102:
242:, see him as an exemplification of Constantius' paranoid reign, and contend that Constantius bears the ultimate responsibility for Paulus' perversions of justice. Peter Crawford acknowledged that the emperor’s employment of officials like Paulus was "unscrupulous." Though few historical events can be definitively classified as results of Paulus' actions,
134:, although a loyal supporter of Constantius, intervened. Threatening to resign, he attempted to persuade Paulus to release the innocent prisoners he had taken, or at least to slow down his inquisitorial activity. Paulus refused. He turned on Martinus, falsely and publicly accusing him and other senior officers in Britain of
88:
also accuses him of prosecuting false charges, and says that "In Europe and in Asia he deserved to die thousands of times, so that those who knew the fellow were aggrieved that they could not put him to death over and over again." Marcellinus' account is particularly disparaging throughout. It is
80:
calls him a clerk, and
Marcellinus also alludes to him at one point holding a "receivership" in the provinces. Whatever his official title, his role in Constantus' service was multifaceted: he served as special investigator and judge in cases of suspected treason, "hatchet-man" in rooting out
196:, bearing the prayers and wishes of supplicants. The historian implies that the real parchments were entirely inoffensive, but that they were incredibly easy to forge, and thus gave Paulus the ability to try and convict anyone. In any case, Paulus set up a court at
204:(a friend of Libanius') of certain fiscal crimes. After Julian's ascension in 361, Libanius appealed to the emperor on behalf of Aristophanes. Julian granted a pardon to the man, clearing Aristophanes of, in Julian's words, all "the malicious charges of Paul."
71:
reports that he had a "smooth countenance." Before obtaining his position as an imperial aid, he was a steward of the emperor's table. The exact office he held while in the emperor's service is unclear: Modern sources follow
Marcellinus in calling him a
125:
earlier in the year. According to
Marcellinus, once Paulus arrived, he widened his remit and began arresting other figures on entirely trumped-up charges. Marcellinus reports that Paulus' methods were so extreme and so unjust that eventually the
188:) was sent to the Roman East with general instructions to root out traitors and broad authority to conduct trials. Marcellinus adds that he was particularly interested in investigating certain parchment scrolls left in the temple of the
167:
In the years between 355 and 359 Paulus' movements are not known. However, modern scholars argue that it is likely Paulus spent all or some of this time in Julian's court. Whether his role was as a spy for
Constantius (as conjectured by
226:. It is possible that in prescribing this sentence (or perhaps in convicting Paulus at all), the commission was acting on Julian's explicit orders: Philostorgius reports that " to Chalcedon, where he exacted satisfaction from ."
93:'Catena,' offering two accounts of how Paulus earned the name: in the first, Paulus is said to have earned the name on account of his skill in complex interrogations; in the second, on account of his skill in creating calumnies.
149:
in 354, or perhaps merely in the trials that followed. Philostorgius adds that Paulus "had been one who had often displayed particular hostility to Gallus in his actions," though no details are known.
330:
With 'The Chain': Yonge 1939, XIV.V.§8, XV.II.§4, XXII.III.§11; Wright 1913, p. xvii, p. xxxv, etc.; Norman 1969, p. 111 n. d; Wright 1861, p. 118 ff. With 'The Fetter': Smith 1872, p. 155
84:
The ancient sources assign Paulus a poor reputation and character. Julian calls him a notorious fabricator of false charges and asserts that he was "detested even while he flourished."
277:, is usually translated as 'the Chain', but at least one source translates it as 'the Fetter.' Ammianus Marcellinus (the only ancient source to reference the name; see
138:
and threatening to take them to the emperor's court in chains. In either desperation or rage, Martinus attacked Paulus with a sword. However, the attack failed and the
201:
1229:
1234:
176:, he states that Constantius "hired to attack me." 2. In 358 Libanius wrote to Paulus, thanking him for urging Julian to write to him.
774:
The Roman
History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens
1214:
1055:
690:
21. The quoted translation is by Amidon 2007, p. 84, but c.p. Lieu 1996, p. 234 (translation); Kotter p. 213 (original Greek)
172:) or simply as a courtier is not known. Evidence for his presence in Julian's court comes from two sources: 1. In Julian's
1224:
635:
Norman 1992, Vol. 1 p. 453. N.B. this letter by
Libanius (Παύλῳ) is numbered 31 by Norman, 370 by Foerster, 373 by Wolf.
1209:
1087:
587:
states this and cites Amm. XV.III.§4, but this paragraph does not mention Gallus; perhaps an error for XXII.III.§11.
850:
824:
207:
On June 23, 359 Paulus appeared in
Alexandria and acted with imperial authority to punish the opponents of Bishop
1204:
516:) is numbered 53 by Wright, 97 by Bidez-Cumont, 75 by Heyler, 74 by Seeck (probably an error for 75 in Heyler)
81:
supporters of suppressed rebellions, and as one of
Constantius' insiders in rival centers of political power.
1141:
218:
In late 361 or early 362, upon the ascent of Julian to the emperorship, Paulus was condemned to death by the
903:
950:
877:
846:
823:, Second Series. Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., originally published 1892 , reprinted June 1995. Online at
1199:
1161:
1135:
1121:
907:
888:
243:
157:
1000:
302:
Philostorgius calls him a
Spaniard; Marcellinus in one place a native of Spain, in another a native of
798:
762:
976:
932:
1073:
122:
246:
asserts that Paulus' destabilization of the Roman administration in
Britain allowed the hostile
54:. Marcellinus describes him as infamously cruel, and a skilled fabricator of false accusations.
1069:
215:
describes him publishing an imperial order, indicating the extent of his power in this period.
235:
777:
965:
961:
766:
748:
208:
68:
43:
819:
Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry (eds.), "Introduction. Historia Acephala and Festal Index" in
8:
1194:
1173:
813:
101:
219:
146:
1219:
1083:
1051:
787:
212:
185:
67:
Little is known of Paulus' personal life or background. He was a native of Spain and
1006:
960:, 2 Vols.. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992. Online at Loeb Classics (
831:
223:
131:
51:
31:
1177:
1169:
1166:
The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon: A History of the Early Inhabitants of Britain
1149:
1077:
1045:
1028:
1018:
892:
809:
251:
1065:
482:: "notarius" in XIV.V.§6, XIX.XII.§1, XXII.III.§11; "rationalis" in XV.III.§4 (
197:
181:
114:
39:
35:
870:
Imp. Caesaris Flavii Vlaudii Iuliani: Epistulae Leges Poematia Fragmenta Varia
821:
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers; Volume 4: Athanasius: Select Works and Letters
1188:
1103:
986:
949:, Vol X: Epistulae 1–839. Hildescheim: Verlangsbuchhandlung, 1963. Online at
239:
110:
77:
27:
281:) makes reference to both chains and fetters in his description of Paulus.
999:
Church History. Society of Biblical Literature; Atlanta, 2007. Online at
303:
1023:
Lieu, Samuel N. C.; Montserrat, Dominic (eds.), "The Artemii Passio" in
1127:
1113:
1025:
From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views, A source history
660:, section 7: Larsow 1852, p. 37; Fromen 1914, p. 73; Schaff 1995 p. 497
169:
153:
118:
931:, Vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969. Online at
917:
274:
127:
90:
85:
47:
1079:
The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395
902:, Vol. 3. London: Heinemann, New York: Macmillan; 1923. Online at
845:, Vol. 2. London: Heinemann, New York: Macmillan; 1913. Online at
559:
eo quod in conplicandis calumniarum nexibus erat indissolubili ira
414:, XIV.V.§6-9, XV.III.§3-4, XV.VI.§1-4, XIX.XII.§1-16, XXII.III.§11
278:
135:
23:
806:
Die Fest-Briefe des Heiligen Athanasius, Bischofs von Alexandria
62:
1009:; Kotter, Bonifatius (ed.), "Passio Magni Martyris Artemii" in
189:
164:
killed, and tortured at least one individual almost to death.
1148:, Volume III: Oareses-Zygia. London: Murray. 1872. Online at
876:», London: Milford, Oxford University Press; 1922. Online at
797:. Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster. 1914. Online at
247:
161:
584:
310:
states the latter reading is probably a textual corruption.
307:
290:
1156:
Ammianus and Constantius: The Portrayal of a Tyrant in the
1110:. London: Strahan & Cadell, first published 1776–1789.
1017:, Band 29. Berlin, New York: Walter De Gruyter. Online at
761:. 3 Vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1939–52. Online at
193:
1168:, Second Edition. London: Arthur Hall, 1861. Online at
1146:
A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
1108:
The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
711:
234:
Paulus remains a minor character in the history of the
1134:, Vol. IV. Bernlin: Franz Siemenroth, 1911. Online at
1047:
Constantius II: Usurpers, Eunuchs, and the Antichrist
975:. Amsterdam: Jannssonio Waesbergios, 1738. Online at
1158:
Res Gestae. University of Tennessee. December 2009.
117:to arrest certain former supporters of the usurper
1027:. London and New York: Routledge, 1996. Online at
512:Wright 1923, p. 183. N.B., This letter of Julian (
145:Paulus seems to have been involved in the fall of
42:. He is principally known through the writings of
30:public official who served as an investigator and
1064:
200:and tried several people. He tried and convicted
1186:
776:. London: G. Bell and Sons LTD, 1911. Online at
757:Henderson, Jeffrey (ed.), Rolfe, J.C. (trans.),
971:Wolf, Johannes Christopher (ed. & trans.),
156:in 355, rooting out supporters of the usurper
152:Following Marcellinus' account, Paulus was in
293:gives 361 or 362, Seeck gives 362, Smith 361.
63:Background, reputation, and general character
958:Libanius: Autobiography and Selected Letters
89:also the only source which mentions Paulus'
46:, though he is also present in the works of
883:Heyler, Ludwig Henrich (ed. & trans.),
555:erat in conplicandis negotiis artifex dirus
1132:Geschichte des Untergangs der Antiken Welt
1118:Die Briefe des Libanius Zeitlich Geordnet
885:Juliani Imperator quae Feruntur Epistolae
837:Letter to the Senate and People of Athens
254:to invade and pillage Roman settlements.
174:Letter to the Senate and People of Athens
1043:
717:
528:
526:
524:
522:
492:
383:
381:
379:
377:
375:
373:
100:
1011:Dei Schriften des Johannes von Damaskos
1187:
808:. Leipzig, Göttingen; 1852, Online at
508:
506:
504:
422:
420:
397:
395:
393:
363:
361:
359:
357:
355:
353:
351:
349:
1120:. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1906. Online at
604:21. Translation by Amidon 2007, p. 84
519:
370:
1230:People executed by the Roman Empire
620:
501:
417:
390:
346:
179:In 359, Paulus (accompanied by the
13:
1235:Ancient Romans from unknown gentes
956:Norman, A. F. (ed. & trans.),
927:Norman, A. F. (ed. & trans.),
742:
651:
404:
14:
1246:
1037:
900:The Works of the Emperor Julian
843:The Works of the Emperor Julian
723:
702:
693:
676:
663:
638:
629:
607:
590:
577:
564:
543:
487:a ministro triclinii rationalis
472:
463:
450:
437:
296:
1082:. Cambridge University Press.
968:). Accessed 18 September 2022.
898:Wright, Wilmer Cave (trans.),
868:Bidez, I., Cumont, F. (eds.),
841:Wright, Wilmer Cave (trans.),
772:Yonge, Charles Duke (trans.),
333:
324:
284:
264:
22:('the Chain' or 'the Fetter';
1:
1215:Executed ancient Roman people
1180:. Accessed 14 September 2022.
1138:. Accessed 14 September 2022.
1031:. Accessed 15 September 2022.
1015:Patristische Texte un Studien
1003:. Accessed 15 September 2022.
979:. Accessed 18 September 2022.
953:. Accessed 18 September 2022.
935:. Accessed 14 September 2022.
910:. Accessed 14 September 2022.
895:. Accessed 14 September 2022.
887:. Moguntiae, 1828. Online at
880:, Accessed 14 September 2022.
853:. Accessed 14 September 2022.
816:. Accessed 13 September 2022.
801:. Accessed 13 September 2022.
780:. Accessed 13 September 2022.
769:. Accessed 13 September 2022.
759:Ammianus Marcellinus: History
317:
96:
26:350s; d. 361/2) was a senior
872:. Paris: Société D'édition «
626:Wright 1913, p. 177-8 (282C)
160:. He reportedly had several
109:In 353 he was dispatched to
57:
7:
1124:Accessed 14 September 2022.
973:Libanii Sophistae Epistolae
929:Libanius: Selected Orations
795:Athanasii historia acephala
238:. Many scholars, including
105:Medallion of Constantius II
10:
1251:
1225:People executed by burning
736:
699:Gibbon 1776, Chapter XVIII
1210:Ancient Romans in Britain
945:Foerster, Richard (ed.),
229:
1044:Crawford, Peter (2016).
995:Amidon, Philip R., S.J,
498:Norman 1969, p. 111 n. d
257:
1154:Williams, Sean Robert,
729:Wright 1861, p. 118-119
686:VI.6a-7a, surviving in
600:VI.6a-7a, surviving in
430:VI.6a-7a, surviving in
202:Aristophanes of Corinth
908:The Tertullian Project
851:The Tertullian Project
708:Williams 2009, p. 28-9
367:Jones 1971, p. 683-684
339:Ammianus Marcellinus,
106:
1205:Ancient Roman jurists
669:Ammianus Marcellinus
644:Ammianus Marcellinus
613:Ammianus Marcellinus
570:Ammianus Marcellinus
549:Ammianus Marcellinus
478:Ammianus Marcellinus
456:Ammianus Marcellinus
443:Ammianus Marcellinus
410:Ammianus Marcellinus
236:Constantinian dynasty
104:
1174:The Internet Archive
1136:The Internet Archive
1122:The Internet Archive
1013:, Vol. V; in series
1001:The Internet Archive
977:The Internet Archive
951:The Internet Archive
904:The Internet Archive
889:The Internet Archive
878:The Internet Archive
847:The Internet Archive
825:The Internet Archive
814:The Internet Archive
799:The Internet Archive
749:Ammianus Marcellinus
209:George of Cappadocia
44:Ammianus Marcellinus
1050:. Pen & Sword.
469:Yonge 1939, XIV.V.6
142:committed suicide.
52:Julian the Apostate
1200:4th-century Romans
874:Les Belles Lettres
540:18.§152 (p. 377-8)
401:Smith 1872, p. 155
387:Seeck 1906, p. 233
220:Chalcedon tribunal
147:Constantius Gallus
107:
1057:978-1-78340-055-3
788:Historia Acephala
778:Project Gutenberg
658:Historia Acephala
536:14.§15 (p. 111);
213:Historia Acephala
1242:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1061:
1007:John of Damascus
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793:Fromen, Heinz,
745:
743:Ancient sources
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648:, XIX.XII.§1-16
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121:, who had been
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65:
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38:during the mid-
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12:
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1182:
1181:
1162:Wright, Thomas
1159:
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1142:Smith, William
1139:
1125:
1111:
1104:Gibbon, Edward
1101:
1088:
1062:
1056:
1039:
1038:Modern sources
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1035:
1034:
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1021:
1004:
997:Philostorgius:
991:Church History
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735:
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731:
722:
720:, p. 247.
710:
701:
692:
688:Artemii Passio
684:Church History
682:Philostorgius
675:
673:, XXII.III.§11
662:
650:
637:
628:
619:
606:
602:Artemii Passio
598:Church History
596:Philostorgius
589:
576:
563:
561:) respectively
557:), XV.III.§4 (
542:
518:
500:
491:
471:
462:
449:
436:
432:Artemii Passio
428:Church History
426:Philostorgius
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403:
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345:
332:
322:
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295:
283:
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98:
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59:
56:
40:fourth century
36:Constantius II
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9:
6:
4:
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1089:0-521-07233-6
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1080:
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1066:Jones, A.H.M.
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987:Philostorgius
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959:
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952:
948:
947:Libanii Opera
944:
943:
942:
939:
934:
933:Loeb Classics
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771:
768:
767:Loeb Classics
764:
760:
756:
755:
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750:
747:
746:
726:
719:
718:Crawford 2016
714:
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689:
685:
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641:
632:
623:
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599:
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586:
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573:
567:
560:
556:
553:, XIV.V.§8 (
552:
546:
539:
535:
532:Norman 1969,
529:
527:
525:
523:
515:
509:
507:
505:
495:
488:
485:
481:
475:
466:
460:, XV.III.§3-4
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306:, though the
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78:Philostorgius
76:(notary) but
75:
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55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
20:Paulus Catena
1170:Google Books
1165:
1155:
1150:Google Books
1145:
1131:
1117:
1107:
1095:14 September
1093:. Retrieved
1078:
1046:
1029:Google Books
1024:
1019:Google Books
1014:
1010:
996:
990:
972:
957:
946:
940:
928:
922:
899:
893:Google Books
884:
873:
869:
862:
858:
842:
836:
820:
810:Google Books
805:
804:Larsow, F.,
794:
786:
773:
763:LacusCurtius
758:
752:
725:
713:
704:
695:
687:
683:
678:
670:
665:
657:
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645:
640:
631:
622:
617:, XV.VI.§1-4
614:
609:
601:
597:
592:
579:
574:, XIV.V.§6-9
571:
566:
558:
554:
550:
545:
537:
533:
513:
494:
486:
483:
479:
474:
465:
457:
452:
447:, XIV.V.§5-6
444:
439:
431:
427:
411:
406:
343:, XIV.V.§6-9
340:
335:
326:
298:
286:
270:
266:
233:
224:burned alive
217:
206:
180:
178:
173:
166:
151:
144:
139:
130:of Britain,
108:
83:
73:
66:
19:
18:
16:Roman notary
1178:Hathi Trust
1128:Seeck, Otto
1114:Seeck, Otto
198:Scythopolis
115:Constantius
69:Marcellinus
1195:362 deaths
1189:Categories
753:Res Gestae
671:Res Gestae
646:Res Gestae
615:Res Gestae
572:Res Gestae
551:Res Gestae
480:Res Gestae
458:Res Gestae
445:Res Gestae
412:Res Gestae
341:Res Gestae
318:References
273:, Paulus'
170:Otto Seeck
119:Magnentius
97:Activities
1074:J. Morris
863:Epistulae
222:. He was
58:Biography
1220:Notaries
1076:(1971).
923:Orations
918:Libanius
275:cognomen
186:Modestus
158:Silvanus
140:vicarius
128:vicarius
123:defeated
91:cognomen
86:Libanius
74:notarius
48:Libanius
941:Letters
859:Letters
737:Sources
514:Λιωανίῳ
136:treason
111:Britain
1176:, and
1086:
1072:&
1054:
966:Vol. 2
962:Vol. 1
832:Julian
271:Catena
240:Gibbon
230:Legacy
211:. The
190:oracle
162:counts
32:notary
304:Dacia
279:above
258:Notes
252:Scots
248:Picts
28:Roman
1097:2022
1084:ISBN
1052:ISBN
906:and
891:and
849:and
812:and
765:and
585:PLRE
583:The
308:PLRE
291:PLRE
250:and
194:Besa
154:Gaul
50:and
34:for
538:Or.
534:Or.
484:hic
192:of
113:by
24:fl.
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1106:,
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989:,
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785:,
751:,
521:^
503:^
434:21
419:^
392:^
372:^
348:^
1099:.
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861:(
489:)
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