cults continued in Rome and its hinterland, funded from

1339:

Some scholars have long asserted that not all temples were destroyed but were instead converted to churches throughout the empire. According to modern archaeology, 120 pagan temples were converted to churches in the whole empire, out of the thousands of temples that existed, and only about 40 of them

1335:

Earthquakes caused much of the destruction that occurred to temples in this era, and people determined not to rebuild as society changed. Recycling and pragmatism contributed to demolition as well, with one building being taken down and another constructed according to the needs of the community with

967:

Modern scholars have noted that Sozomen is the only ancient source that shows Ambrose and Gratian together in any personal interaction. That event occurred in the last year of Gratian's reign. Ambrose crashed Gratian's private hunting party in order to appeal on behalf of a pagan senator sentenced to

900:

After Antioch, Julian would not be deterred from his goal of war with Persia, and he died on that campaign. The facts of his death have become obscured by the "war of words between Christians and pagans" which followed. It was "principally over the source of the fatal spear... The thought that Julian

897:

Christian bishops... was now at an end, replaced by a government that defined its interests and those of Christianity as antithetical. Scholars agree that Julian tried to undermine the church by ordering the construction of churches for Christian “heretical” sects and by destroying orthodox churches.

887:

Blood sacrifice was a central rite of virtually all religious groups in the pre-Christian Mediterranean, and its gradual disappearance is one of the most significant religious developments of late antiquity. Sacrifice did not decline according to any uniform pattern, but...In many of the larger towns

367:

Scott Bradbury, professor of classical languages, writes that Constantine's policies toward pagans are "ambiguous and elusive" and that "no aspect has been more controversial than the claim he banned blood sacrifices". Bradbury says the sources on this are contradictory, quoting Eusebius who says he

1727:

Bayliss states that the Christian sources have greatly influenced perceptions of this period, to the extent that the impression of the conflict which they create has led scholars to assume that the conflict existed on an empire-wide level. However, archaeological evidence indicates that the decline

1377:

reiterated the bans on pagan sacrifices and divination and increased the penalties. The necessity to do so indicates that the old religion still had many followers. In the later part of the 4th century there were clearly a significant number of pagan sympathizers and crypto-pagans still in positions

1149:

Lastly, on the one hand the laws, and these Christian sources with their violent rhetoric, have had great influence on modern perceptions of this period by creating an impression of continuous violent conflict that has been assumed on an empire-wide scale. Archaeological evidence, on the other hand,

1130:

The laws were not intended to convert; "the laws were intended to terrorize... Their language was uniformly vehement, and... frequently horrifying". Their intent was to reorder society along religious lines and enable Christianity to put a stop to animal sacrifice. Blood sacrifice was the element of

980:

and Valentinian's mother strongly disliked Ambrose and generally refused to cooperate with him, taking every opportunity to side against him. Yet, Valentinian II still refused to grant requests from pagans to restore the Altar of Victory and the income of the temple priests and Vestal Virgins or to

963:

Gratian wrote Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan, for spiritual advice and received back multiple letters and books. It has long been convention to see the volume of these writings as evidence Gratian was dominated by Ambrose, who was therefore the true source of Gratian's anti-pagan actions. McLynn finds

901:

might have died by the hand of one of his own side... was a godsend to a Christian tradition eager to have the apostate emperor accorded his just deserts. Yet such a rumor was not solely the product of religious polemic. It had its roots in the broader trail of disaffection Julian left in his wake".

870:

Julian lifted the ban on sacrifices, restored and reopened temples, and dismantled the privileged status of the Christians, giving generous tax remissions to the cities he favored and disfavor to those who remained Christian. He allowed religious freedom and spoke against overt compulsion, but there

858:

and the old religions. He blamed Constantius for the assassination of Julian's father, brother and other family members, which he personally witnessed being killed by the palace guards. As a result, he developed an antipathy to Christianity which only deepened when Constantius executed Julian's only

799:

In 357, Constantius II linked divination and magic in a piece of legislation forbidding anyone from consulting a diviner, astrologer, or a soothsayer; then he listed augurs and seers, Chaldeans, magicians and 'all the rest' who were to be made to be silent because the people called them malefactors.

732:

in 29 BC, and since its installation, each Senator had traditionally made a sacrifice upon the altar before entering the Senate house. When Constantius removed the altar he also allowed the statue of Victory to remain, therefore Thompson concludes that the removal of the altar was to avoid having to

281:

Constantine openly supported Christianity after 324; he destroyed a few temples and plundered more, converted others to churches, and neglected the rest; he "confiscated temple funds to help finance his own building projects", and he confiscated funds in an effort to establish a stable currency; he

1754:

say that "For all their propaganda, Constantine and his successors did not bring about the end of paganism". It continued. Previously undervalued similarities in language, society, religion, and the arts, as well as current archaeological research, indicate that paganism slowly declined for a full

1479:

writes that Emperor Justinian was a major influence in getting Christian ideals and legal regulations integrated with Roman law. Justinian revised the Theodosian codes, introduced many Christian elements, and "turned the full force of imperial legislation against deviants of all kinds, particularly

1326:

If one accepts all potential claims (several of which are very shaky) only 2.4% of all known temples in Gaul have evidence of being destroyed by violence (17 out of 711) ... In Africa, only the city of Cyrene has produced good evidence (the burning of several temples) whilst work in Asia Minor has

1287:

wrote "this black robed tribe" were acting outside the law, but Brown says Theodosius did not enforce those laws. Theodosius voiced his support for the preservation of temple buildings, but passively legitimized the monk's violence by listening to them instead of correcting them, thereby failing to

882:

Julian reached Antioch on July 18 which coincided with a pagan festival that had already become secular. Julian's preference for blood sacrifice found little support, and the citizens of Antioch accused Julian of "turning the world upside down" by reinstituting it, calling him "slaughterer". Altars

537:

explains this by saying Constantine "wanted to obliterate non-Christians, but lacking the means, he had to be content with robbing their temples". Constantine did not obliterate what he took, though. He reused it. Litehart says "Constantinople was newly founded, but it deliberately evoked the Roman

402:

While most scholars agree it is likely Constantine did institute the first laws against sacrifice, leading to its end by the 350's, paganism itself did not end when public sacrifice did. Brown explains that polytheists were accustomed to offering prayers to the gods in many ways and places that did

322:

Lenski says there can be no real doubt Constantine genuinely converted to Christianity. In his personal views, Constantine denounced paganism as idolatry and superstition in that same document to the provincials where he espoused tolerance. Constantine and his contemporary Christians did not treat

269:

According to Hans-Ulrich Wiemer, German historian of Antiquity, there is a persistent pagan tradition that Constantine did not persecute pagans. However, by twenty-first century definitions, Constantine can be said to have practiced a mild psychological and economic persecution of pagans. There are

1621:

calls the "pioneer" who inspired the study of Late Antiquity as a field in itself, and whose work remains seminal. Brown used anthropological models, rather than political or economic ones, to study the cultural history of the period. He said polytheism experienced a "long slow" demise that lasted

1492:

Herrin adds that, under Justinian, this new full "supremacy of Christian belief involved considerable destruction". The decree of 528 had already barred pagans from state office when, decades later, Justinian ordered a "persecution of surviving Hellenes, accompanied by the burning of pagan books,

1467:

Peter Brown has written that, "it would be profoundly misleading" to claim that the cultural and social changes that took place in Late Antiquity reflected "in any way" an overall process of Christianization of the empire. Instead, the "flowering of a vigorous public culture that polytheists, Jews

1145:

Secondly, the laws reveal the emergence of a language of intolerance. The legal language runs parallel to the writings of the apologists, such as Augustine of Hippo and Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and heresiologists such as Epiphanius of Salamis. Christian writers and imperial legislators both drew on a

1098:

requested the restoration of the altar that Gratian had removed and the restoration of state support for the Vestals. Ambrose campaigned against any financial support for paganism and anything like the Altar that required participation in pagan practices. Ambrose prevailed. Theodosius refused the

1074:

Modern scholars think there is little if any evidence Theodosius pursued an active and sustained policy against the traditional cults. There is evidence Theodosius took care to prevent the empire's still substantial pagan population from feeling ill-disposed toward his rule. Following the death in

1061:

quotes Daniel Washburn as writing that the image of the mitered prelate braced in the door of the cathedral to block Theodosius from entering, is a product of the imagination of Theodoret who was a historian of the fifth century. Theodoret wrote of the events of 390 "using his own ideology to fill

698:

Under Constantine, (and for the first decade or so of the reigns of his sons), most of the temples remained open for the official pagan ceremonies and for the more socially acceptable activities of libation and offering of incense. Despite the polemic of Eusebius claiming Constantine razed all the

437:: the interpretation of dreams with the intent of influencing human affairs. The church had no prohibitions against the interpretation of dreams by itself, yet, according to Athanassiadi, both Church and State viewed using it to influence events as "the most pernicious aspect of the pagan spirit". 414:, scholar of Roman literature, says religion before Christianity was a decidedly public practice. Therefore, private divination, astrology, and 'Chaldean practices' (formulae, incantations, and imprecations designed to repulse demons and protect the invoker) all became associated with magic in the 1679:

Luke Lavan and Michael Mulryan point out that the traditional catastrophic view is largely based on literary sources, most of which are Christian, and are therefore considered too partial. Christian historians wrote vividly dramatized accounts of pious bishops doing battle with temple demons, and

1603:

to the present day, it has been assumed that the end of paganism was inevitable once confronted by the resolute intolerance of Christianity; that the intervention of the Christian emperors in its suppression were decisive; ... that, once they possessed such formidable power, Christians used it to

1126:

Anti-pagan legislation reflects what Brown calls "the most potent social and religious drama" of the fourth-century Roman empire. From Constantine forward, the Christian intelligentsia wrote of Christianity as fully triumphant over paganism. It didn't matter that they were still a minority in the

1048:

Modern scholarship has revised this view. Cameron says Ambrose was only one among many advisors, and there is no evidence Theodosius I favored him. On occasion Theodosius I purposefully excluded Ambrose, and at times, got angry enough with Ambrose that Theodosius sent him away from court. Neil B.

883:

used for sacrifice had been routinely smashed by Christians who were deeply offended by the blood of slaughtered victims as they were reminded of their own past sufferings associated with such altars. "When Julian restored altars in Antioch, the Christian populace promptly threw them down again".

878:

On his trip through Asia Minor to Antioch to assemble an army and resume war against Persia, he found the cities falling short of pagan revival. His reforms were met by Christian resistance and civic inertia. Provincial priests were replaced with Julian's sympathetic associates, but after passing

829:

Mob violence was an occasional problem in the independent cities of the empire. Taxes, food and politics were common reasons for rioting. Religion was also a factor though it is difficult to separate from politics since they were intertwined in all aspects of life. In 361, the murder of the Arian

687:

Mutilating the hands and feet of statues of the divine, mutilating heads and genitals, tearing down altars and "purging sacred precincts with fire" were seen as 'proving' the impotence of the gods, but pagan icons were also seen as having been “polluted” by the practice of sacrifice. A ritual and

398:

praising Constantine. The laws as they are stated in the Life of Constantine often do not correspond, "closely, or at all", to the text of the Codes themselves. Eusebius gives these laws a "strongly Christian interpretation by selective quotation or other means". This has led many to question the

285:

Constantine never engaged in a purge. Opponents' supporters were not slaughtered when Constantine took the capital; their families and court were not killed. There were no pagan martyrs. Laws menaced death, but during Constantine's reign, no one suffered the death penalty for violating anti-pagan

192:

that began in the second century, before the emperors were themselves Christian, and which continued into the seventh century. This latter view contends that there was less conflict between pagans and Christians than was previously supposed. In the twenty-first century, the idea that Christianity

1711:

According to Salzman: "Although the debate on the death of paganism continues, scholars ...by and large, concur that the once dominant notion of overt pagan-Christian religious conflict cannot fully explain the texts and artifacts or the social, religious, and political realities of Late Antique

1318:

Trombley and MacMullen say part of why such discrepancies (between the literary sources and the archaeological evidence) exist is because it is common for details in the literary sources to be ambiguous and unclear. For example, Malalas claimed Constantine destroyed all the temples, then he said

747:

dismisses Constantius’ law against sacrifice as one which could only be observed "here and there", asserting that it could never, realistically, have been enforced within a society that still contained the strong pagan element of Late Antiquity, particularly within the imperial machinery itself.

231:

strongly disagrees with those who describe the attitude concerning the "plethora of cults" in the Roman empire before Constantine as "tolerant" or "inclusive". In his view, it is a misuse of terminology. Garnsey has written that foreign gods were not tolerated in the modern sense, but were made

1740:, in reality, there are only a handful of documented examples of temples being entirely destroyed through such acts of aggression. According to Bayliss, this fact means that the archaeological evidence might show that Christian responsibility for the destruction of temples has been exaggerated. 1667:

Contemporary scholars question using the Code, which was a legal document and not an historical work, for understanding history. According to archaeologist Luke Lavan, reading law as history distorts understanding of what actually occurred during the fourth century. There are many signs that a

1070:

Theodosius seems to have adopted a cautious policy overall toward traditional non-Christian cults. He reiterated his Christian predecessors' bans on animal sacrifice, divination, and apostasy, but allowed other pagan practices to be performed publicly and temples to remain open. Theodosius also

1056:

cannot be used to "prove" Ambrose' exceptional or undue influence. The encounter at the church door does not demonstrate Ambrose' dominance over Theodosius because, according to Peter Brown, it never happened. According to McLynn, "the encounter at the church door has long been known as a pious

924:

This apparently sympathetic stance is corroborated by the absence of any anti-pagan legislation in the Theodosian Law Codes from this era. Classics scholar Christopher P. Jones says Valentinian permitted divination so long as it was not done at night, which he saw as the next step to practicing

874:

Bradbury writes that Julian was not averse to a more subtle form of compulsion, and in 362, Julian promulgated a law that, in effect, forbid Christians from being teachers. Julian wrote that "right learning" was essential to pagan reform, and that such learning belonged only to those who showed

812:

that dates to the time of Constantius for the preservation of the temples situated outside of city walls. Constantius also enacted a law that exacted a fine from those who were guilty of vandalizing sites holy to pagans and placed the care of these monuments and tombs under the pagan priests.

1663:

has long been one of the principal sources for the study of Late Antiquity. It is an incomplete collection of laws dating from the reign of Constantine to the date of their promulgation as a collection in 438. Religious laws are in book 16. The code contains at least sixty-six laws targeted at

1427:

Bayliss writes that "We know from discoveries at Aphrodisias that pagans and philosophers were still very much in evidence in the 5th century, and living in some luxury. The discovery of overt pagan statuary and marble altars in a house in the heart of the city of Athens gives a very different

996:

continued to appropriate for the crown the tax revenue collected by the temple custodians. Urban ritual procession and ceremony was gradually stripped of support and funding. Rather than being removed outright though, many festivals were secularized and incorporated into a developing Christian

246:

Brown reminds his readers, "We should not underestimate the fierce mood of the Christians of the fourth century", and, he says, it must be remembered that repression, persecution and martyrdom do not generally breed tolerance of those same persecutors. Brown says Roman authorities had shown no

1381:

From Theodosius on, public sacrifice definitely ended in Constantinople and Antioch, and in those places that were, as Lavan says, "under the emperor's nose" by around 350. However, away from the imperial court, those efforts were not effective or enduring until the fifth and sixth centuries.

1519:

In the last decade of the twentieth century and into the twenty–first century, multiple new discoveries of texts and documents, along with new research (such as modern archaeology and numismatics), combined with new fields of study (such as sociology and anthropology) and modern mathematical

1141:

Twenty-first century studies on the nature of the presence of the state, how it makes itself felt by the populace, "the subtle nature of power" and the eventual complete elimination of public sacrifice all show that, while the impact of imperial law was limited, it was not completely without

896:

assert there was a revival of some persecution against Christians. On the other hand, H. A. Drake says that "In the eighteen brief months that he ruled between 361 and 363, Julian did not persecute , as a hostile tradition contends. But he did make clear that the partnership between Rome and

235:

Roman historian Eric Orlin says that Roman religion's willingness to adopt foreign gods and practices into its pantheon is probably its defining trait. Yet he goes on to say this did not apply equally to all gods: "Many divinities were brought to Rome and installed as part of the Roman state

3720:

Julian's training in Christianity influenced his ideas concerning the revival and organisation of the old religion, shaping it into a more coherent body of doctrine, ritual and liturgy with a hierarchy under the supervision of the emperor.: "FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS", Karl Hoeber, Catholic

277:

of Christians in the empire's history, the victorious Constantine I entered Rome and, without offering sacrifice, bypassed the altar. He proceeded to end the exclusion and persecution of Christians, restored confiscated property to the churches, and adopted a policy toward non-Christians of

1520:

modeling, have undermined much of the traditional view. According to modern theories, Christianity became established in the third century, before Constantine, paganism did not end in the fourth century, and imperial legislation had only limited effect before the era of the eastern emperor

167:

to actions which targeted individual centers of paganism. The gradual transition towards more localized action, corresponds with the period when most conversions of temples to churches were undertaken: the late 5th and 6th centuries. Chuvin says that, through the severe legislation of the

1692:. Lavan and Mulryan indicate that archaeological evidence of religious conflict exists, but not to the degree or the intensity to which it was previously thought, putting the traditional catastrophic view of "Christian triumphalism" in doubt. Rita Lizzi Testa, Professor of Roman history, 1488:

church, which set Constantinople against both Rome and the Eastern provinces. "Few emperors had started so many wars or tried to enforce cultural and religious uniformity with such zeal... In the words of one historian, 'Justinian was conscious of living in the age of Justinian'.

733:

personally sacrifice when he was visiting Rome. In Thompson's view, this makes the altar's removal an act to accommodate his personal religion without offending the pagan senators by refusing to observe their rites. Soon after the departure of Constantius, the altar was restored.

679:

Church restrictions opposing the pillaging of pagan temples by Christians were in place even while the Christians were being persecuted by the pagans. More common than destruction was the practice of "desacralization" or "deconsecration". According to the historical writings of

656:

Temple destruction is attested to in 43 cases in the written sources, but only four have been confirmed by archaeological evidence. Archaeologists Lavan and Mulryan write that earthquakes, civil conflict and external invasions caused much of the temple destruction of this era.

65:), when he destroyed a pagan temple for the purpose of constructing a Christian church. Rome had periodically confiscated church properties, and Constantine was vigorous in reclaiming them whenever these issues were brought to his attention. Christian historians alleged that 1327:

produced just one weak candidate (undated), and in Greece the only strong example may relate to a barbarian rather than a Christian raid. Finally, Egypt has produced no archaeologically-confirmed temple destructions at all dating from this period, with the exception of the

920:

describe the reign of Valentinian as one “distinguished for religious tolerance... He took a neutral position between opposing faiths, and never troubled anyone by ordering him to adopt this or that mode of worship ... left the various cults undisturbed as he found them”.

915:

Bayliss says the position adopted by the Nicene Christian emperor Valentinian I (321–375) and the Arian Christian emperor Valens (364–378), granting all cults toleration from the start of their reign, was in tune with a society of mixed beliefs. Pagan writers, for example

1150:

indicates that, outside of violent rhetoric, there were only isolated incidents of actual violence between Christians and pagans. Non-Christian, (non-heretical), groups such as pagans and Jews enjoyed a tolerance based on contempt through most of Late Antiquity.

928:

Valens, who ruled the east, also tolerated paganism, even keeping some of Julian's associates in their trusted positions. He confirmed the rights and privileges of the pagan priests and confirmed the right of pagans to be the exclusive caretakers of their temples.

1841:

MacMullen says Rome determined whether a new religion received 'tolerance' (absorption) or 'intolerance' (exclusion) based on whether they met the Roman standard of honoring one's god "according to ancestral custom" thereby demonstrating compatibility with Roman

1336:

no anti-paganism being involved. Civil conflict and external invasions also destroyed temples and shrines. Lavan says: "We must rule out most of the images of destruction created by the . Archaeology shows the vast majority of temples were not treated this way".

403:

not include sacrifice, that pollution was only associated with sacrifice, and that the ban on sacrifice had fixed boundaries and limits. Paganism thus remained widespread into the early fifth century continuing in parts of the empire into the seventh and beyond.

1668:

healthy paganism continued into the fifth century, and in some places, into the sixth and beyond. Christian hostility toward pagans and their monuments is seen by most modern scholars as far from the general phenomenon that the law and literature implies.

243:, since Christians most likely formed only sixteen to seventeen percent of the empire's population at the time of Constantine's conversion, they did not have the numerical advantage to form a sufficient power–base to begin a systematic persecution of pagans. 838:

was killed by a Christian mob though politics and personal jealousy were probably the primary causes. Mobs were composed of lower-class urban dwellers, upper class educated pagans, Jews and Christians, and in Alexandria, monks from the monastery of Nitria.

208:

until the 10th century thanks to its practitioners bribing local officials. In 933, however, they were ordered to convert. A visitor to the city in the following year found that there were still pagan religious leaders operating a remaining public temple.

1331:, a situation paralleled in Spain. In Italy, we have only a single burning; Britain has produced the most evidence, with 2 Romano–Celtic temples out of 40 ...being burnt in the 4th c., whilst another was deliberately destroyed, with its mosaics smashed. 289:

Constantine ruled for 31 years and never outlawed paganism; in the words of an early edict, he decreed that polytheists could "celebrate the rites of an outmoded illusion," so long as they did not force Christians to join them. His earlier edict, the

1294:

However, archaeological evidence for the violent destruction of temples in the fourth and early fifth centuries around the entire Mediterranean is limited to a handful of sites. Most recorded incidents of temple destruction are known from church and

1049:

McLynn observes that the documents that reveal the relationship between Ambrose and Theodosius seem less about personal friendship and more like negotiations between the institutions the two men represent: the Roman State and the Italian Church.

85:

veneration there. Constantine used that to justify the temple's destruction, saying he was simply reclaiming the property. Using the vocabulary of reclamation, Constantine acquired several more sites of Christian significance in the Holy Land.

1515:

In the early 21st century, every aspect of Antiquity is undergoing revision as "a hotly debated period". What was thought to be well-known concerning the relation between society and Christianity "has been rendered disturbingly unfamiliar".

4799:

Saradi-Mendelovici, Helen. “Christian Attitudes toward Pagan Monuments in Late Antiquity and Their Legacy in Later Byzantine Centuries.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 44, 1990, pp. 47–61. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1291617. Accessed 25 June

1484:

Justinian's government became increasingly autocratic. He persecuted pagans, religious minorities and purged the bureaucracy of those who disagreed with him. As Byzantine imperial culture became more orthodox, it led to the creation of the

135:

527–565). Pagan teachers (who included philosophers) were banned and their license, parrhesia, to instruct others was withdrawn. Parrhesia had been used for a thousand years to denote "freedom of speech." Despite official threats, sporadic

1871:

fortress, where Zeno besieged them for four years. Zeno finally captured them in 488 and promptly had them executed. Following the revolt, Zeno had several prominent individuals who had supported the revolt executed and their strongholds

1113:

indicates there are several reasons to conclude the Olympic games continued after Theodosius and came to an end under Theodosius II instead. Two scholia on Lucian connect the end of the games with a fire that burned down the temple of the

1344:

says the direct conversion of temples into churches did not begin until the mid fifth century in any but a few isolated incidents. In Rome the first recorded temple conversion was the Pantheon in 609. None of the churches attributed to

334:

Church historians writing after his death wrote that Constantine converted to Christianity and was baptised on his deathbed, thereby making him the first Christian emperor. Lenski observes that the myth of Constantine being baptized by

1594:

writes that, "It is difficult to overestimate the influence of Gibbon's interpretation on subsequent scholarship". Gibbon's views developed into the traditional "catastrophic" view that has been the established hegemony for 200 years.

1639:

as other evidence shows that paganism continued. MacMullen says this is why "We may fairly accuse the historical record of having failed us, not just in the familiar way, being simply insufficient, but also through being distorted".

470:

On Sunday 8 November 324, Constantine consecrated Byzantium as his new residence, Constantinoupolis – "city of Constantine" – with the local pagan priests, astrologers, and augurs, though he still went back to Rome to celebrate his

301:

Drake goes on to say the evidence indicates Constantine favored those who favored consensus, chose pragmatists over ideologues of any persuasion, and wanted peace and harmony "but also inclusiveness and flexibility". In his article

1378:

of power in all levels of the administrative system including positions close to the emperor; even by the 6th century, pagans can still be found in prominent positions of office both locally and in the imperial bureaucracy.

875:'piety toward the old gods'. In a letter written by Julian that still exists, he says: "Let keep to Matthew and Luke". Christians saw this as a threat that barred them from a professional career many of them already held. 3412:

Bury, J.B., 1958. History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius to the Death of Justinian. New York: Dover Publications. 2 vols. Reprint of original edn. Burgoyne Diaries 1985. London: Thomas Harnsworth

183:

Non-Christians were a small minority by the time of the last western anti-pagan laws in the early 600s. Scholars fall into two categories on how and why this dramatic change took place: the long established traditional

440:

Constantine's decree against private divination did not classify divination in general as magic, therefore, even though all the emperors, Christian and pagan, forbade all secret rituals, Constantine still allowed the

3859:

Curran, John (1998). "From Jovian to Theodosius". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337-425. XIII (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 78–110. ISBN

380:, chapter 44, Eusebius explicitly states that Constantine wrote a new law "appointing mainly Christian governors and also a law forbidding any remaining pagan officials from sacrificing in their official capacity". 1397:

against astrologers ordering them to return to Catholicism, and for the books of mathematics that they used for their computations to be "consumed in flames before the eyes of the bishops". A fifth century writer

1127:

empire, this triumph had occurred in Heaven; it was evidenced by Constantine; but even after Constantine, they wrote that Christianity would defeat, and be seen to defeat, all of its enemies - not convert them.

1557:(OHLA), scholars of the late Roman Empire fall into two categories on this topic; they are referred to as holding either the "catastrophic" view or the "long and slow" view of the demise of polytheism. 756:

According to Salzman, Constantius' actions toward paganism were relatively moderate, and this is reflected by the fact that it was not until over 20 years after Constantius' death, during the reign of

5012:

R. P. C. HANSON, THE TRANSFORMATION OF PAGAN TEMPLES INTO CHURCHES IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CENTURIES, Journal of Semitic Studies, Volume 23, Issue 2, Autumn 1978, Pages 257–267, Accessed 26 June 2020

475:: his twenty-year jubilee. Two years after the consecration of Constantinople, Constantine left Rome behind, and on Monday 4 November 328, new rituals were performed to dedicate the city as the new 1291:

These examples were seen as the 'tip of the iceberg' by earlier scholars who saw these events as part of a tide of violent Christian iconoclasm that continued throughout the 390s and into the 400s.

188:

who view the rapid demise of paganism as occurring in the late fourth and early fifth centuries due to harsh Christian legislation and violence, and contemporary scholars who view the process as a

946:

was the first to formally, in law, divert into the crown's coffers those public financial subsidies that had previously supported Rome's cults; he appropriated the income of pagan priests and the

740:

says that Constantius carried out a persistent anti-pagan policy, and that sacrifices were prohibited in all localities and cities of the empire on penalty of death and confiscation of property.

286:

laws against sacrifice. "He did not punish pagans for being pagans, or Jews for being Jews, and did not adopt a policy of forced conversion." Pagans remained in important positions at his court.

278:

toleration with limits. The Edict of Milan (313) redefined Imperial ideology as one of mutual toleration. Constantine could be seen to embody both Christian and Greco-Roman religious interests.

642:, Constantine acquired sites of Christian significance in the Holy Land for the purpose of constructing churches, destroying the temples in those places. For example, Constantine destroyed the 1463:

The extent of the Byzantine Empire under Justinian's uncle Justin I is shown in brown. The light orange shows the conquests of his successor, Justinian I also known as Justinian the Great.

968:

die. After years of acquaintance, this indicates Ambrose could not take for granted that Gratian would see him, so instead, Ambrose had to resort to such maneuverings to make his appeal.

850:, who had been a co-emperor since 355, ruled solely for 18 months from 361 to 363. He was a nephew of Constantine and received Christian training. After childhood, Julian was educated by 800:

In the fourth century, Augustine labeled old Roman religion and its divinatory practices as magic and therefore illegal. Thereafter, legislation tended to automatically combine the two.

3803:

Woods, David. "The Emperor Julian and the Passion of Sergius and Bacchus." Journal of Early Christian Studies, vol. 5 no. 3, 1997, p. 335-367. Project MUSE, doi:10.1353/earl.1997.0075.

1045:

observes that this dominating influence is "often spoken of as though documented fact". Indeed, he says, "the assumption is so widespread it would be superfluous to cite authorities".

1456:, who came to the throne in 491 as the first emperor required to sign a written declaration of orthodoxy before his coronation, the Goths had been Christian for over a hundred years. 298:

points out that this edict called for peace and tolerance: "Let no one disturb another, let each man hold fast to that which his soul wishes…" Constantine never reversed this edict.

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accounts which are eager to portray their subjects' piety and power. They offer vividly dramatized accounts of pious bishops doing battle with temple demons. The temples of Zeus at

239:

Andreas Bendlin has written on the thesis of polytheistic tolerance and monotheistic intolerance in Antiquity saying that it has long been proven to be incorrect. According to

912:

reigned only eight months, from June 363 to February 364, but in that period, he negotiated peace with the Sassanids and reestablished Christianity as the preferred religion.

314:

undoubtedly favored one religion over the other. Leithart says Constantine attributed his military success to God, and during his reign, the empire was relatively peaceful.

4559:

Harald Hagendahl, Augustine and the Latin Classics, vol. 2: Augustine’s Attitude, Studia Graeca et Latina Gothoburgensia (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1967), 601–630.

771:

The temples outside the city remained protected by law. At times, Constantius acted to protect paganism itself. According to author and editor Diana Bowder, the historian

144:

remained widespread into the early fifth century, continuing in parts of the empire into the seventh century, and into the ninth century in Greece. During the reigns of

871:

was little other option open to him. By the time Julian came to rule, the empire had been ruled by Christian emperors for two generations and the people had adapted.

10037: 1783: 218: 3869:

Philippe Fleury. Les textes techniques de l’Antiquité. Sources, études et perspectives. Euphrosyne. Revista de filologia clássica, 1990, pp.359-394. ffhal-01609488f

5593:

Lepelley, C. 1992. "The survival and fall of the classical city in Late Roman Africa". In J. Rich (ed.) The City in Late Antiquity. London and New York, pp. 50-76.

892:

Julian became frustrated that no one seemed to match his zeal for pagan revival. His reform soon moved from toleration to imperial punishment. Historians such as

11174: 11164: 5569:

Honoré, T. (1986). III. The Making of the Theodosian Code, Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte: Romanistische Abteilung, 103(1), 133-222. doi:

2976:

S. J. B. Barnish. “An Underrated Mediocrity.” The Classical Review, vol. 43, no. 2, 1993, pp. 354–356. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/713567. Accessed 29 July 2020.

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religious". Herrin says, "This effectively put the word of God on the same level as Roman law, combining an exclusive monotheism with a persecuting authority".

10583: 10244: 9642: 7729: 7556: 1548: 760:, that any pagan senators protested their religion's treatment. The emperor Constantius never attempted to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the 10949: 10172: 10025: 736:

Constantius also shut down temples, ended tax relief and subsidies for pagans, and imposed the death penalty on those who consulted soothsayers. Orientalist

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Pagans and Christians in Late Antique Rome: Conflict, Competition, and Coexistence in the Fourth Century. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2016.

1768: 550: 169: 11194: 11085: 3706: 5751:

Cameron, Averil. Christianity and the Rhetoric of Empire: The Development of Christian Discourse. United Kingdom, University of California Press, 1994.

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Thompson, Glen L. (28 June 2012). "Constantius II and the first removal of the Altar of Victory". In Aubert, Jean-Jacques; Várhelyi, Zsuzsanna (eds.).

649:

However, archaeology indicates this type of destruction did not happen as often as the literature claims. For example, at the sacred oak and spring at

331:, Constantine wrote how he shunned the "abominable blood and hateful odors" of pagan sacrifices, and instead worshiped the High God "on bended knee". 10049: 19: 11184: 1818: 1276:(384-88) commissioned temple destruction on a wide scale, even employing the military under his command and "black-robed monks" for this purpose. 1103: 4350:

Trombley, Frank R. Hellenic Religion and Christianization, C.370-529. Netherlands, Brill Academic Publishers, 2001, p. 53

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had been definitively stamped out. However, Athanassiadi says the church's real targets in Antiquity were home-made oracles for the practice of

9573: 1475:, also known as Justinian the Great (527-565), enacted legislation with repeated calls for the cessation of sacrifice well into the 6th century. 6614:

Saradi-Mendelovici, Helen (1990). "Christian Attitudes toward Pagan Monuments in Late Antiquity and Their Legacy in Later Byzantine Centuries".

1428:

impression from that presented by the law codes and literature, of pagans worshipping in secrecy and constant fear of the governor and bishop".

10450: 9923: 9717: 813:

Successive emperors in the 4th century made legislative attempts to curb violence against pagan shrines, and in a general law issued in 458 by

3054: 1719:

Straightforward readings of the laws can lead to a grossly distorted image of the period: as thirty years of archaeology has revealed. Within

10220: 10136: 10104: 9911: 7616: 519: 273:

Nine years after Diocletian celebrated twenty years of stable rule with sacrifices on a smoking altar in the Roman Forum and the most severe

5551:

Joannou, Paul. 1972. La Législation Impériale et la Christianisation de l'Empire Romain (311-476). Orientalia Christiana Analecta 192. Rome.

3570:"Julian the Apostate and His Plan to Rebuild the Jerusalem Temple", Jeffrey Brodd, Biblical Archaeology Society, Bible Review, October 1995. 1495: 113:, as well as ordering the closing of all temples. There is no evidence of the death penalty being carried out for illegal sacrifices before 10675: 10184: 10131: 10126: 10121: 8158: 3615:"Julian the Apostate and His Plan to Rebuild the Jerusalem Temple", Jeffrey Brodd, Biblical Archaeology Society, Bible Review, October 1995 2739:

John Curran, Pagan City and Christian Capital (Oxford 2000), chapter 5, “The Legal Standing of the Ancient Cults in Rome,” esp. pp. 169-81.

2419:

H. A. Drake, LAMBS INTO LIONS: EXPLAINING EARLY CHRISTIAN INTOLERANCE, Past & Present, Volume 153, Issue 1, November 1996, Pages 3–36,

4570: 2381: 1146:

rhetoric of conquest. These writings were commonly hostile and often contemptuous toward a paganism Christianity saw as already defeated.

10438: 9953: 8200: 8188: 1311:

are said to have been brought down by the local bishops around this period, but the only source for this information is the biography of

672:

structures of all types. This progressive decay was accompanied by an increased trade in salvaged building materials, as the practice of

196:

In 529 CE, the Byzantine emperor Justinian ordered the closing of the Academy at Athens. The last teachers of the Academy, Damascius and

10250: 9627: 8247: 2603:

Salzman, Michele R. "'Superstitio'in the Codex Theodosianus and the Persecution of Pagans1." Vigiliae Christianae 41.2 (1987): 172-188.

2132:

Chuvin, Pierre. A chronicle of the last pagans. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1990. London., pp.59-63.

1399: 3232:

Deichmann, F. W. 1975. Die Spolien in der spätantiken Architektur. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-Hist. Kl. 6. München.

950:, forbade their right to inherit land, confiscated the possessions of the priestly colleges, and was the first to refuse the title of 372:, a historian contemporary to Constantine, who says he did not, that it was Constantius II who did so instead. According to historian 10256: 10073: 7305: 1813: 5993: 1579:

says that Gibbon gave four reasons for the downfall of the Roman Empire: "immoderate greatness", wealth and luxury, barbarians, and

8163: 6717: 3241:

Dagron, Gilbert. "Naissance d'une capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 à 451." Bibliothèque byzantine/Etudes (1974).

1803: 1732:, was relatively non-confrontational. While some historians have focused on the cataclysmic events such as the destruction of the 2242: 9535: 8173: 1402:

wrote a condemnation of methods "demons used to ensnare human hearts" including augury, astrology, magical spells, malign magic,

9983: 9480: 8168: 7902: 351:, which occurred while on campaign to Persia. Constantine swung through the Holy Land with the intent of being baptized in the 36: 10031: 1272:

According to Brown, Theodosius was a devout Christian anxious to close the temples in the East. His commissioner, the prefect

97:, but not resulting in action. None seem to have been effectively applied empire-wide. For example, in 341, Constantine's son 11204: 10553: 10232: 9632: 9450: 8275: 7802: 6652: 6587: 6512: 6491: 6470: 6449: 6430: 6372: 6226: 6162: 6140: 5982: 5906: 4590: 1604:

convert as many non-Christians as possible – by threats and disabilities, if not by the direct use of force.

10280: 716:

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Constantius issued bans on sacrifice which were in keeping with his personal maxim:

9540: 9415: 8568: 1798: 1580: 708: 2393:

De Andrade, José H. Fischel. "On the development of the concept of ‘persecution’in international refugee law." (2006): 23.

518:

that Constantine 'looted the Temples' around the eastern empire in order to get their treasures to build Constantinople.

11009: 10984: 10924: 10376: 10238: 9566: 8121: 6245: 2384:". The Classical Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 2, 1994, pp. 511–524. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/639654. Accessed 23 June 2020. 2023: 1084: 1034: 256: 1419:

The prefecture of Illyricum appears to have been an attractive post for pagans and sympathisers in the 5th century, and

11100: 7792: 7573: 6392: 6324: 5403: 2358: 415: 5560:

Corcoran, Simon. "Hidden from history: the legislation of Licinius." Bristol Classical Press, London. 2010. pp.97-119.

699:

temples, Constantine's principal contribution to the downfall of the temples lay quite simply in his neglect of them.

11143: 11105: 10635: 10160: 10141: 9460: 8220: 7787: 7782: 7758: 7609: 6673: 6555: 6534: 6308: 6181: 6119: 6100: 6068: 5963: 5942: 5880: 5849: 5700: 5612: 5490: 5465: 5319: 5227: 5195: 5094: 4961: 4919: 4871: 4462: 4097: 3919: 3844: 3080: 3038: 2995: 2855: 2724: 2588: 2556: 2479: 2454: 2326: 2301: 2276: 2221: 2198:

Harran: Last Refuge of Classical Paganism, Donald Frew, 2012, Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies

2137: 2071: 1959: 1901: 1357:

Anti-pagan laws were established and continued on after Theodosius I until the fall of the Roman Empire in the West.

997:

calendar, often with little alteration. Some had already severely declined in popularity by the end of 3rd century.

743:

There is no evidence that the harsh penalties of the anti-sacrifice laws were ever enforced. Edward Gibbon's editor

339:

developed toward the end of the fifth century in a romantic depiction of Sylvester's life which has survived as the

10214: 9475: 8148: 7797: 7724: 5920: 5688: 5045:

Smith, R. R. R. 1990. "Late Roman philosopher portraits from Aphrodisias", Journal of Roman Archaeology 90, 127-55.

3253:

Trombley, Frank R. Hellenic Religion and Christianization, C.370-529. Netherlands, Brill Academic Publishers, 2001.

1701: 1680:

much of the framework for understanding this age is based on the “tabloid-like” accounts of the destruction of the

1042: 31:. The Christian cross on the chin and forehead was intended to "deconsecrate" a holy pagan artifact. Found in the 10603: 10492: 10462: 9602: 7741: 7674: 7367: 1115: 193:

became dominant through conflict with paganism has become marginalized, while a grassroots theory has developed.

2030:

quote: "he razed to their foundations those of them which had been the chief objects of superstitious reverence"

11199: 11189: 10969: 10909: 10881: 10640: 10480: 10178: 9559: 8495: 8420: 8178: 737: 9607: 4453:

Brown, Peter (1998). "21 Christianization and religious conflict". In Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (eds.).

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C. G. Herbermann & Georg Grupp, "Constantine the Great", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911, New Advent web site.

11055: 10886: 10498: 10474: 10262: 10061: 8991: 6132:

Through the Eye of a Needle: Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the Making of Christianity in the West, 350–550 AD

6030: 2197: 1852: 3075:

Hans Kung, "The Catholic Church", Ch3 The Imperial Catholic Church", p45, 2001, Weidenfiled & Nicolson,

2549:

Through the Eye of a Needle Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the Making of Christianity in the West, 350-550 AD

2102:

Kaegi, W. E. 1966. "The fifth century twilight of Byzantine paganism", Classica et Mediaevalia 27(1), 243-75

359:

where he was swiftly baptized. He died shortly thereafter on May 22, 337 at a suburban villa named Achyron.

227:

to say that in its process of expansion, the Roman Empire was "completely tolerant, in heaven as on earth".

10388: 10286: 10110: 8831: 8435: 7887: 7602: 6710: 4216:

Washburn, Daniel (2006). "The Thessalonian Affair in the Fifth Century Histories". In Drake, Harold Allen;

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Brown, Peter. "Christianization and religious conflict". The Cambridge Ancient History 13 (1998): 337–425.

5186:

Herrin, Judith (2009). "Book Burning as purification". In Rousseau, Philip; Papoutsakis, Emmanuel (eds.).

2967:

Vanderspoel, John. "Correspondence and correspondents of Julius Julianus." Byzantion 69.2 (1999): 396-478.

1102:

Classicist Ingomar Hamlet says that, contrary to popular myth, Theodosius did not ban the Olympic games.

343:(CPL 2235). This story absolved the medieval church of a major embarrassment: Constantine's baptism by an 11179: 11065: 9737: 9530: 9455: 9214: 8270: 8153: 7699: 5872: 5796:

R. MacMullen, "Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries," Yale University Press, 1997.

1626:

conversion. This narrative imposed a firm closure within the Christian literature on what, according to

1536: 660:

The Roman economy of the third and fourth centuries struggled, and traditional polytheism was expensive.

10326: 4930:

Trombley, F. R. 1995a. Hellenic Religion and Christianization, c. 370-529. New York. I. 166-8, II. 335-6

4683:

Trombley, F. R. 1995a. Hellenic Religion and Christianisation, c. 370-529. New York. I. 166-8, II. 335-6

4024: 2916:

Athanassiadi, Polymnia (1993). "Dreams, Theurgy and Freelance Divination: The Testimony of Iamblichus".

1099:

appeal. Pagans remained outspoken in their demands for respect, concessions and support from the state.

383:

Other significant evidence fails to support Eusebius' claim of an end to sacrifice. Constantine, in his

11060: 11050: 11014: 10856: 10758: 9490: 9154: 9046: 8816: 8588: 8410: 8318: 8183: 8126: 7238: 7212: 6028:

Bradbury, Scott (1994). "Constantine and the Problem of Anti-Pagan Legislation in the Fourth Century".

1095: 831: 10292: 5627:

Boin, Douglas. A Social and Cultural History of Late Antiquity. United Kingdom, Wiley, 2018.

394:, written by Eusebius as a kind of eulogy after Constantine's death. It is not a history so much as a 10783: 10546: 10420: 10396: 10364: 10208: 10013: 9995: 9989: 9947: 9649: 9617: 9510: 8603: 8558: 8485: 8405: 8353: 8343: 8295: 7642: 7372: 7207: 6150: 1823: 1280:

says Cynegius did not limit himself to Theodosius' official policy, but Theodosius did not stop him.

821:, (457 to 461), the temples and other public works gained protection with strict penalties attached. 458: 3062: 2020:

NPNF2-01. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine

1198: 11034: 10226: 9810: 9785: 9727: 9612: 9586: 9111: 9021: 8530: 8510: 8505: 8490: 8443: 8383: 8338: 8140: 7487: 7466: 7456: 6863: 6726: 6236: 2064:

A Tall Order. Writing the Social History of the Ancient World: Essays in honor of William V. Harris

1808: 1203:

Praetorian Prefectures of the Roman Empire (395). The Praetorian Prefecture of the East is in grey.

1135: 1053: 1006: 893: 612: 373: 3937:"Christian emperor, vestal virgins and priestly colleges: Reconsidering the end of roman paganism" 2809: 713:

Constantine's policies were largely continued by his sons though not universally or continuously.

10738: 10708: 10503: 10007: 9929: 9520: 9500: 9440: 9430: 9420: 8826: 8515: 8415: 8395: 8310: 8300: 8005: 7945: 7925: 7637: 7471: 6703: 6266:

Errington, R. Malcolm (1997). "Christian Accounts of the Religious Legislation of Theodosius I".

6078: 5110:

Myres, J. N. L. (1 January 1940). Charanis, Peter (ed.). "The Religious Policy of Anastasius I".

1614: 1576: 631: 32: 4530: 3535: 1755:

two centuries and more in some places, thereby offering an argument for the ongoing vibrancy of

11095: 10851: 10625: 10456: 10432: 10148: 9732: 9705: 9681: 9676: 9525: 9515: 9465: 9445: 9259: 9234: 9199: 9081: 8806: 8453: 8215: 7746: 7299: 5662: 3967: 3367: 3316: 1759:

in late antiquity, and its continued unity and uniqueness long after the reign of Constantine.

1681: 1453: 1424:

private sources, in a considerably reduced form, but still existent, as long as empire lasted.

1393:, there were multiple injunctions against magic and divination. One example was the law of 409 1090:

Between 382 and 384, there was yet another dispute over the Altar of Victory. According to the

830:

bishop George of Cappadocia was committed by a mob of pagans, A Christian mob threw objects at

6571:

The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire

2091:

The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire

270:

also indications he remained relatively tolerant of non-Christians throughout his long reign.

109:. In 356, he issued two more laws forbidding sacrifice and the worship of images, making them 10914: 10806: 10763: 10426: 10085: 9870: 9835: 9805: 9659: 9582: 9495: 9425: 9249: 9001: 8801: 8796: 8593: 8500: 8425: 8388: 8373: 8348: 8328: 8230: 7518: 7415: 7071: 6990: 6738: 4582: 1181: 555: 422: 348: 197: 173: 47: 2581:

The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine: Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World

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of the year 354 cites many pagan festivals as though they were still being openly observed.

11133: 11075: 10871: 10778: 10748: 10733: 10539: 10408: 10344: 10154: 9965: 9850: 9755: 9691: 9654: 9551: 9505: 9470: 9159: 9026: 8926: 8851: 8716: 8679: 8055: 7719: 7513: 7397: 7351: 7141: 6985: 6758: 3670: 3559:"FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS", Karl Hoeber, Catholic Encyclopedia 1910, retrieved 1 May 2007. 1793: 1778: 1403: 772: 160: 114: 74: 9149: 2644: 8: 11019: 10999: 10979: 10944: 10876: 10788: 10655: 10320: 10300: 10055: 9941: 9885: 9855: 9820: 9710: 9435: 9284: 9086: 8956: 8906: 8225: 7822: 7551: 7357: 7243: 7217: 7076: 6925: 6915: 6878: 3890:"Christopher Jones George Martin Lane Professor of the Classics and of History, Emeritus" 1720: 1689: 4413:

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453: 310:

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1697: 720:(Let superstition cease; let the folly of sacrifices be abolished). He removed the 11080: 11029: 11024: 10964: 10929: 10841: 10798: 10768: 10690: 10608: 10578: 10486: 10402: 10382: 10202: 9865: 9790: 9622: 9184: 9144: 9076: 9011: 8936: 8931: 8703: 8626: 8573: 8368: 8363: 8252: 8111: 8060: 8020: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7970: 7892: 7839: 7832: 7817: 7812: 7736: 7664: 7461: 7192: 7111: 7051: 6910: 6888: 6873: 6623: 6575: 6522: 6401: 6360: 6333: 6277: 6039: 6008: 5916: 5348: 5119: 4709: 4578: 4542: 3979: 3948: 3379: 3328: 2925: 2246: 1600: 1312: 1019: 960:

to be removed again. The colleges of pagan priests lost privileges and immunities.

957: 952: 909: 847: 765: 721: 661: 639: 534: 336: 224: 204:

to Harran (now in Turkey), which became a center of learning. Paganism survived in

90: 82: 58: 6240: 3833: 11090: 11004: 10974: 10698: 10615: 10522: 10444: 10350: 10274: 10268: 10001: 9935: 9800: 9795: 9686: 9279: 9091: 9071: 9031: 8966: 8916: 8911: 8786: 8736: 8644: 8478: 8458: 8378: 7827: 7652: 7583: 7578: 7497: 7492: 7345: 7313: 7197: 6730: 6663: 6569: 6545: 6502: 6481: 6460: 6354: 6298: 6216: 6212: 6130: 5932: 5075:

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The historical sources are filled with episodes of conflict, however, events in

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reports that imperial financial support declined markedly after Augustus. Lower

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on them. In commemoration, Constantine had a statue of the goddess of fortune

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The church had long spoken against anything connected to magic and its uses.

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Theodosian Code 16.10.20; Symmachus Relationes 1-3; Ambrose Epistles 17-18.

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is generally thought of as beginning after the end of the Roman empire's

1521: 1485: 1472: 1420: 1353:

Anti-paganism after Theodosius I until the collapse of the Western Empire

1319:

Theodisius did, then he said Constantine converted them all to churches.

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the historian (Constantine's contemporary) writes in a passage from his

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A year and a half later, on Monday 11 May 330, at the festival of Saint

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The classic inception of the catastrophic view comes from the work of

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All records of anti-pagan legislation by Constantine are found in the

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subject, together with their communities, when they were conquered.

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Jerusalem and Athens: Cultural Transformation in Late Antiquity

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and never acted against the various pagan schools. He remained

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Roman religion's characteristic openness has led many, such as

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Using the same vocabulary of restoration he had used for

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Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia

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Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction

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can be proven to have existed in the fourth century.

718:"Cesset superstitio; sacrificiorum aboleatur insania" 508:

with the face of Constantine looking toward the sun.

5821: 5575: 5421: 4269: 3522: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3294: 3292: 3214: 3192: 3190: 3099: 3097: 2778: 2202: 1769:

Anti-paganism policies of the early Byzantine Empire

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Ambrose: Church and Society in the Late Roman World

3696: 3109: 2911: 2909: 1927: 1925: 1436:In 476, the last western emperor of Roman descent, 323:paganism as a living religion; it was defined as a 156:anti-pagan policies and their penalties increased. 89:From 313, with the exception of the brief reign of 5844:(Volume 13 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 5778: 5766: 5328: 5204: 4728: 4667: 4665: 4621: 4606: 4398: 4064: 3832: 3782: 3564: 3353:History of the Byzantine Empire, 324-1453 Volume 1 3280: 3256: 3160: 2528: 2516: 904: 457:Early coin of Constantine commemorating the pagan 6665:Hellenic Religion and Christianization c. 370-529 6480:Lavan, Luke & Mulryan, Michael, eds. 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Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 257. 4811:The Destruction of Paganism in the Roman Empire 4662: 4655: 4653: 3968:"The Altar of Victory – Paganism's Last Battle" 3888:Harvard University Department of the Classics. 3839:. University of California Press. p. 243. 3533: 3368:"The Altar of Victory – Paganism's Last Battle" 3317:"The Altar of Victory – Paganism's Last Battle" 2540: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2428: 1946: 1944: 1942: 1940: 1646:were often dramatized for ideological reasons. 1340:are dated before the end of the fifth century. 1322:According to archaeologists Lavan and Mulryan: 406: 306:, Drake concludes that Constantine's religious 11175:Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire 11165:States and territories established in the 330s 9924:Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent 9918:Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire 6613: 5715: 5398:(First ed.). Princeton University Press. 4988: 4679: 4677: 3914:(reprint ed.). 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Berkeley: University of California Press. 6527:Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 6504:Religious Dissent in Late Antiquity, 350–450 6479: 6318:Graf, Fritz (2014). "Laying Down the Law in 6190: 5760: 5727: 5648: 5571:https://doi.org/10.7767/zrgra.1986.103.1.133 5296: 5033: 5000: 4976: 4939: 4650: 4448: 4446: 4444: 4442: 4440: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4425:The End of Greek Athletics in Late Antiquity 4389: 3130: 3017:Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 2915: 2885: 2760: 2697: 2425: 2344: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2044: 1937: 1630:, had in reality been a "wavering century." 1542: 1502: 1410:predictions gained from the flights of birds 10439:Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh 9954:Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent 6574:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 5833: 5790: 5682: 5680: 5547: 5545: 5309: 4945: 4912:Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D.100–400 4674: 4571:"The Religious History of the Roman Empire" 4562: 3534:Manders, Erika; Slootjes, Daniëlle (2020). 3351:Vasilʹev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1964). 3249: 3247: 3022: 2979: 2850:(reprint, revised ed.). Weiser Books. 2472:The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction 2243:Religious Toleration in Classical Antiquity 2230: 2066:(illustrated ed.). Walter de Gruyter. 1952:Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D.100-400 1885: 1714:The Archaeology of Late Antique 'Paganism': 1134:One of the important things about this, in 1000: 843:Restoration of paganism by Julian (361–363) 702: 236:religion, but a great many more were not". 212: 11195:490s disestablishments in the Roman Empire 10554: 10540: 9574: 9560: 7617: 7603: 6718: 6704: 6642: 6483:The Archaeology of Late Antique 'Paganism' 5840:Lenski, Noel, ed. (2006). "Introduction". 5738: 5736: 5605:The Archaeology of Late Antique "paganism" 5387: 5181: 5179: 5177: 5175: 5173: 4224:. University of California, Santa Barbara. 4209: 3573: 3433: 3305: 2848:Chaldean Magic: Its Origin and Development 2255: 2173: 2080: 2057: 2055: 2053: 1896:(illustrated ed.). Brill. p. 3. 1197: 981:overturn the policies of his predecessor. 933:Ambrose, Gratian, and the Altar of Victory 580:Desacralization and destruction of temples 538:past religiously as well as politically". 250: 69:(2nd century) had constructed a temple to 10074:Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars 6521: 6296: 6265: 6235: 5745: 5654: 5554: 5217: 4898: 4855: 4763: 4643: 4641: 4639: 4504: 4492: 4431: 4416: 4338: 4299: 4246: 4124: 3721:Encyclopedia 1910, retrieved 13 May 2007. 2845: 2685: 2673: 2574: 2572: 2570: 2568: 2376: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2335: 2310: 2211: 2142: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 1987: 1814:Religious persecution in the Roman Empire 1750:Brown and others such as Noel Lenski and 1743:As Peter Brown points out with regard to 1575:. Written in the 18th century, historian 1121: 1065: 863:and he was initiated into at least three 854:and became attracted to the teachings of 317: 140:, and confiscations of temple treasures, 10561: 6661: 6529:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 6459:Judge, E.A. (2010). Alanna Nobbs (ed.). 6420: 6027: 5991: 5869:Constantine and the Conversion of Europe 5677: 5660: 5542: 5474: 5334: 5290: 5084: 4886: 4575:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion 4516: 4477: 4455:The Cambridge Ancient History, volume 13 4422: 4215: 4087: 3965: 3830: 3776: 3764: 3752: 3737: 3690: 3657: 3642: 3458:History of the Byzantine Empire 324–1453 3396: 3365: 3350: 3314: 3244: 2748: 2714: 2661: 2494: 2444: 2061: 1985: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1916: 1804:Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I 1708:is pure historiographical construction. 1506: 1458: 1010: 795:Legislation against magic and divination 621: 452: 260: 37:National Archaeological Museum in Athens 27:, 1st century AD copy of an original by 18: 11185:320s establishments in the Roman Empire 10038:French Revolutionary dechristianisation 7624: 6604: 6564: 6389: 6352: 6149: 5896: 5733: 5686: 5636: 5480: 5412: 5266: 5170: 4904: 4837: 4371: 4359: 4326: 4314: 4203: 4155:Faculty of History University of Oxford 4136: 4112: 3863: 3400: 3154: 3028: 2985: 2796: 2291: 2285: 2245:. Studies in Church History, 21, 1-27. 2050: 1891: 16:Late Roman Empire persecution of pagans 11157: 9984:Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain 6543: 6174:Religious Networks in the Roman Empire 6171: 6058: 5839: 5596: 5185: 5089:. Pen and Sword History. p. 201. 4695: 4636: 4583:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.114 4191: 4167: 4049: 4037: 3262: 2645:"Internet History Sourcebooks Project" 2578: 2565: 2367: 2185: 2117: 1991: 937: 751: 10535: 10233:1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight 9555: 7598: 6699: 6606: 6458: 6439: 6211: 6128: 6109: 5827: 5673:. PARCOURIR LES COLLECTIONS: 165–167. 5621: 5602: 5520: 5508: 5393: 5278: 5254: 5242: 5164: 5152: 5109: 4951: 4849: 4787: 4775: 4751: 4708:(1). Oxford University Press: 53–78. 4568: 4528: 4452: 4179: 3934: 3909: 3516: 3220: 3181: 3166: 3142: 3115: 2784: 2772: 2546: 2469: 2348: 2316: 2266: 2162:The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity 2096: 1964: 1619:The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity 1555:The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity 1168:Ἐπαρχότης τῶν πραιτωρίων τῆς Ανατολῆς 445:to practice their rituals in public. 101:enacted legislation forbidding pagan 6077: 5972: 5581: 5427: 5381: 5222:. University of Pennsylvania Press. 5014:https://doi.org/10.1093/jss/23.2.257 4861: 3603:Cambridge Ancient History, volume 13 3600: 3274: 2534: 2421:https://doi.org/10.1093/past/153.1.3 1799:Religious policies of Constantius II 1608: 1560: 1432:After the fall of the Western Empire 1062:the gaps in the historical record". 1016:Saint Ambrose and Emperor Theodosius 709:Religious policies of Constantius II 362: 11139: 10584:Decline of the Western Roman Empire 10377:Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War 10327:Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh 10239:Jewish exodus from the Muslim world 10032:Christianization of the Sámi people 6356:Theodosius and the Limits of Empire 6246:Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 5951: 5784: 5772: 5063: 4825: 4734: 4630: 4615: 4070: 3791: 3504: 3208: 3196: 3103: 3029:Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000). 2522: 2111: 1931: 1859:, revolted against Eastern Emperor 1511:Roman empire at its greatest extent 500:built, as well as a column made of 257:Religious policies of Constantine I 57:306–337) in the military colony of 13: 10676:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire 7154: 6500: 6440:Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin (1986). 6393:Journal of Early Christian Studies 6325:Journal of Early Christian Studies 5816:Professor of Classics and History. 5805: 5314:. University of California Press. 4702:The Journal of Theological Studies 4287: 4234: 4148: 3474: 2900: 2870: 2833: 2353:(10th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 14: 11216: 11106:Historiography in the Middle Ages 10221:Violence against Muslims in India 10215:Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan 10161:Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses 6682: 6114:. University of Wisconsin Press. 5934:Consuls of the Later Roman Empire 5687:Mulryan, Michael (January 2011). 4263: 1385:By the early fifth century under 1161:Praetorian prefecture of the East 1154:Temple destruction and conversion 1092:Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity 676:became common in Late Antiquity. 483:and pontifex maximus Praetextus. 449:Constantinople and temple looting 385:Letter to the Eastern Provincials 11138: 11129: 11128: 11118: 10516: 6317: 5858: 5799: 5587: 5563: 5526: 5103: 5069: 5048: 5039: 5018: 5006: 4924: 4553: 4407: 4344: 4275: 4142: 4055: 4017: 4007:"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Gratian" 3999: 3990: 3959: 3881: 3872: 3853: 3824: 3815: 3806: 3797: 3714: 3663: 3618: 3609: 3355:. University of Wisconsin Press. 1845: 971: 626:Ivory diptych of a priestess of 604: 588: 200:were invited by a Persian ruler 10604:Christianity in the Middle Ages 10599:Decline of Hellenistic religion 10493:2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel 10463:Persecution of Uyghurs in China 6668:(2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. 5890: 5310:White (Jr.), Lynn, ed. (1973). 4914:, Yale University Press, 1984, 3553: 3406: 3359: 3235: 3226: 3085: 3069: 3047: 2970: 2961: 2952: 2802: 2733: 2719:. Clarendon Press. p. 29. 2637: 2619: 2606: 2597: 2387: 2191: 2000:, vol. I, Sheed & Ward 1954:, Yale University Press, 1984, 1835: 1315:which is considered a forgery. 1075:388 of his praetorian prefect, 905:From Jovian to Valens (363–378) 824: 355:, but he became deathly ill at 130: 119: 52: 10882:Crisis of the late Middle Ages 10481:2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings 10451:Genocide of Christians by ISIL 10185:Communist Romanian persecution 6425:. Edinburgh University Press. 6297:Errington, R. Malcolm (2006). 6193:The Catholic Historical Review 6135:. Princeton University Press. 5973:Boyd, William Kenneth (2005). 5485:. Cambridge University Press. 5460:. Cambridge University Press. 4457:. Cambridge University Press. 3910:Jones, Christopher P. (2014). 2990:. Cambridge University Press. 2551:. Princeton University Press. 2321:. Princeton University Press. 2296:. Cambridge University Press. 1863:and raised his own candidate, 1671: 1654: 1164:Praefectura praetorio Orientis 668:meant the physical decline of 265:Rome-Capitole-StatueConstantin 1: 11056:Disability in the Middle Ages 10729:Rise of the Republic of Genoa 10661:Rise of the Venetian Republic 10499:2024 Istanbul church shooting 10475:Christchurch mosque shootings 10263:Religious violence in Nigeria 10257:Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria 6685:"Theodosius I (379–395 A.D.)" 6643:Scourfield, J. H. D. (2007). 4956:(illustrated ed.). OUP. 4427:. Cambridge University Press. 3605:. Cambridge University Press. 3425:Catholic Encyclopedia (1914) 2717:Eusebius' Life of Constantine 1878: 1853:Magister militum per Orientem 1688:, and the publication of the 1622:from the 200s into the 600s. 595:A cult statue of the deified 11205:Religion in the Roman Empire 10389:War crimes in the Kosovo War 10179:Communist Polish persecution 10050:1860 Mount Lebanon civil war 9978:Crusades against schismatics 8189:Frontiers and fortifications 6662:Trombley, Frank R. (2001) . 6241:"Constantine and the Pagans" 5293:, pp. 3, 76, 83–88, 91. 3033:. Cornell University Press. 2918:The Journal of Roman Studies 2846:Lenormant, Francois (1999). 2214:Paganism in the Roman Empire 1395:de maleficis et mathematicis 984:After Gratian, the emperors 407:Magic and private divination 7: 8248:Decorations and punishments 6507:. Oxford University Press. 6501:Kahlos, Maijastina (2019). 6157:. Oxford University Press. 5937:. Oxford University Press. 5873:University of Toronto Press 5812:Yale Department of Classics 5661:Irmscher, Johannes (1988). 5335:Craddock, Patricia (1988). 5218:Kaldellis, Anthony (2012). 4237:, p. 35 (and note 45). 3912:Between Pagan and Christian 3302:, pp. 200-1, Viking Compass 2474:. Oxford University Press. 2470:Kelly, Christopher (2006). 2445:Leithart, Peter J. (2010). 2271:. Oxford University Press. 1762: 1537:Crisis of the Third Century 1245:• reorganization into 341:Actus beati Sylvestri papae 10: 11221: 10857:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 9155:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 7730:historiography of the fall 7213:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus 7152: 6465:. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. 6353:Hebblewhite, Mark (2020). 6282:10.1524/klio.1997.79.2.398 5952:Bayliss, Richard (2004) . 5897:Bagnall, Roger S. (2021). 5539:.8 (May 1996:29–43) p. 34. 4862:Haas, Christopher (2002). 3935:TESTA, RITA LIZZI (2007). 3428:Flavius Julius Constantius 2986:Bardill, Jonathan (2012). 2212:MacMullen, Ramsay (1981). 1633: 1546: 1452:. By the time the Emperor 1172: 1004: 803: 706: 376:, in Book 2 of Eusebius' D 254: 216: 81:hill in order to suppress 46:began during the reign of 11114: 11043: 10902: 10797: 10784:Mongol invasion of Europe 10689: 10569: 10513: 10421:South Thailand insurgency 10397:Walisongo school massacre 10365:Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus 10014:Expulsion of the Moriscos 9990:European wars of religion 9904: 9748: 9593: 9536:External wars and battles 9403: 9297: 9110: 8702: 8695: 8617: 8529: 8434: 8309: 8261: 8139: 8089: 8028: 8019: 7901: 7853: 7773: 7690: 7660: 7651: 7633: 7544: 7506: 7480: 7449: 7408: 7336: 7252: 7231: 7208:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus 7165: 7029: 6754: 6737: 5442:MacMullen, Ramsay (1997) 5124:10.1017/s0009840x00087229 4547:10.1080/00397679708590917 3831:Browning, Robert (1976). 3145:, pp. 8–10, 13, 735. 2251:10.1017/S0424208400007506 1851:In the East, in 484, the 1824:Revival of Roman paganism 1543:Differing scholarly views 1503:Evaluation and commentary 1266: 1262: 1258: 1243: 1233: 1229: 1221: 1217: 1207: 1196: 1191: 1180: 1160: 549:. According to historian 516:In Defense of the Temples 304:Constantine and Consensus 9811:Extrajudicial punishment 7467:Rape of the Sabine Women 6689:De Imperatoribus Romanis 6544:McLynn, Neil B. (1994). 5992:Bradbury, Scott (1995). 5958:. Oxford: Archaeopress. 5761:Lavan & Mulryan 2011 5728:Lavan & Mulryan 2011 5649:Lavan & Mulryan 2011 5085:Crawford, Peter (2019). 5034:Lavan & Mulryan 2011 5001:Lavan & Mulryan 2011 4977:Lavan & Mulryan 2011 4940:Lavan & Mulryan 2011 4840:, pp. 267, 282–283. 4809:Grindle, Gilbert (1892) 4423:Remijsen, Sofie (2015). 4341:, pp. 248–249, 251. 3131:Lavan & Mulryan 2011 2886:Lavan & Mulryan 2011 2873:, p. 200 (note 32). 2698:Lavan & Mulryan 2011 2045:Lavan & Mulryan 2011 2013:Eusebius Pamphilius and 1829: 1809:Religion in ancient Rome 1444:, who became the first " 1414:the scrutiny of entrails 1007:Massacre of Thessalonica 1001:Ambrose and Theodosius I 817:and the western emperor 703:Constantius II (337–361) 399:veracity of his record. 213:Tolerance or intolerance 10739:Investiture Controversy 10709:Second Bulgarian Empire 10504:Crocus City Hall attack 10251:Persecution of Tibetans 10008:French Wars of Religion 9930:Yellow Turban Rebellion 9531:Roman–Iranian relations 8006:Optimates and populares 7472:Battle of Lacus Curtius 6155:The Last Pagans of Rome 5899:Egypt in Late Antiquity 5446:, Yale University Press 5245:, pp. xxvi–xxviii. 4942:, p. xxv; 165-181. 4088:Moorhead, John (2014). 3984:10.3406/antiq.1966.1466 3966:Sheridan, J.J. (1966). 3486:Theodosian Code 16.10.3 3384:10.3406/antiq.1966.1466 3366:Sheridan, J.J. (1966). 3333:10.3406/antiq.1966.1466 3315:Sheridan, J.J. (1966). 3019:, Yale University Press 3015:Ramsay McMullan (1984) 2649:sourcebooks.fordham.edu 2382:Libanius on Constantine 1998:A History of the Church 1992:Hughes, Philip (1949), 815:the Eastern emperor Leo 775:records in his history 691:According to historian 632:Abbey of Montier-en-Der 251:Constantine I (306–337) 180:was finally abolished. 11096:Post-classical history 10852:Fall of Constantinople 10759:Capet–Plantagenet feud 10626:First Bulgarian Empire 10457:Iraqi Turkmen genocide 10433:Maspero demonstrations 10281:Huế Phật Đản shootings 9541:Civil wars and revolts 8807:Sextus Pompeius Festus 8454:Conflict of the Orders 7813:Legislative assemblies 7159: 6727:Ancient Roman religion 6566:Salzman, Michele Renee 6406:10.1353/earl.1998.0035 6338:10.1353/earl.2014.0022 6221:. Aldershot: Ashgate. 5394:Stark, Rodney (1996). 4696:Fowden, Garth (1978). 3896:. Harvard Uniuversity. 3495:Theodosian Code 9.17.2 2814:University of Helsinki 2449:. InterVarsity Press. 2380:Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich. “ 2317:Stark, Rodney (2020). 1892:Loosley, Emma (2012). 1725: 1682:Serapeum of Alexandria 1606: 1512: 1471:The Byzantine emperor 1464: 1333: 1122:Anti-pagan legislation 1066:Theodosius I (381–395) 1023: 956:. He also ordered the 890: 808:There is a law in the 635: 467: 318:Conversion and baptism 266: 170:early Byzantine Empire 161:Law Codes of Justinian 40: 11200:Constantine the Great 11190:491 disestablishments 10427:Boko Haram insurgency 10086:Pontic Greek genocide 9996:Ottoman–Habsburg wars 9806:Extrajudicial killing 9583:Religious persecution 9250:Simplicius of Cilicia 9002:Quintus Curtius Rufus 8231:Siege in Ancient Rome 7840:Executive magistrates 7158: 6616:Dumbarton Oaks Papers 6365:10.4324/9781315103334 6359:. London: Routledge. 6237:Errington, R. Malcolm 6172:Collar, Anna (2013). 6129:Brown, Peter (2012). 6110:Brown, Peter (1992). 6059:Brown, Peter (1997). 4852:, pp. 26, 47–54. 4714:10.1093/jts/XXIX.1.53 4529:Brown, Peter (1997). 3972:L'Antiquité Classique 3953:10.1484/J.AT.2.303121 3372:L'Antiquité Classique 3321:L'Antiquité Classique 2579:Lenski, Noel (2012). 2547:Brown, Peter (2013). 2349:Brown, Peter (2013). 1717: 1712:Rome". Lavan says in 1694:Michele Renee Salzman 1597: 1510: 1462: 1324: 1054:Thessalonian massacre 1014: 918:Ammianus Marcellinus, 885: 625: 456: 423:Polymnia Athanassiadi 416:early imperial period 349:Eusebius of Nicomedia 264: 174:freedom of conscience 48:Constantine the Great 22: 11076:Medieval reenactment 10872:Renaissance Humanism 10779:Medieval Warm Period 10749:Republic of Florence 10563:European Middle Ages 10409:September 11 attacks 10345:1984 anti-Sikh riots 10209:Rawalpindi massacres 10155:White Terror (Spain) 9966:Massacre at Ayyadieh 9851:Population cleansing 9260:Stephanus Byzantinus 9165:Eusebius of Caesaria 9027:Sidonius Apollinaris 8717:Ammianus Marcellinus 8056:Tribune of the plebs 7352:Interpretatio graeca 5763:, pp. xxi, 138. 5523:, pp. 4, xxxii. 5384:, pp. 633, 640. 5112:The Classical Review 4952:Leone, Anna (2013). 4569:North, John (2017). 4404:Symmachus Relatio 3. 4249:, pp. 245, 251. 4157:. Oxford University. 4151:"Faculty of History" 4052:, p. 80,90,105. 3300:God against the Gods 3055:"Constantinople (1)" 2903:, pp. 200, 201. 2775:, pp. 641, 645. 2267:Orlin, Eric (2010). 2241:Garnsey, P. (1984). 1794:Paradox of tolerance 1779:Hellenistic religion 1524:(reign 527 to 565). 1283:The pagan historian 773:Ammianus Marcellinus 374:R. Malcolm Errington 115:Tiberius Constantine 75:crucifixion of Jesus 10789:Kingdom of Portugal 10656:Old Church Slavonic 10641:Anglo-Saxon England 10321:Bangladesh genocide 10301:Cultural Revolution 10293:Xá Lợi Pagoda raids 10056:Circassian genocide 9942:Rhineland massacres 9856:Population transfer 9821:Forced displacement 9633:Jehovah's Witnesses 9436:Distinguished women 9087:Velleius Paterculus 8927:Nicolaus Damascenus 8907:Marcellus Empiricus 8296:Republican currency 7552:Classical mythology 7373:Theology of victory 7218:Kings of Alba Longa 6609:, pp. 265–286. 6580:10.2307/j.ctvk12r62 6031:Classical Philology 5814:. Yale University. 5167:, pp. 652–653. 5003:, pp. xix–xxi. 4519:, pp. 133–139. 4302:, pp. 247–248. 4290:, pp. 330–333. 4278:, pp. 229–232. 4266:, Religious Policy. 3779:, pp. 355–356. 3740:, pp. 354–355. 3645:, pp. 345–346. 3184:, pp. 649–652. 3157:, pp. 261–269. 2810:"Maijastina Kahlos" 2676:, pp. 309–310. 2614:Life of Constantine 2511:Rise of Christendom 1690:Theodosian law code 1661:Theodosian Law Code 1590:Even so, historian 1235:• Established 976:Gratian's brother, 938:Ambrose and Gratian 752:Relative moderation 644:Temple of Aphrodite 392:Life of Constantine 73:on the site of the 11180:323 establishments 10970:In popular culture 10935:Crusading movement 10807:Hundred Years' War 10666:Civitas Schinesghe 10651:Carolingian Empire 10636:Kingdom of Croatia 10589:Barbarian kingdoms 10415:2002 Gujarat riots 10339:Cambodian genocide 10333:Lebanese Civil War 10111:Soviet persecution 9948:Jerusalem massacre 9861:Sectarian violence 9846:Political violence 9210:Phlegon of Tralles 9017:Seneca the Younger 8491:Naming conventions 8221:Personal equipment 7754:Later Roman Empire 7160: 5716:Saradi-Mendelovici 5639:, pp. 4, 112. 4989:Saradi-Mendelovici 4374:, pp. 56, 64. 4206:, pp. 63, 64. 3835:The Emperor Julian 3675:www.tertullian.org 3298:Kirsch, J. 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Leiden: Brill. 6472:978-3-16-150572-0 6451:978-0-8018-3353-3 6432:978-0-7486-6817-5 6374:978-1-138-10298-9 6228:978-0-7546-5498-8 6164:978-0-19-974727-6 6142:978-0-691-15290-5 5984:978-1-58477-531-7 5917:Bagnall, Roger S. 5908:978-1-4008-2116-7 5257:, p. xxviii. 4901:, pp. 86–87. 4592:978-0-19-934037-8 4329:, pp. 65–66. 4149:McLynn, Dr.Neil. 4011:www.newadvent.org 3941:Antiquité Tardive 3703:Pope Benedict XVI 3630:www.newadvent.org 3519:, pp. 85–87. 3277:, pp. 21–22. 2761:Constantelos 1964 2715:Eusebius (1999). 2631:www.newadvent.org 1774:Greco-Roman world 1721:religious history 1609:Long, slow demise 1561:Catastrophic view 1440:, was deposed by 1274:Maternus Cynegius 1270: 1269: 1186:East Roman Empire 1182:Praet. Prefecture 1169: 1136:Malcolm Errington 865:mystery religions 768:until his death. 427:Oracles of Delphi 412:Maijastina Kahlos 363:Ban on sacrifices 11212: 11142: 11141: 11132: 11131: 11122: 11081:Medieval studies 10925:Church and State 10799:Late Middle Ages 10691:High Middle Ages 10609:Christianization 10579:Migration Period 10556: 10549: 10542: 10533: 10532: 10521: 10520: 10487:2020 Delhi riots 10403:Kosheh massacres 10383:Bosnian genocide 10203:1946 Bihar riots 9866:Social cleansing 9791:Ethnic cleansing 9576: 9569: 9562: 9553: 9552: 9501:Magistri equitum 9416:Cities and towns 9409: 9335:Constantinopolis 9145:Diodorus Siculus 9077:Valerius Maximus 9012:Seneca the Elder 8932:Nonius Marcellus 8700: 8699: 8253:Hippika gymnasia 8216:Infantry tactics 8122:Consular tribune 8112:Magister equitum 8061:Military tribune 8026: 8025: 7986:Pontifex maximus 7981:Princeps senatus 7971:Magister militum 7737:Byzantine Empire 7658: 7657: 7619: 7612: 7605: 7596: 7595: 7462:Founding of Rome 7232:Legendary beings 7193:Tullus Hostilius 7030:Abstract deities 6889:Lares Familiares 6752: 6751: 6720: 6713: 6706: 6697: 6696: 6692: 6679: 6658: 6639: 6610: 6601: 6561: 6540: 6518: 6497: 6476: 6455: 6436: 6417: 6386: 6349: 6314: 6293: 6262: 6232: 6208: 6187: 6168: 6146: 6125: 6106: 6074: 6055: 6024: 5998: 5988: 5969: 5948: 5925:Seth R. Schwartz 5912: 5884: 5875:, 2003), p. 73. 5862: 5856: 5855: 5837: 5831: 5825: 5819: 5818: 5803: 5797: 5794: 5788: 5782: 5776: 5770: 5764: 5758: 5752: 5749: 5743: 5740: 5731: 5725: 5719: 5713: 5707: 5706: 5684: 5675: 5674: 5658: 5652: 5646: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5625: 5619: 5618: 5600: 5594: 5591: 5585: 5579: 5573: 5567: 5561: 5558: 5552: 5549: 5540: 5530: 5524: 5518: 5512: 5506: 5497: 5496: 5478: 5472: 5471: 5453: 5447: 5440: 5431: 5425: 5419: 5416: 5410: 5409: 5391: 5385: 5379: 5373: 5372: 5341:Modern Philology 5332: 5326: 5325: 5307: 5294: 5288: 5282: 5276: 5270: 5264: 5258: 5252: 5246: 5240: 5234: 5233: 5215: 5202: 5201: 5183: 5168: 5162: 5156: 5150: 5144: 5143: 5107: 5101: 5100: 5082: 5076: 5073: 5067: 5061: 5055: 5052: 5046: 5043: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5022: 5016: 5010: 5004: 4998: 4992: 4986: 4980: 4974: 4968: 4967: 4949: 4943: 4937: 4931: 4928: 4922: 4908: 4902: 4896: 4890: 4884: 4878: 4877: 4859: 4853: 4847: 4841: 4835: 4829: 4823: 4814: 4807: 4801: 4797: 4791: 4785: 4779: 4773: 4767: 4761: 4755: 4749: 4738: 4732: 4726: 4725: 4693: 4684: 4681: 4672: 4669: 4660: 4657: 4648: 4645: 4634: 4628: 4619: 4613: 4604: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4566: 4560: 4557: 4551: 4550: 4526: 4520: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4490: 4481: 4475: 4469: 4468: 4450: 4429: 4428: 4420: 4414: 4411: 4405: 4402: 4396: 4393: 4387: 4381: 4375: 4369: 4363: 4357: 4351: 4348: 4342: 4336: 4330: 4324: 4318: 4312: 4303: 4297: 4291: 4285: 4279: 4273: 4267: 4261: 4250: 4244: 4238: 4232: 4226: 4225: 4213: 4207: 4201: 4195: 4189: 4183: 4177: 4171: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4146: 4140: 4134: 4128: 4122: 4116: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4085: 4074: 4068: 4062: 4059: 4053: 4047: 4041: 4035: 4026: 4021: 4015: 4014: 4003: 3997: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3932: 3926: 3925: 3907: 3898: 3897: 3885: 3879: 3876: 3870: 3867: 3861: 3857: 3851: 3850: 3838: 3828: 3822: 3819: 3813: 3810: 3804: 3801: 3795: 3789: 3780: 3774: 3768: 3762: 3756: 3750: 3741: 3735: 3729: 3718: 3712: 3708:Deus Caritas Est 3700: 3694: 3688: 3679: 3678: 3667: 3661: 3655: 3646: 3640: 3634: 3633: 3622: 3616: 3613: 3607: 3606: 3598: 3571: 3568: 3562: 3557: 3551: 3550: 3540: 3531: 3520: 3514: 3508: 3502: 3496: 3493: 3487: 3484: 3478: 3472: 3461: 3454: 3443: 3440: 3431: 3423: 3414: 3410: 3404: 3394: 3388: 3387: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3348: 3337: 3336: 3312: 3303: 3296: 3287: 3284: 3278: 3272: 3266: 3260: 3254: 3251: 3242: 3239: 3233: 3230: 3224: 3218: 3212: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3185: 3179: 3170: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3146: 3140: 3134: 3128: 3119: 3113: 3107: 3101: 3092: 3089: 3083: 3073: 3067: 3066: 3061:. Archived from 3051: 3045: 3044: 3026: 3020: 3013: 3002: 3001: 2983: 2977: 2974: 2968: 2965: 2959: 2956: 2950: 2949: 2913: 2904: 2898: 2889: 2888:, p. xxiii. 2883: 2874: 2868: 2862: 2861: 2843: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2806: 2800: 2794: 2788: 2782: 2776: 2770: 2764: 2758: 2752: 2746: 2740: 2737: 2731: 2730: 2712: 2701: 2700:, p. xlvii. 2695: 2689: 2683: 2677: 2671: 2665: 2659: 2653: 2652: 2641: 2635: 2634: 2623: 2617: 2610: 2604: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2576: 2563: 2562: 2544: 2538: 2532: 2526: 2520: 2514: 2507: 2498: 2492: 2486: 2485: 2467: 2461: 2460: 2442: 2423: 2417: 2394: 2391: 2385: 2378: 2365: 2364: 2346: 2333: 2332: 2314: 2308: 2307: 2289: 2283: 2282: 2264: 2253: 2239: 2228: 2227: 2209: 2200: 2195: 2189: 2183: 2177: 2171: 2165: 2159: 2140: 2130: 2115: 2109: 2103: 2100: 2094: 2087: 2078: 2077: 2059: 2048: 2042: 2031: 2011: 2002: 2001: 1989: 1962: 1948: 1935: 1929: 1920: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1889: 1873: 1849: 1843: 1839: 1684:, the murder of 1599:From Gibbon and 1581:Christianization 1531:is debated, but 1313:Porphyry of Gaza 1201: 1175: 1174: 1167: 1165: 1158: 1157: 1112: 1020:Anthony van Dyck 958:Altar of Victory 953:pontifex maximus 766:pontifex maximus 722:Altar of Victory 662:Roger S. Bagnall 640:Aelia Capitolina 608: 592: 559: 535:Ramsay MacMullen 528: 225:Ramsay MacMullen 134: 132: 123: 121: 59:Aelia Capitolina 56: 54: 11220: 11219: 11215: 11214: 11213: 11211: 11210: 11209: 11155: 11154: 11153: 11148: 11110: 11091:Neo-medievalism 11039: 10975:Itinerant court 10898: 10793: 10714:Georgian Empire 10699:Norman Conquest 10685: 10631:Frankish Empire 10565: 10560: 10530: 10525: 10515: 10509: 10445:Yazidi genocide 10351:Revival Process 10287:Thích Quảng Đức 10275:Buddhist crisis 10269:Istanbul pogrom 10137:1970–1987 10132:1958–1964 10127:1928–1941 10122:1921–1928 10117:1917–1921 10002:Goa Inquisition 9936:Battle of Tours 9926:(c.550–c. 1200) 9920:(c. 324–c. 491) 9900: 9801:Ethnic violence 9796:Ethnic conflict 9744: 9743: 9742: 9589: 9580: 9550: 9545: 9407: 9405: 9399: 9289: 9125:Aëtius of Amida 9106: 9092:Verrius Flaccus 9072:Valerius Antias 9032:Silius Italicus 8967:Pliny the Elder 8912:Marcus Aurelius 8787:Cornelius Nepos 8737:Aurelius Victor 8691: 8613: 8525: 8459:Secessio plebis 8430: 8305: 8257: 8131: 8085: 8015: 7897: 7849: 7765: 7686: 7647: 7629: 7623: 7593: 7588: 7584:Myth and ritual 7579:Greek mythology 7540: 7502: 7498:Pignora imperii 7493:Parabiago Plate 7476: 7445: 7404: 7338: 7332: 7314:Sibylline Books 7248: 7227: 7198:Servius Tullius 7161: 7146: 7025: 6741: 6733: 6724: 6676: 6655: 6628:10.2307/1291617 6590: 6558: 6537: 6515: 6494: 6473: 6452: 6433: 6375: 6311: 6229: 6184: 6165: 6143: 6122: 6103: 6071: 6013:10.2307/1088885 5996: 5985: 5966: 5945: 5909: 5893: 5888: 5887: 5863: 5859: 5852: 5838: 5834: 5826: 5822: 5804: 5800: 5795: 5791: 5783: 5779: 5771: 5767: 5759: 5755: 5750: 5746: 5741: 5734: 5726: 5722: 5714: 5710: 5703: 5685: 5678: 5659: 5655: 5647: 5643: 5635: 5631: 5626: 5622: 5615: 5601: 5597: 5592: 5588: 5580: 5576: 5568: 5564: 5559: 5555: 5550: 5543: 5531: 5527: 5519: 5515: 5511:, p. xxxi. 5507: 5500: 5493: 5479: 5475: 5468: 5454: 5450: 5441: 5434: 5426: 5422: 5417: 5413: 5406: 5392: 5388: 5380: 5376: 5333: 5329: 5322: 5308: 5297: 5289: 5285: 5277: 5273: 5265: 5261: 5253: 5249: 5241: 5237: 5230: 5216: 5205: 5198: 5184: 5171: 5163: 5159: 5151: 5147: 5108: 5104: 5097: 5083: 5079: 5074: 5070: 5062: 5058: 5053: 5049: 5044: 5040: 5032: 5028: 5023: 5019: 5011: 5007: 4999: 4995: 4987: 4983: 4975: 4971: 4964: 4950: 4946: 4938: 4934: 4929: 4925: 4909: 4905: 4897: 4893: 4885: 4881: 4874: 4860: 4856: 4848: 4844: 4836: 4832: 4824: 4817: 4808: 4804: 4798: 4794: 4786: 4782: 4778:, pp. 108. 4774: 4770: 4762: 4758: 4754:, pp. 107. 4750: 4741: 4733: 4729: 4694: 4687: 4682: 4675: 4670: 4663: 4658: 4651: 4646: 4637: 4629: 4622: 4614: 4607: 4597: 4595: 4593: 4567: 4563: 4558: 4554: 4527: 4523: 4515: 4511: 4507:, pp. 317. 4503: 4499: 4491: 4484: 4480:, pp. 343. 4476: 4472: 4465: 4451: 4432: 4421: 4417: 4412: 4408: 4403: 4399: 4394: 4390: 4382: 4378: 4370: 4366: 4358: 4354: 4349: 4345: 4337: 4333: 4325: 4321: 4313: 4306: 4298: 4294: 4286: 4282: 4274: 4270: 4262: 4253: 4245: 4241: 4233: 4229: 4214: 4210: 4202: 4198: 4190: 4186: 4182:, pp. 111. 4178: 4174: 4166: 4162: 4147: 4143: 4135: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4111: 4107: 4100: 4086: 4077: 4069: 4065: 4060: 4056: 4048: 4044: 4036: 4029: 4022: 4018: 4005: 4004: 4000: 3995: 3991: 3964: 3960: 3933: 3929: 3922: 3908: 3901: 3886: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3868: 3864: 3860:978-0521302005. 3858: 3854: 3847: 3829: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3811: 3807: 3802: 3798: 3790: 3783: 3775: 3771: 3767:, pp. 344. 3763: 3759: 3755:, pp. 346. 3751: 3744: 3736: 3732: 3719: 3715: 3701: 3697: 3693:, pp. 331. 3689: 3682: 3669: 3668: 3664: 3660:, pp. 347. 3656: 3649: 3641: 3637: 3624: 3623: 3619: 3614: 3610: 3599: 3574: 3569: 3565: 3558: 3554: 3538: 3532: 3523: 3515: 3511: 3503: 3499: 3494: 3490: 3485: 3481: 3473: 3464: 3456:Vasiliev, A.A, 3455: 3446: 3441: 3434: 3424: 3417: 3411: 3407: 3399:, p. 133; 3395: 3391: 3364: 3360: 3349: 3340: 3313: 3306: 3297: 3290: 3285: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3261: 3257: 3252: 3245: 3240: 3236: 3231: 3227: 3219: 3215: 3207: 3203: 3195: 3188: 3180: 3173: 3165: 3161: 3153: 3149: 3141: 3137: 3133:, p. xxvi. 3129: 3122: 3114: 3110: 3102: 3095: 3090: 3086: 3074: 3070: 3053: 3052: 3048: 3041: 3027: 3023: 3014: 3005: 2998: 2984: 2980: 2975: 2971: 2966: 2962: 2957: 2953: 2914: 2907: 2899: 2892: 2884: 2877: 2869: 2865: 2858: 2844: 2840: 2832: 2828: 2818: 2816: 2808: 2807: 2803: 2795: 2791: 2783: 2779: 2771: 2767: 2759: 2755: 2747: 2743: 2738: 2734: 2727: 2713: 2704: 2696: 2692: 2688:, pp. 312. 2684: 2680: 2672: 2668: 2664:, pp. 120. 2660: 2656: 2643: 2642: 2638: 2625: 2624: 2620: 2611: 2607: 2602: 2598: 2591: 2577: 2566: 2559: 2545: 2541: 2533: 2529: 2521: 2517: 2508: 2501: 2493: 2489: 2482: 2468: 2464: 2457: 2443: 2426: 2418: 2397: 2392: 2388: 2379: 2368: 2361: 2347: 2336: 2329: 2315: 2311: 2304: 2290: 2286: 2279: 2265: 2256: 2240: 2231: 2224: 2210: 2203: 2196: 2192: 2184: 2180: 2176:, pp. 2–4. 2174:Scourfield 2007 2172: 2168: 2160: 2143: 2131: 2118: 2110: 2106: 2101: 2097: 2089:Salzman, M.R., 2088: 2081: 2074: 2060: 2051: 2047:, p. xxiv. 2043: 2034: 2028:Wayback Machine 2012: 2005: 1990: 1965: 1949: 1938: 1930: 1923: 1915: 1911: 1904: 1890: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1850: 1846: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1765: 1674: 1657: 1636: 1611: 1592:Harold A. Drake 1563: 1551: 1545: 1505: 1434: 1355: 1347:Martin of Tours 1342:R. P. C. Hanson 1251: 1236: 1202: 1192:337–7th century 1176: 1170: 1166: 1163: 1156: 1124: 1106: 1068: 1059:Harold A. Drake 1035:Bishop of Milan 1009: 1003: 974: 940: 935: 907: 845: 827: 810:Theodosian Code 806: 797: 754: 711: 705: 620: 619: 618: 617: 616: 609: 601: 600: 593: 582: 553: 522: 451: 409: 365: 320: 296:Harold A. Drake 259: 253: 221: 215: 165:Theodosian Code 129: 118: 51: 33:Agora of Athens 17: 12: 11: 5: 11218: 11208: 11207: 11202: 11197: 11192: 11187: 11182: 11177: 11172: 11167: 11150: 11149: 11147: 11146: 11136: 11126: 11115: 11112: 11111: 11109: 11108: 11103: 11098: 11093: 11088: 11086:Misconceptions 11083: 11078: 11073: 11068: 11063: 11058: 11053: 11047: 11045: 11041: 11040: 11038: 11037: 11032: 11027: 11022: 11017: 11012: 11007: 11002: 10997: 10992: 10987: 10982: 10977: 10972: 10967: 10962: 10957: 10952: 10947: 10942: 10937: 10932: 10927: 10922: 10917: 10912: 10906: 10904: 10900: 10899: 10897: 10896: 10894:Little Ice Age 10891: 10890: 10889: 10879: 10874: 10869: 10864: 10859: 10854: 10849: 10847:Western Schism 10844: 10839: 10834: 10829: 10824: 10819: 10814: 10809: 10803: 10801: 10795: 10794: 10792: 10791: 10786: 10781: 10776: 10771: 10766: 10761: 10756: 10751: 10746: 10741: 10736: 10731: 10726: 10721: 10716: 10711: 10706: 10701: 10695: 10693: 10687: 10686: 10684: 10683: 10678: 10673: 10668: 10663: 10658: 10653: 10648: 10643: 10638: 10633: 10628: 10623: 10618: 10613: 10612: 10611: 10601: 10596: 10594:Late antiquity 10591: 10586: 10581: 10575: 10573: 10567: 10566: 10559: 10558: 10551: 10544: 10536: 10527: 10526: 10514: 10511: 10510: 10508: 10507: 10501: 10496: 10490: 10484: 10478: 10472: 10471:(2016–ongoing) 10466: 10465:(2014–ongoing) 10460: 10454: 10453:(2014–ongoing) 10448: 10442: 10436: 10430: 10429:(2009–ongoing) 10424: 10423:(2004–ongoing) 10418: 10412: 10406: 10400: 10394: 10393: 10392: 10386: 10380: 10368: 10362: 10361: 10360: 10348: 10342: 10336: 10330: 10329:(1971–ongoing) 10324: 10318: 10317: 10316: 10310: 10298: 10297: 10296: 10290: 10284: 10272: 10266: 10265:(1953–ongoing) 10260: 10254: 10253:(1950–ongoing) 10248: 10247:(1949–ongoing) 10242: 10236: 10230: 10229:(1947–ongoing) 10224: 10223:(1947–ongoing) 10218: 10217:(1947–ongoing) 10212: 10206: 10200: 10194: 10191:Noakhali riots 10188: 10182: 10176: 10170: 10164: 10158: 10152: 10146: 10145: 10144: 10139: 10134: 10129: 10124: 10119: 10108: 10102: 10096: 10090: 10089: 10088: 10080:Greek genocide 10077: 10071: 10068:Adana massacre 10065: 10059: 10053: 10047: 10041: 10035: 10029: 10023: 10017: 10011: 10005: 9999: 9993: 9987: 9981: 9975: 9969: 9963: 9957: 9951: 9945: 9939: 9933: 9932:(c.184–c. 205) 9927: 9921: 9915: 9908: 9906: 9902: 9901: 9899: 9898: 9893: 9888: 9883: 9881:State religion 9878: 9873: 9868: 9863: 9858: 9853: 9848: 9843: 9838: 9833: 9828: 9823: 9818: 9813: 9808: 9803: 9798: 9793: 9788: 9786:Discrimination 9783: 9778: 9773: 9768: 9763: 9758: 9752: 9750: 9746: 9745: 9741: 9740: 9738:Zoroastrianism 9735: 9730: 9725: 9720: 9715: 9714: 9713: 9703: 9702: 9701: 9700: 9699: 9694: 9689: 9684: 9669: 9668: 9667: 9665:Untouchability 9662: 9652: 9647: 9646: 9645: 9640: 9635: 9630: 9625: 9615: 9610: 9605: 9599: 9598: 9597: 9595: 9591: 9590: 9587:discrimination 9579: 9578: 9571: 9564: 9556: 9547: 9546: 9544: 9543: 9538: 9533: 9528: 9523: 9518: 9513: 9508: 9503: 9498: 9493: 9488: 9483: 9478: 9473: 9468: 9463: 9458: 9453: 9448: 9443: 9438: 9433: 9428: 9423: 9418: 9412: 9410: 9401: 9400: 9398: 9397: 9392: 9387: 9382: 9377: 9372: 9367: 9362: 9357: 9352: 9347: 9342: 9337: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9317: 9312: 9307: 9301: 9299: 9295: 9294: 9291: 9290: 9288: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9252: 9247: 9242: 9237: 9232: 9227: 9222: 9217: 9212: 9207: 9202: 9197: 9192: 9187: 9182: 9177: 9172: 9167: 9162: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9127: 9122: 9116: 9114: 9108: 9107: 9105: 9104: 9099: 9094: 9089: 9084: 9079: 9074: 9069: 9064: 9059: 9054: 9049: 9044: 9039: 9034: 9029: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9009: 9004: 8999: 8994: 8989: 8984: 8979: 8977:Pomponius Mela 8974: 8969: 8964: 8959: 8954: 8949: 8944: 8939: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8909: 8904: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8839: 8834: 8829: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8794: 8789: 8784: 8779: 8774: 8769: 8764: 8759: 8754: 8749: 8744: 8739: 8734: 8729: 8724: 8719: 8714: 8712:Aelius Donatus 8708: 8706: 8697: 8693: 8692: 8690: 8689: 8684: 8683: 8682: 8680:Ecclesiastical 8677: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8647: 8642: 8634: 8629: 8623: 8621: 8615: 8614: 8612: 8611: 8606: 8601: 8596: 8591: 8586: 8581: 8576: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8556: 8551: 8546: 8541: 8535: 8533: 8527: 8526: 8524: 8523: 8518: 8513: 8508: 8503: 8498: 8493: 8488: 8483: 8482: 8481: 8471: 8466: 8461: 8456: 8451: 8446: 8440: 8438: 8432: 8431: 8429: 8428: 8423: 8421:Toys and games 8418: 8413: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8392: 8391: 8381: 8376: 8371: 8366: 8361: 8356: 8351: 8346: 8341: 8336: 8331: 8326: 8321: 8315: 8313: 8307: 8306: 8304: 8303: 8298: 8293: 8288: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8267: 8265: 8259: 8258: 8256: 8255: 8250: 8245: 8240: 8235: 8234: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8203: 8198: 8197: 8196: 8186: 8181: 8176: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8145: 8143: 8137: 8136: 8133: 8132: 8130: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8093: 8091: 8087: 8086: 8084: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8068: 8063: 8058: 8053: 8048: 8043: 8038: 8032: 8030: 8023: 8017: 8016: 8014: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7978: 7973: 7968: 7963: 7961:Vigintisexviri 7958: 7953: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7923: 7921:Cursus honorum 7918: 7913: 7907: 7905: 7899: 7898: 7896: 7895: 7890: 7885: 7880: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7859: 7857: 7851: 7850: 7848: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7836: 7835: 7830: 7825: 7820: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7779: 7777: 7771: 7770: 7767: 7766: 7764: 7763: 7762: 7761: 7751: 7750: 7749: 7744: 7734: 7733: 7732: 7727: 7720:Western Empire 7717: 7712: 7707: 7702: 7696: 7694: 7688: 7687: 7685: 7684: 7679: 7678: 7677: 7667: 7661: 7655: 7649: 7648: 7646: 7645: 7640: 7634: 7631: 7630: 7622: 7621: 7614: 7607: 7599: 7590: 7589: 7587: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7565: 7564: 7554: 7548: 7546: 7542: 7541: 7539: 7538: 7537: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7516: 7510: 7508: 7504: 7503: 7501: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7484: 7482: 7478: 7477: 7475: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7453: 7451: 7447: 7446: 7444: 7443: 7438: 7436:Pythagoreanism 7433: 7431:Peripateticism 7428: 7423: 7418: 7412: 7410: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7402: 7401: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7380: 7375: 7370: 7365: 7360: 7355: 7348: 7342: 7340: 7334: 7333: 7331: 7330: 7329: 7328: 7325:The Golden Ass 7316: 7311: 7310: 7309: 7297: 7292: 7291: 7290: 7283: 7271: 7270: 7269: 7256: 7254: 7250: 7249: 7247: 7246: 7244:Barnacle goose 7241: 7235: 7233: 7229: 7228: 7226: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7188:Numa Pompilius 7185: 7180: 7175: 7169: 7167: 7163: 7162: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7147: 7145: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7119: 7114: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7069: 7064: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7039: 7033: 7031: 7027: 7026: 7024: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6892: 6891: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6816: 6811: 6806: 6801: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6755: 6749: 6735: 6734: 6723: 6722: 6715: 6708: 6700: 6694: 6693: 6683:Woods, David. 6680: 6674: 6659: 6653: 6640: 6611: 6602: 6588: 6562: 6556: 6541: 6535: 6519: 6513: 6498: 6492: 6477: 6471: 6456: 6450: 6437: 6431: 6418: 6400:(2): 185–226. 6387: 6373: 6350: 6332:(2): 219–242. 6315: 6309: 6294: 6276:(2): 398–443. 6263: 6253:(3): 309–318. 6233: 6227: 6215:, ed. (2006). 6209: 6188: 6182: 6169: 6163: 6147: 6141: 6126: 6120: 6107: 6101: 6083:Averil Cameron 6075: 6069: 6056: 6044:10.1086/367402 6038:(2): 120–139. 6025: 6007:(4): 331–356. 5989: 5983: 5970: 5964: 5949: 5943: 5913: 5907: 5892: 5889: 5886: 5885: 5865:A. H. M. Jones 5857: 5850: 5832: 5820: 5806:Lenski, Noel. 5798: 5789: 5777: 5765: 5753: 5744: 5732: 5720: 5708: 5701: 5676: 5653: 5641: 5629: 5620: 5613: 5595: 5586: 5584:, p. 638. 5574: 5562: 5553: 5541: 5525: 5513: 5498: 5491: 5473: 5466: 5448: 5432: 5430:, p. 634. 5420: 5411: 5405:978-0691027494 5404: 5386: 5374: 5353:10.1086/391664 5347:(4): 569–587. 5327: 5320: 5295: 5283: 5271: 5269:, p. 192. 5259: 5247: 5235: 5228: 5203: 5196: 5169: 5157: 5155:, p. 652. 5145: 5118:(4): 208–209. 5102: 5095: 5077: 5068: 5066:, p. 242. 5056: 5047: 5038: 5036:, p. 178. 5026: 5017: 5005: 4993: 4981: 4979:, p. xxx. 4969: 4962: 4944: 4932: 4923: 4910:R. MacMullen, 4903: 4899:MacMullen 1984 4891: 4879: 4872: 4854: 4842: 4830: 4828:, p. 110. 4815: 4802: 4792: 4790:, p. 114. 4780: 4768: 4766:, p. 249. 4764:Errington 2006 4756: 4739: 4727: 4685: 4673: 4661: 4649: 4635: 4620: 4605: 4591: 4561: 4552: 4521: 4509: 4505:Errington 1988 4497: 4495:, p. 398. 4493:Errington 1997 4482: 4470: 4463: 4430: 4415: 4406: 4397: 4388: 4386:, p. 317. 4384:Bagnall et al. 4376: 4364: 4352: 4343: 4339:Errington 2006 4331: 4319: 4304: 4300:Errington 2006 4292: 4280: 4268: 4251: 4247:Errington 2006 4239: 4227: 4208: 4196: 4194:, p. 291. 4184: 4172: 4170:, p. 292. 4160: 4141: 4129: 4127:, p. 100. 4125:MacMullen 1984 4117: 4105: 4098: 4075: 4063: 4054: 4042: 4027: 4016: 3998: 3989: 3958: 3927: 3920: 3899: 3880: 3871: 3862: 3852: 3845: 3823: 3814: 3805: 3796: 3781: 3769: 3757: 3742: 3730: 3713: 3695: 3680: 3662: 3647: 3635: 3617: 3608: 3572: 3563: 3552: 3521: 3509: 3497: 3488: 3479: 3477:, p. 201. 3462: 3444: 3432: 3415: 3405: 3403:, p. 265. 3389: 3378:(1): 186–187. 3358: 3338: 3327:(1): 186–187. 3304: 3288: 3279: 3267: 3255: 3243: 3234: 3225: 3223:, p. 650. 3213: 3201: 3186: 3171: 3159: 3147: 3135: 3120: 3108: 3093: 3084: 3068: 3065:on 2008-08-04. 3059:www.livius.org 3046: 3039: 3021: 3003: 2996: 2978: 2969: 2960: 2951: 2930:10.2307/300982 2905: 2890: 2875: 2863: 2856: 2838: 2836:, p. 200. 2826: 2801: 2799:, p. 182. 2789: 2787:, p. 645. 2777: 2765: 2763:, p. 372. 2753: 2741: 2732: 2725: 2702: 2690: 2686:Errington 1988 2678: 2674:Errington 1988 2666: 2654: 2636: 2618: 2605: 2596: 2589: 2564: 2557: 2539: 2527: 2525:, p. 243. 2515: 2499: 2497:, p. 353. 2487: 2480: 2462: 2455: 2424: 2395: 2386: 2366: 2360:978-1118301265 2359: 2334: 2327: 2309: 2302: 2284: 2277: 2254: 2229: 2222: 2201: 2190: 2188:, p. 271. 2178: 2166: 2141: 2116: 2104: 2095: 2093:(2002), p. 182 2079: 2072: 2049: 2032: 2015:Schaff, Philip 2003: 1963: 1950:MacMullen, R. 1936: 1921: 1919:, p. 132. 1909: 1902: 1883: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1874: 1844: 1833: 1831: 1828: 1827: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1811: 1806: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1786: 1781: 1776: 1771: 1764: 1761: 1752:Glen Bowersock 1698:Marianne Sághy 1677:Archaeologists 1673: 1670: 1656: 1653: 1648:Jan N. Bremmer 1644:late antiquity 1635: 1632: 1610: 1607: 1562: 1559: 1547:Main article: 1544: 1541: 1533:late antiquity 1504: 1501: 1433: 1430: 1354: 1351: 1297:hagiographical 1268: 1267: 1264: 1263: 1260: 1259: 1256: 1255: 1252: 1244: 1241: 1240: 1237: 1234: 1231: 1230: 1227: 1226: 1225:Late Antiquity 1223: 1222:Historical era 1219: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1212:Constantinople 1209: 1205: 1204: 1194: 1193: 1189: 1188: 1178: 1177: 1162: 1155: 1152: 1123: 1120: 1104:Sofie Remijsen 1067: 1064: 1002: 999: 978:Valentinian II 973: 970: 948:Vestal Virgins 939: 936: 934: 931: 906: 903: 844: 841: 834:and, finally, 826: 823: 805: 802: 796: 793: 789:Roman Calendar 762:Vestal Virgins 753: 750: 707:Main article: 704: 701: 693:Gilbert Dagron 610: 603: 602: 594: 587: 586: 585: 584: 583: 581: 578: 450: 447: 408: 405: 364: 361: 337:Pope Sylvester 329:King of Persia 319: 316: 312:personal views 292:Edict of Milan 255:Main article: 252: 249: 217:Main article: 214: 211: 186:catastrophists 178:Edict of Milan 150:Valentinian II 111:capital crimes 99:Constantius II 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11217: 11206: 11203: 11201: 11198: 11196: 11193: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11178: 11176: 11173: 11171: 11168: 11166: 11163: 11162: 11160: 11145: 11137: 11135: 11127: 11125: 11121: 11117: 11116: 11113: 11107: 11104: 11102: 11099: 11097: 11094: 11092: 11089: 11087: 11084: 11082: 11079: 11077: 11074: 11072: 11069: 11067: 11064: 11062: 11059: 11057: 11054: 11052: 11049: 11048: 11046: 11042: 11036: 11033: 11031: 11028: 11026: 11023: 11021: 11018: 11016: 11013: 11011: 11008: 11006: 11003: 11001: 10998: 10996: 10993: 10991: 10988: 10986: 10983: 10981: 10978: 10976: 10973: 10971: 10968: 10966: 10963: 10961: 10958: 10956: 10953: 10951: 10948: 10946: 10943: 10941: 10938: 10936: 10933: 10931: 10928: 10926: 10923: 10921: 10918: 10916: 10913: 10911: 10908: 10907: 10905: 10901: 10895: 10892: 10888: 10885: 10884: 10883: 10880: 10878: 10875: 10873: 10870: 10868: 10865: 10863: 10860: 10858: 10855: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10835: 10833: 10830: 10828: 10825: 10823: 10820: 10818: 10815: 10813: 10810: 10808: 10805: 10804: 10802: 10800: 10796: 10790: 10787: 10785: 10782: 10780: 10777: 10775: 10772: 10770: 10767: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10755: 10754:Scholasticism 10752: 10750: 10747: 10745: 10742: 10740: 10737: 10735: 10732: 10730: 10727: 10725: 10722: 10720: 10717: 10715: 10712: 10710: 10707: 10705: 10702: 10700: 10697: 10696: 10694: 10692: 10688: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10672: 10669: 10667: 10664: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10649: 10647: 10644: 10642: 10639: 10637: 10634: 10632: 10629: 10627: 10624: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10616:Rise of Islam 10614: 10610: 10607: 10606: 10605: 10602: 10600: 10597: 10595: 10592: 10590: 10587: 10585: 10582: 10580: 10577: 10576: 10574: 10572: 10568: 10564: 10557: 10552: 10550: 10545: 10543: 10538: 10537: 10534: 10524: 10519: 10512: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10497: 10494: 10491: 10488: 10485: 10482: 10479: 10476: 10473: 10470: 10467: 10464: 10461: 10458: 10455: 10452: 10449: 10446: 10443: 10440: 10437: 10434: 10431: 10428: 10425: 10422: 10419: 10416: 10413: 10410: 10407: 10404: 10401: 10398: 10395: 10390: 10387: 10384: 10381: 10378: 10375: 10374: 10372: 10371:Yugoslav Wars 10369: 10366: 10363: 10358: 10357:Big Excursion 10355: 10354: 10352: 10349: 10346: 10343: 10340: 10337: 10334: 10331: 10328: 10325: 10322: 10319: 10314: 10311: 10308: 10305: 10304: 10302: 10299: 10294: 10291: 10288: 10285: 10282: 10279: 10278: 10276: 10273: 10270: 10267: 10264: 10261: 10258: 10255: 10252: 10249: 10246: 10243: 10240: 10237: 10234: 10231: 10228: 10225: 10222: 10219: 10216: 10213: 10210: 10207: 10204: 10201: 10198: 10195: 10192: 10189: 10186: 10183: 10180: 10177: 10174: 10171: 10168: 10167:The Holocaust 10165: 10162: 10159: 10156: 10153: 10150: 10147: 10143: 10140: 10138: 10135: 10133: 10130: 10128: 10125: 10123: 10120: 10118: 10115: 10114: 10112: 10109: 10106: 10103: 10100: 10097: 10094: 10091: 10087: 10084: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10075: 10072: 10069: 10066: 10063: 10062:Dungan Revolt 10060: 10057: 10054: 10051: 10048: 10045: 10042: 10039: 10036: 10033: 10030: 10027: 10024: 10021: 10018: 10015: 10012: 10009: 10006: 10003: 10000: 9997: 9994: 9991: 9988: 9985: 9982: 9979: 9976: 9973: 9970: 9967: 9964: 9961: 9958: 9955: 9952: 9949: 9946: 9943: 9940: 9937: 9934: 9931: 9928: 9925: 9922: 9919: 9916: 9913: 9910: 9909: 9907: 9903: 9897: 9894: 9892: 9889: 9887: 9884: 9882: 9879: 9877: 9876:State atheism 9874: 9872: 9869: 9867: 9864: 9862: 9859: 9857: 9854: 9852: 9849: 9847: 9844: 9842: 9839: 9837: 9834: 9832: 9829: 9827: 9824: 9822: 9819: 9817: 9814: 9812: 9809: 9807: 9804: 9802: 9799: 9797: 9794: 9792: 9789: 9787: 9784: 9782: 9779: 9777: 9774: 9772: 9771:Deprogramming 9769: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9759: 9757: 9754: 9753: 9751: 9747: 9739: 9736: 9734: 9731: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9723:Protestantism 9721: 9719: 9716: 9712: 9709: 9708: 9707: 9704: 9698: 9695: 9693: 9690: 9688: 9685: 9683: 9680: 9679: 9678: 9675: 9674: 9673: 9670: 9666: 9663: 9661: 9658: 9657: 9656: 9653: 9651: 9648: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9638:LDS or Mormon 9636: 9634: 9631: 9629: 9626: 9624: 9621: 9620: 9619: 9616: 9614: 9611: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9600: 9596: 9592: 9588: 9584: 9577: 9572: 9570: 9565: 9563: 9558: 9557: 9554: 9542: 9539: 9537: 9534: 9532: 9529: 9527: 9524: 9522: 9519: 9517: 9514: 9512: 9509: 9507: 9504: 9502: 9499: 9497: 9494: 9492: 9489: 9487: 9484: 9482: 9479: 9477: 9474: 9472: 9469: 9467: 9464: 9462: 9459: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9447: 9444: 9442: 9439: 9437: 9434: 9432: 9429: 9427: 9424: 9422: 9419: 9417: 9414: 9413: 9411: 9402: 9396: 9393: 9391: 9388: 9386: 9383: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9371: 9368: 9366: 9363: 9361: 9358: 9356: 9353: 9351: 9348: 9346: 9343: 9341: 9338: 9336: 9333: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9302: 9300: 9296: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9246: 9243: 9241: 9238: 9236: 9233: 9231: 9228: 9226: 9223: 9221: 9218: 9216: 9213: 9211: 9208: 9206: 9203: 9201: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9191: 9188: 9186: 9183: 9181: 9178: 9176: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9117: 9115: 9113: 9109: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9095: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9083: 9080: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9070: 9068: 9065: 9063: 9060: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9030: 9028: 9025: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9003: 9000: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8983: 8980: 8978: 8975: 8973: 8970: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8953: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8898: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8867:Julius Paulus 8865: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8838: 8835: 8833: 8830: 8828: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8802:Fabius Pictor 8800: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8788: 8785: 8783: 8780: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8768: 8765: 8763: 8760: 8758: 8755: 8753: 8750: 8748: 8745: 8743: 8740: 8738: 8735: 8733: 8730: 8728: 8725: 8723: 8720: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8709: 8707: 8705: 8701: 8698: 8694: 8688: 8685: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8638: 8637: 8635: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8624: 8622: 8620: 8616: 8610: 8607: 8605: 8602: 8600: 8597: 8595: 8592: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8547: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8539:Amphitheatres 8537: 8536: 8534: 8532: 8528: 8522: 8519: 8517: 8514: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8492: 8489: 8487: 8484: 8480: 8477: 8476: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8460: 8457: 8455: 8452: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8442: 8441: 8439: 8437: 8433: 8427: 8424: 8422: 8419: 8417: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8390: 8387: 8386: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8357: 8355: 8352: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8316: 8314: 8312: 8308: 8302: 8299: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8289: 8287: 8284: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8276:Deforestation 8274: 8272: 8269: 8268: 8266: 8264: 8260: 8254: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8244: 8241: 8239: 8236: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8226:Siege engines 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8208: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8195: 8192: 8191: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8180: 8177: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8167: 8165: 8162: 8160: 8159:Establishment 8157: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8146: 8144: 8142: 8138: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8094: 8092: 8090:Extraordinary 8088: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8076:Promagistrate 8074: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8057: 8054: 8052: 8049: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8033: 8031: 8027: 8024: 8022: 8018: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7982: 7979: 7977: 7974: 7972: 7969: 7967: 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7929: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7908: 7906: 7904: 7900: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7863:Twelve Tables 7861: 7860: 7858: 7856: 7852: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7834: 7831: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7815: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7780: 7778: 7776: 7772: 7760: 7757: 7756: 7755: 7752: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7739: 7738: 7735: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7722: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7708: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7697: 7695: 7693: 7689: 7683: 7680: 7676: 7673: 7672: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7662: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7650: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7635: 7632: 7627: 7620: 7615: 7613: 7608: 7606: 7601: 7600: 7597: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7563: 7560: 7559: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7549: 7547: 7543: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7521: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7511: 7509: 7505: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7485: 7483: 7479: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7454: 7452: 7448: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7413: 7411: 7407: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7385: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7358:Imperial cult 7356: 7354: 7353: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7343: 7341: 7339:and practices 7335: 7327: 7326: 7322: 7321: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7308: 7307: 7303: 7302: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7289: 7288: 7287:Metamorphoses 7284: 7282: 7281: 7277: 7276: 7275: 7272: 7268: 7267: 7263: 7262: 7261: 7258: 7257: 7255: 7251: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7236: 7234: 7230: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7203:Ancus Marcius 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7170: 7168: 7164: 7157: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7132:Tranquillitas 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7034: 7032: 7028: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6890: 6887: 6886: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6807: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6756: 6753: 6750: 6747: 6746: 6745:Dii Consentes 6740: 6736: 6732: 6728: 6721: 6716: 6714: 6709: 6707: 6702: 6701: 6698: 6690: 6686: 6681: 6677: 6675:0-391-04121-5 6671: 6667: 6666: 6660: 6656: 6650: 6646: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6612: 6608: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6572: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6557:0-520-08461-6 6553: 6549: 6548: 6542: 6538: 6536:0-300-03216-1 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6510: 6506: 6505: 6499: 6495: 6489: 6485: 6484: 6478: 6474: 6468: 6464: 6463: 6457: 6453: 6447: 6443: 6438: 6434: 6428: 6424: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6395: 6394: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6358: 6357: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6312: 6310:0-8078-3038-0 6306: 6302: 6301: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6270: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6247: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6224: 6220: 6219: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6199:(3): 372–80. 6198: 6194: 6189: 6185: 6183:9781107043442 6179: 6175: 6170: 6166: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6151:Cameron, Alan 6148: 6144: 6138: 6134: 6133: 6127: 6123: 6121:9780299133443 6117: 6113: 6108: 6104: 6102:0-521-30200-5 6098: 6094: 6093: 6088: 6087:Peter Garnsey 6084: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6070:9780521595575 6066: 6062: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6032: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5995: 5990: 5986: 5980: 5976: 5971: 5967: 5965:1-84171-634-0 5961: 5957: 5956: 5950: 5946: 5944:1-55540-099-X 5940: 5936: 5935: 5930: 5929:Klaas A. Worp 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5904: 5900: 5895: 5894: 5882: 5881:0-8020-6369-1 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5861: 5853: 5851:9780521521574 5847: 5843: 5836: 5830:, p. 77. 5829: 5824: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5808:"Noel Lenski" 5802: 5793: 5787:, p. 70. 5786: 5781: 5775:, p. 49. 5774: 5769: 5762: 5757: 5748: 5739: 5737: 5730:, p. xx. 5729: 5724: 5718:, p. 47. 5717: 5712: 5704: 5702:9789004210394 5698: 5694: 5690: 5683: 5681: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5657: 5650: 5645: 5638: 5633: 5624: 5616: 5614:9789004192379 5610: 5606: 5599: 5590: 5583: 5578: 5572: 5566: 5557: 5548: 5546: 5538: 5535: 5529: 5522: 5517: 5510: 5505: 5503: 5494: 5492:9781108849210 5488: 5484: 5477: 5469: 5467:9781108849210 5463: 5459: 5452: 5445: 5439: 5437: 5429: 5424: 5415: 5407: 5401: 5397: 5390: 5383: 5378: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5331: 5323: 5321:9780520024915 5317: 5313: 5306: 5304: 5302: 5300: 5292: 5291:Humfress 2013 5287: 5280: 5275: 5268: 5263: 5256: 5251: 5244: 5239: 5231: 5229:9780812202410 5225: 5221: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5208: 5199: 5197:9780754665533 5193: 5189: 5182: 5180: 5178: 5176: 5174: 5166: 5161: 5154: 5149: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5106: 5098: 5096:9781473859272 5092: 5088: 5081: 5072: 5065: 5060: 5051: 5042: 5035: 5030: 5021: 5015: 5009: 5002: 4997: 4991:, p. 49. 4990: 4985: 4978: 4973: 4965: 4963:9780199570928 4959: 4955: 4948: 4941: 4936: 4927: 4921: 4920:0-300-03642-6 4917: 4913: 4907: 4900: 4895: 4889:, p. 12. 4888: 4887:Trombley 2001 4883: 4875: 4873:9780801870330 4869: 4865: 4858: 4851: 4846: 4839: 4834: 4827: 4822: 4820: 4812: 4806: 4796: 4789: 4784: 4777: 4772: 4765: 4760: 4753: 4748: 4746: 4744: 4737:, p. 67. 4736: 4731: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4692: 4690: 4680: 4678: 4668: 4666: 4656: 4654: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4633:, p. 65. 4632: 4627: 4625: 4618:, p. 68. 4617: 4612: 4610: 4594: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4565: 4556: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4525: 4518: 4517:Bradbury 1995 4513: 4506: 4501: 4494: 4489: 4487: 4479: 4478:Bradbury 1995 4474: 4466: 4464:9780521302005 4460: 4456: 4449: 4447: 4445: 4443: 4441: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4426: 4419: 4410: 4401: 4392: 4385: 4380: 4373: 4368: 4362:, p. 57. 4361: 4356: 4347: 4340: 4335: 4328: 4323: 4316: 4311: 4309: 4301: 4296: 4289: 4284: 4277: 4272: 4265: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4248: 4243: 4236: 4231: 4223: 4219: 4212: 4205: 4200: 4193: 4188: 4181: 4176: 4169: 4164: 4156: 4152: 4145: 4139:, p. 64. 4138: 4133: 4126: 4121: 4115:, p. 63. 4114: 4109: 4101: 4099:9781317891024 4095: 4092:. Routledge. 4091: 4084: 4082: 4080: 4073:, p. 35. 4072: 4067: 4058: 4051: 4046: 4040:, p. 80. 4039: 4034: 4032: 4025: 4020: 4012: 4008: 4002: 3993: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3962: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3931: 3923: 3921:9780674369511 3917: 3913: 3906: 3904: 3895: 3891: 3884: 3875: 3866: 3856: 3848: 3846:0-520-03731-6 3842: 3837: 3836: 3827: 3818: 3809: 3800: 3794:, p. 32. 3793: 3788: 3786: 3778: 3777:Bradbury 1995 3773: 3766: 3765:Bradbury 1995 3761: 3754: 3753:Bradbury 1995 3749: 3747: 3739: 3738:Bradbury 1995 3734: 3727: 3726:Neo-Platonism 3723: 3717: 3710: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3692: 3691:Bradbury 1995 3687: 3685: 3676: 3672: 3666: 3659: 3658:Bradbury 1995 3654: 3652: 3644: 3643:Bradbury 1995 3639: 3631: 3627: 3621: 3612: 3604: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3591: 3589: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3567: 3561: 3556: 3548: 3544: 3537: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3518: 3513: 3507:, p. 42. 3506: 3501: 3492: 3483: 3476: 3471: 3469: 3467: 3460:(1958), p. 68 3459: 3453: 3451: 3449: 3439: 3437: 3430: 3429: 3422: 3420: 3409: 3402: 3398: 3397:Bradbury 1994 3393: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3362: 3354: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3311: 3309: 3301: 3295: 3293: 3283: 3276: 3271: 3264: 3259: 3250: 3248: 3238: 3229: 3222: 3217: 3210: 3205: 3199:, p. 39. 3198: 3193: 3191: 3183: 3178: 3176: 3168: 3163: 3156: 3151: 3144: 3139: 3132: 3127: 3125: 3118:, p. 28. 3117: 3112: 3106:, p. 31. 3105: 3100: 3098: 3088: 3082: 3081:0-297-64638-9 3078: 3072: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3050: 3042: 3040:9780801435942 3036: 3032: 3025: 3018: 3012: 3010: 3008: 2999: 2997:9780521764230 2993: 2989: 2982: 2973: 2964: 2955: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2912: 2910: 2902: 2897: 2895: 2887: 2882: 2880: 2872: 2867: 2859: 2857:9781609253806 2853: 2849: 2842: 2835: 2830: 2815: 2811: 2805: 2798: 2793: 2786: 2781: 2774: 2769: 2762: 2757: 2750: 2749:Bradbury 1995 2745: 2736: 2728: 2726:9780191588471 2722: 2718: 2711: 2709: 2707: 2699: 2694: 2687: 2682: 2675: 2670: 2663: 2662:Bradbury 1995 2658: 2650: 2646: 2640: 2632: 2628: 2622: 2615: 2609: 2600: 2592: 2590:9781107013407 2586: 2582: 2575: 2573: 2571: 2569: 2560: 2558:9781400844531 2554: 2550: 2543: 2537:, p. 16. 2536: 2531: 2524: 2519: 2512: 2509:Peter Brown, 2506: 2504: 2496: 2495:Bradbury 1995 2491: 2483: 2481:9780192803917 2477: 2473: 2466: 2458: 2456:9780830827220 2452: 2448: 2441: 2439: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2429: 2422: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2404: 2402: 2400: 2390: 2383: 2377: 2375: 2373: 2371: 2362: 2356: 2352: 2345: 2343: 2341: 2339: 2330: 2328:9780691214290 2324: 2320: 2313: 2305: 2303:9781108849210 2299: 2295: 2288: 2280: 2278:9780199780204 2274: 2270: 2263: 2261: 2259: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2225: 2223:9780300029840 2219: 2215: 2208: 2206: 2199: 2194: 2187: 2182: 2175: 2170: 2163: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2139: 2138:9780674129702 2135: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2114:, p. 72. 2113: 2108: 2099: 2092: 2086: 2084: 2075: 2073:9783110931419 2069: 2065: 2058: 2056: 2054: 2046: 2041: 2039: 2037: 2029: 2025: 2022: 2021: 2016: 2010: 2008: 1999: 1995: 1988: 1986: 1984: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1961: 1960:0-300-03642-6 1957: 1953: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1934:, p. 30. 1933: 1928: 1926: 1918: 1917:Bradbury 1994 1913: 1905: 1903:9789004231825 1899: 1895: 1888: 1884: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1848: 1838: 1834: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1812: 1810: 1807: 1805: 1802: 1800: 1797: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1785: 1782: 1780: 1777: 1775: 1772: 1770: 1767: 1766: 1760: 1758: 1757:Roman culture 1753: 1748: 1746: 1741: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1724: 1722: 1716: 1715: 1709: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1678: 1669: 1665: 1662: 1652: 1649: 1645: 1640: 1631: 1629: 1628:Pierre Chuvin 1623: 1620: 1616: 1605: 1602: 1596: 1593: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1573: 1568: 1567:Edward Gibbon 1558: 1556: 1553:According to 1550: 1540: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1529:periodization 1525: 1523: 1517: 1509: 1500: 1498: 1497: 1490: 1487: 1481: 1478: 1477:Judith Herrin 1474: 1469: 1461: 1457: 1455: 1451: 1450:king of Italy 1447: 1443: 1439: 1429: 1425: 1422: 1417: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1392: 1391:Theodosius II 1388: 1383: 1379: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1367:Theodosius II 1364: 1360: 1350: 1348: 1343: 1337: 1332: 1330: 1323: 1320: 1316: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1281: 1279: 1275: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1250: 1249: 1242: 1238: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1206: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1159: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1137: 1132: 1128: 1119: 1117: 1116:Olympian Zeus 1110: 1105: 1100: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1072: 1063: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1046: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1027:John Moorhead 1021: 1017: 1013: 1008: 998: 995: 991: 987: 982: 979: 972:After Gratian 969: 965: 961: 959: 955: 954: 949: 945: 930: 926: 922: 919: 913: 911: 902: 898: 895: 889: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 866: 862: 857: 856:neoplatonists 853: 849: 840: 837: 833: 822: 820: 816: 811: 801: 792: 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 769: 767: 763: 759: 749: 746: 741: 739: 734: 731: 727: 723: 719: 714: 710: 700: 696: 694: 689: 685: 683: 677: 675: 671: 667: 663: 658: 654: 652: 647: 645: 641: 633: 629: 624: 614: 607: 598: 591: 577: 575: 571: 567: 563: 557: 552: 548: 544: 539: 536: 532: 526: 521: 517: 513: 509: 507: 503: 499: 495: 494: 489: 484: 482: 478: 474: 466: 465: 460: 455: 446: 444: 438: 436: 432: 428: 424: 419: 417: 413: 404: 400: 397: 393: 388: 386: 381: 379: 375: 371: 360: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 332: 330: 326: 315: 313: 309: 305: 299: 297: 293: 287: 283: 279: 276: 271: 263: 258: 248: 244: 242: 237: 233: 230: 229:Peter Garnsey 226: 220: 210: 207: 203: 199: 194: 191: 187: 181: 179: 175: 171: 166: 162: 157: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 127: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 95:death penalty 92: 87: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 49: 45: 38: 34: 30: 26: 21: 10915:Architecture 10887:Great Famine 10877:Universities 10817:Hussite Wars 10734:Great Schism 10621:Papal States 10598: 10373:(1991–2001) 10353:(1984–1989) 10313:Famen Temple 10303:(1966–1976) 10113:(1922–1991) 10082:(1913–1922) 9917: 9618:Christianity 9608:Baháʼí Faith 9481:Institutions 9345:Leptis Magna 9298:Major cities 9205:Philostratus 8992:Quadrigarius 8812:Rufus Festus 8675:Contemporary 8396:Romanization 8319:Architecture 7926:Collegiality 7775:Constitution 7626:Ancient Rome 7561: 7488:Gubernaculum 7457:Golden Bough 7426:Neoplatonism 7421:Epicureanism 7350: 7323: 7304: 7285: 7278: 7264: 6769:Anna Perenna 6743: 6688: 6664: 6644: 6619: 6615: 6607:Drake (2006) 6570: 6546: 6526: 6503: 6482: 6461: 6441: 6422: 6397: 6391: 6355: 6329: 6323: 6319: 6299: 6273: 6267: 6250: 6244: 6217: 6196: 6192: 6173: 6154: 6131: 6111: 6091: 6079:Brown, Peter 6060: 6035: 6029: 6004: 6000: 5974: 5954: 5933: 5921:Alan Cameron 5898: 5891:Bibliography 5868: 5860: 5841: 5835: 5823: 5815: 5811: 5801: 5792: 5780: 5768: 5756: 5747: 5723: 5711: 5692: 5670: 5666: 5656: 5651:, p. 8. 5644: 5637:Cameron 2010 5632: 5623: 5604: 5598: 5589: 5577: 5565: 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Retrieved 4574: 4564: 4555: 4538: 4534: 4524: 4512: 4500: 4473: 4454: 4424: 4418: 4409: 4400: 4395:Zosimus 4.59 4391: 4379: 4372:Cameron 2010 4367: 4360:Cameron 2010 4355: 4346: 4334: 4327:Cameron 2010 4322: 4317:, chapter 8. 4295: 4283: 4271: 4242: 4230: 4221: 4211: 4204:Cameron 2010 4199: 4187: 4175: 4163: 4154: 4144: 4137:Cameron 2010 4132: 4120: 4113:Cameron 2010 4108: 4089: 4066: 4057: 4045: 4019: 4010: 4001: 3992: 3975: 3971: 3961: 3944: 3940: 3930: 3911: 3893: 3883: 3874: 3865: 3855: 3834: 3826: 3817: 3808: 3799: 3772: 3760: 3733: 3716: 3711:(Encyclical) 3707: 3698: 3674: 3665: 3638: 3629: 3620: 3611: 3602: 3566: 3555: 3546: 3542: 3512: 3500: 3491: 3482: 3457: 3427: 3408: 3401:Salzman 2006 3392: 3375: 3371: 3361: 3352: 3324: 3320: 3299: 3282: 3270: 3258: 3237: 3228: 3216: 3204: 3169:, p. 2. 3162: 3155:Bagnall 2021 3150: 3138: 3111: 3087: 3071: 3063:the original 3058: 3049: 3030: 3024: 3016: 2987: 2981: 2972: 2963: 2954: 2921: 2917: 2866: 2847: 2841: 2829: 2817:. 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ISD LLC. 6598:j.ctvk12r62 6213:Drake, H.A. 4813:, pp.29-30. 4541:(1): 5–30. 4315:Hebblewhite 4218:Albu, Emily 4192:McLynn 1994 4168:McLynn 1994 4050:McLynn 1994 4038:McLynn 1994 3947:: 251–262. 3894:Harvard.edu 3413:Publishing. 3263:Brown 1997a 2924:: 115–130. 2186:Collar 2013 1672:Archaeology 1655:Legislation 1615:Peter Brown 1522:Justinian I 1486:Monophysite 1473:Justinian I 1421:Aphrodisias 1254:7th century 1173:Ἑῴα Ὑπαρχία 1142:influence. 1107: [ 554: [ 523: [ 520:Noel Lenski 325:superstitio 275:persecution 126:Justinian I 107:Roman Italy 11159:Categories 11066:Land terms 11020:Technology 11000:Philosophy 10980:Literature 10945:Demography 10646:Viking Age 9956:(643–1526) 9831:Iconoclasm 9826:Hate crime 9756:Censorship 9650:Falun Gong 9365:Mediolanum 9305:Alexandria 9270:Themistius 9235:Porphyrius 9062:Tertullian 8997:Quintilian 8987:Propertius 8882:Lactantius 8832:Fulgentius 8767:Censorinus 8589:Sanitation 8574:Metallurgy 8531:Technology 8496:Demography 8444:Patricians 8411:Spectacles 8369:Literature 8364:Hairstyles 8201:Technology 7951:Praefectus 7903:Government 7893:Litigation 7878:Auctoritas 7823:Centuriate 7710:Principate 7705:Pax Romana 7665:Foundation 7507:Variations 7409:Philosophy 7388:Capitolium 7295:Propertius 7062:Averruncus 7047:Aeternitas 7037:Abundantia 6966:Proserpina 6320:Ferragosto 5828:Brown 2012 5521:Brown 2012 5509:Brown 2012 5279:Judge 2010 5255:Brown 2012 5243:Brown 2012 5165:Brown 1998 5153:Brown 1998 4850:Brown 1998 4788:Brown 1992 4776:Brown 1992 4752:Brown 1992 4180:Brown 1992 3978:(1): 187. 3517:Brown 1992 3221:Brown 1998 3182:Brown 1998 3167:Leone 2013 3143:Jones 1986 3116:Leone 2013 2785:Brown 1998 2773:Brown 1998 2612:Eusebius, 1879:References 1872:destroyed. 1738:Alexandria 1601:Burckhardt 1577:Lynn White 1408:, and all 1087:) in 391. 1057:fiction". 1029:says that 1005:See also: 994:Theodosius 894:David Wood 852:Hellenists 781:Alexandria 777:Res Gestae 745:J. 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Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire

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