Password - Knowledge

720:"Password aging" is a feature of some operating systems which forces users to change passwords frequently (e.g., quarterly, monthly or even more often). Such policies usually provoke user protest and foot-dragging at best and hostility at worst. There is often an increase in the number of people who note down the password and leave it where it can easily be found, as well as help desk calls to reset a forgotten password. Users may use simpler passwords or develop variation patterns on a consistent theme to keep their passwords memorable. Because of these issues, there is some debate as to whether password aging is effective. Changing a password will not prevent abuse in most cases, since the abuse would often be immediately noticeable. However, if someone may have had access to the password through some means, such as sharing a computer or breaching a different site, changing the password limits the window for abuse. 141:, and receiving from him the watchword—that is a wooden tablet with the word inscribed on it – takes his leave, and on returning to his quarters passes on the watchword and tablet before witnesses to the commander of the next maniple, who in turn passes it to the one next to him. All do the same until it reaches the first maniples, those encamped near the tents of the tribunes. These latter are obliged to deliver the tablet to the tribunes before dark. So that if all those issued are returned, the tribune knows that the watchword has been given to all the maniples, and has passed through all on its way back to him. If any one of them is missing, he makes inquiry at once, as he knows by the marks from what quarter the tablet has not returned, and whoever is responsible for the stoppage meets with the punishment he merits. 952:

users and cyber-security experts. The NIST recommends people use longer phrases as passwords (and advises websites to raise the maximum password length) instead of hard-to-remember passwords with "illusory complexity" such as "pA55w+rd". A user prevented from using the password "password" may simply choose "Password1" if required to include a number and uppercase letter. Combined with forced periodic password changes, this can lead to passwords that are difficult to remember but easy to crack.

54: 1299:(2-Dimensional Key) is a 2D matrix-like key input method having the key styles of multiline passphrase, crossword, ASCII/Unicode art, with optional textual semantic noises, to create big password/key beyond 128 bits to realize the MePKC (Memorizable Public-Key Cryptography) using fully memorizable private key upon the current private key management technologies like encrypted private key, split private key, and roaming private key. 1227:, etc. They have proven easy to spoof in some famous incidents testing commercially available systems, for example, the gummie fingerprint spoof demonstration, and, because these characteristics are unalterable, they cannot be changed if compromised; this is a highly important consideration in access control as a compromised access token is necessarily insecure. 729:

exclusively for their use. Single passwords are also much less convenient to change because many people need to be told at the same time, and they make removal of a particular user's access more difficult, as for instance on graduation or resignation. Separate logins are also often used for accountability, for example to know who changed a piece of data.

1041:, confirming yet again the general lack of informed care in choosing passwords among users. (He nevertheless maintained, based on these data, that the general quality of passwords has improved over the years—for example, average length was up to eight characters from under seven in previous surveys, and less than 4% were dictionary words.) 638:-type systems) doing remote authentication, the shared secret usually becomes the hashed form and has the serious limitation of exposing passwords to offline guessing attacks. In addition, when the hash is used as a shared secret, an attacker does not need the original password to authenticate remotely; they only need the hash. 1162:

passwords have proved so hard to supplant (despite numerous predictions that they would soon be a thing of the past); in examining thirty representative proposed replacements with respect to security, usability and deployability they conclude "none even retains the full set of benefits that legacy passwords already provide."

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simply capitalises one of the letters). Asking users to use "both letters and digits" will often lead to easy-to-guess substitutions such as 'E' → '3' and 'I' → '1', substitutions that are well known to attackers. Similarly typing the password one keyboard row higher is a common trick known to attackers.

260:, Jeff Yan et al. examine the effect of advice given to users about a good choice of password. They found that passwords based on thinking of a phrase and taking the first letter of each word are just as memorable as naively selected passwords, and just as hard to crack as randomly generated passwords. 1077:

website occurred that led to the release of 32 million passwords. The hacker then leaked the full list of the 32 million passwords (with no other identifiable information) to the Internet. Passwords were stored in cleartext in the database and were extracted through a SQL injection vulnerability. The

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Paul Grassi, one of the 2017 NIST report's authors, further elaborated: "Everyone knows that an exclamation point is a 1, or an I, or the last character of a password. $ is an S or a 5. If we use these well-known tricks, we aren't fooling any adversary. We are simply fooling the database that stores

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to guess. However, passwords that are difficult to remember may also reduce the security of a system because (a) users might need to write down or electronically store the password, (b) users will need frequent password resets and (c) users are more likely to re-use the same password across different

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technology is claimed to eliminate the need for having multiple passwords. Such schemes do not relieve users and administrators from choosing reasonable single passwords, nor system designers or administrators from ensuring that private access control information passed among systems enabling single

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that sets requirements for the composition and usage of passwords, typically dictating minimum length, required categories (e.g., upper and lower case, numbers, and special characters), prohibited elements (e.g., use of one's own name, date of birth, address, telephone number). Some governments have

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More secure systems store each password in a cryptographically protected form, so access to the actual password will still be difficult for a snooper who gains internal access to the system, while validation of user access attempts remains possible. The most secure do not store passwords at all, but

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password after a larger cumulative number of bad guesses (say 30), to prevent an attacker from making an arbitrarily large number of bad guesses by interspersing them between good guesses made by the legitimate password owner. Attackers may conversely use knowledge of this mitigation to implement a

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However, in spite of these predictions and efforts to replace them passwords are still the dominant form of authentication on the web. In "The Persistence of Passwords", Cormac Herley and Paul van Oorschot suggest that every effort should be made to end the "spectacularly incorrect assumption" that

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Pieris Tsokkis and Eliana Stavrou were able to identify some bad password construction strategies through their research and development of a password generator tool. They came up with eight categories of password construction strategies based on exposed password lists, password cracking tools, and

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Using client-side encryption will only protect transmission from the mail handling system server to the client machine. Previous or subsequent relays of the email will not be protected and the email will probably be stored on multiple computers, certainly on the originating and receiving computers,

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algorithm used a 12-bit salt value so that each user's hash was unique and iterated the DES algorithm 25 times in order to make the hash function slower, both measures intended to frustrate automated guessing attacks. The user's password was used as a key to encrypt a fixed value. More recent Unix

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password. An attacker can, however, use widely available tools to attempt to guess the passwords. These tools work by hashing possible passwords and comparing the result of each guess to the actual password hashes. If the attacker finds a match, they know that their guess is the actual password for

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attacks (which are more efficient than cracking). If it is reversibly encrypted then if the attacker gets the decryption key along with the file no cracking is necessary, while if he fails to get the key cracking is not possible. Thus, of the common storage formats for passwords only when passwords

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of the password. If an attacker gets access to the file of hashed passwords guessing can be done offline, rapidly testing candidate passwords against the true password's hash value. In the example of a web-server, an online attacker can guess only at the rate at which the server will respond, while

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have rules that actually have the opposite effect on the security of their users. This includes complex composition rules as well as forced password changes after certain periods of time. While these rules have long been widespread, they have also long been seen as annoying and ineffective by both

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and Cormac Herley, together with Paul C. van Oorschot of Carleton University, Canada, that password reuse is inevitable, and that users should reuse passwords for low-security websites (which contain little personal data and no financial information, for example) and instead focus their efforts on

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Allotting separate passwords to each user of a system is preferable to having a single password shared by legitimate users of the system, certainly from a security viewpoint. This is partly because users are more willing to tell another person (who may not be authorized) a shared password than one

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invented the now-common approach of storing only a "hashed" form of the plaintext password. When a user types in a password on such a system, the password handling software runs through a cryptographic hash algorithm, and if the hash value generated from the user's entry matches the hash stored in

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using a randomly generated grid of images. Each time the user is required to authenticate, they look for the images that fit their pre-chosen categories and enter the randomly generated alphanumeric character that appears in the image to form the one-time password. So far, graphical passwords are

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Multi-factor authentication schemes combine passwords (as "knowledge factors") with one or more other means of authentication, to make authentication more secure and less vulnerable to compromised passwords. For example, a simple two-factor login might send a text message, e-mail, automated phone

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Following this, Bonneau et al. systematically compared web passwords to 35 competing authentication schemes in terms of their usability, deployability, and security. Their analysis shows that most schemes do better than passwords on security, some schemes do better and some worse with respect to

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Passwords are vulnerable to interception (i.e., "snooping") while being transmitted to the authenticating machine or person. If the password is carried as electrical signals on unsecured physical wiring between the user access point and the central system controlling the password database, it is

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However, asking users to remember a password consisting of a "mix of uppercase and lowercase characters" is similar to asking them to remember a sequence of bits: hard to remember, and only a little bit harder to crack (e.g. only 128 times harder to crack for 7-letter passwords, less if the user

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scheme does worse than passwords on deployability. The authors conclude with the following observation: "Marginal gains are often not sufficient to reach the activation energy necessary to overcome significant transition costs, which may provide the best explanation of why we are likely to live

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An alternative to limiting the rate at which an attacker can make guesses on a password is to limit the total number of guesses that can be made. The password can be disabled, requiring a reset, after a small number of consecutive bad guesses (say 5); and the user may be required to change the

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To facilitate estate administration, it is helpful for people to provide a mechanism for their passwords to be communicated to the persons who will administer their affairs in the event of their death. Should a record of accounts and passwords be prepared, care must be taken to ensure that the

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Nowadays, it is a common practice for computer systems to hide passwords as they are typed. The purpose of this measure is to prevent bystanders from reading the password; however, some argue that this practice may lead to mistakes and stress, encouraging users to choose weak passwords. As an

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The numerous ways in which permanent or semi-permanent passwords can be compromised has prompted the development of other techniques. Some are inadequate in practice, and in any case few have become universally available for users seeking a more secure alternative. A 2012 paper examines why

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The rate at which an attacker can submit guessed passwords to the system is a key factor in determining system security. Some systems impose a time-out of several seconds after a small number (e.g., three) of failed password entry attempts, also known as throttling. In the absence of other

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Traditional advice to memorize passwords and never write them down has become a challenge because of the sheer number of passwords users of computers and the internet are expected to maintain. One survey concluded that the average user has around 100 passwords. To manage the proliferation of

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Limiting the number of allowed failures within a given time period (to prevent repeated password guessing). After the limit is reached, further attempts will fail (including correct password attempts) until the beginning of the next time period. However, this is vulnerable to a form of

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Despite its name, a password does not need to be an actual word; indeed, a non-word (in the dictionary sense) may be harder to guess, which is a desirable property of passwords. A memorized secret consisting of a sequence of words or other text separated by spaces is sometimes called a

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in 1961, was the first computer system to implement password login. CTSS had a LOGIN command that requested a user password. "After typing PASSWORD, the system turns off the printing mechanism, if possible, so that the user may type in his password with privacy." In the early 1970s,

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Usually, a system must provide a way to change a password, either because a user believes the current password has been (or might have been) compromised, or as a precautionary measure. If a new password is passed to the system in unencrypted form, security can be lost (e.g., via

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accounts. Similarly, the more stringent the password requirements, such as "have a mix of uppercase and lowercase letters and digits" or "change it monthly", the greater the degree to which users will subvert the system. Others argue longer passwords provide more security (e.g.,

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The main storage methods for passwords are plain text, hashed, hashed and salted, and reversibly encrypted. If an attacker gains access to the password file, then if it is stored as plain text, no cracking is necessary. If it is hashed but not salted then it is vulnerable to

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Many websites enforce standard rules such as minimum and maximum length, but also frequently include composition rules such as featuring at least one capital letter and at least one number/symbol. These latter, more specific rules were largely based on a 2003 report by the

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the associated user. Password cracking tools can operate by brute force (i.e. trying every possible combination of characters) or by hashing every word from a list; large lists of possible passwords in many languages are widely available on the Internet. The existence of

677:) avoid both the conflict and limitation of hash-based methods. An augmented system allows a client to prove knowledge of the password to a server, where the server knows only a (not exactly) hashed password, and where the un-hashed password is required to gain access. 2620: 2485: 73:, but the large number of password-protected services that a typical individual accesses can make memorization of unique passwords for each service impractical. Using the terminology of the NIST Digital Identity Guidelines, the secret is held by a party called the 1023:

Studies of production computer systems have consistently shown that a large fraction of all user-chosen passwords are readily guessed automatically. For example, Columbia University found 22% of user passwords could be recovered with little effort. According to

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online reports citing the most used passwords. These categories include user-related information, keyboard combinations and patterns, placement strategy, word processing, substitution, capitalization, append dates, and a combination of the previous categories

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tools allows attackers to easily recover poorly chosen passwords. In particular, attackers can quickly recover passwords that are short, dictionary words, simple variations on dictionary words, or that use easily guessable patterns. A modified version of the

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broke the passwords of deceased employees to gain access to files needed for servicing client accounts. Technicians used brute-force attacks, and interviewers contacted families to gather personalized information that might reduce the search time for weaker

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to more sophisticated physical threats such as video cameras and keyboard sniffers. Passwords should be chosen so that they are hard for an attacker to guess and hard for an attacker to discover using any of the available automatic attack schemes. See

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Some systems require characters from various character classes in a password—for example, "must have at least one uppercase and at least one lowercase letter". However, all-lowercase passwords are more secure per keystroke than mixed capitalization

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as well as security problems of passwords. It often accompanies arguments that the replacement of passwords by a more secure means of authentication is both necessary and imminent. This claim has been made by numerous people at least since 2004.

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resulted in 117 million stolen passwords and emails. Millions of the passwords were later posted on a Russian forum. A hacker named "Peace" later offered additional passwords for sale. LinkedIn undertook a mandatory reset of all compromised

1089:(North Atlantic Treaty Organization) experienced a security breach that led to the public release of first and last names, usernames, and passwords for more than 11,000 registered users of their e-bookshop. The data was leaked as part of 1366:

passwords are dead. They argue that "no other single technology matches their combination of cost, immediacy and convenience" and that "passwords are themselves the best fit for many of the scenarios in which they are currently used."

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Some password reset questions ask for personal information that could be found on social media, such as mother's maiden name. As a result, some security experts recommend either making up one's own questions or giving false answers.

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P. Tsokkis and E. Stavrou, "A password generator tool to increase users' awareness on bad password construction strategies", 2018 International Symposium on Networks, Computers and Communications (ISNCC), Rome, 2018, pp. 1-5,

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the password database, the user is permitted access. The hash value is created by applying a cryptographic hash function to a string consisting of the submitted password and, in many implementations, another value known as a

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one-time passwords are used as single-use passwords, but the dynamic characters to be entered are visible only when a user superimposes a unique printed visual key over a server-generated challenge image shown on the user's

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call, or similar alert whenever a login attempt is made, possibly supplying a code that must be entered in addition to a password. More sophisticated factors include such things as hardware tokens and biometric security.

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systems and simply keeping paper lists of less critical passwords. Such practices can reduce the number of passwords that must be memorized, such as the password manager's master password, to a more manageable number.

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In 2013, Google released a list of the most common password types, all of which are considered insecure because they are too easy to guess (especially after researching an individual on social media), which includes:

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on at least two computers: the sender's and the recipient's. If it passes through intermediate systems during its travels, it will probably be stored on there as well, at least for some time, and may be copied to

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passwords would be crackable in 8 hours using a commercially available Password Recovery Toolkit capable of testing 200,000 passwords per second in 2006. He also reported that the single most common password was

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Envaulting technology is a password-free way to secure data on removable storage devices such as USB flash drives. Instead of user passwords, access control is based on the user's access to a network resource.

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of each class of infantry and cavalry, the maniple which is encamped at the lower end of the street, a man is chosen who is relieved from guard duty, and he attends every day at sunset at the tent of the

1169:. Having passwords that are only valid once makes many potential attacks ineffective. Most users find single-use passwords extremely inconvenient. They have, however, been widely implemented in personal 988:

is the likelihood that a password cannot be guessed or discovered, and varies with the attack algorithm used. Cryptologists and computer scientists often refer to the strength or 'hardness' in terms of

614:. Most browsers alert the user of a TLS/SSL-protected exchange with a server by displaying a closed lock icon, or some other sign, when TLS is in use. There are several other techniques in use; see 304:

passwords, some users employ the same password for multiple accounts, a dangerous practice since a data breach in one account could compromise the rest. Less risky alternatives include the use of

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Combining two or more unrelated words and altering some of the letters to special characters or numbers is another good method, but a single dictionary word is not. Having a personally designed

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an off-line attacker (who gains access to the file) can guess at a rate limited only by the hardware on which the attack is running and the strength of the algorithm used to create the hash.

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against the user by intentionally locking the user out of their own device; this denial of service may open other avenues for the attacker to manipulate the situation to their advantage via

396:.) Security in such situations depends on using passwords or passphrases of adequate complexity, making such an attack computationally infeasible for the attacker. Some systems, such as 1289:

promising, but are not widely used. Studies on this subject have been made to determine its usability in the real world. While some believe that graphical passwords would be harder to

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Bonneau, Joseph; Herley, Cormac; Oorschot, Paul C. van; Stajano, Frank (2012). "The Quest to Replace Passwords: A Framework for Comparative Evaluation of Web Authentication Schemes".

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easily. In some implementations the user is required to pick from a series of images in the correct sequence in order to gain access. Another graphical password solution creates a

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in place of a password system as a temporarily unique method of identification; one metallic click given by the device in lieu of a password was to be met by two clicks in reply.

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methods promise authentication based on unalterable personal characteristics, but currently (2008) have high error rates and require additional hardware to scan, for example,

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operating system. The system was based on a simulated Hagelin rotor crypto machine, and first appeared in 6th Edition Unix in 1974. A later version of his algorithm, known as

3433: 2359: 540:, which have large salts and an adjustable cost or number of iterations. A poorly designed hash function can make attacks feasible even if a strong password is chosen. See 1101:, as well as other hacking groups and individuals. The aim of AntiSec is to expose personal, sensitive, and restricted information to the world, using any means necessary. 2938: 938:(NIST), authored by Bill Burr. It originally proposed the practice of using numbers, obscure characters and capital letters and updating regularly. In a 2017 article in 3191: 2385: 1177:(TANs). As most home users only perform a small number of transactions each week, the single-use issue has not led to intolerable customer dissatisfaction in this case. 1140:

staff, and what looks like private sector contractors." These leaked passwords wound up being hashed in SHA1, and were later decrypted and analyzed by the ADC team at

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are frequently used cryptographic hash functions, but they are not recommended for password hashing unless they are used as part of a larger construction such as in

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The stored data—sometimes called the "password verifier" or the "password hash"—is often stored in Modular Crypt Format or RFC 2307 hash format, sometimes in the

462:. A salt prevents attackers from easily building a list of hash values for common passwords and prevents password cracking efforts from scaling across all users. 1183:

are similar in some ways to single-use passwords, but the value to be entered is displayed on a small (generally pocketable) item and changes every minute or so.

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reported an incident where an attacker had found 186,126 encrypted passwords. At the time the attacker was discovered, 47,642 passwords had already been cracked.

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Effective access control provisions may force extreme measures on criminals seeking to acquire a password or biometric token. Less extreme measures include

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by Richard E. Smith: "we can summarize classical password selection rules as follows: The password must be impossible to remember and never written down."

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Historically, many security experts asked people to memorize their passwords: "Never write down a password". More recently, many security experts such as

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T Matsumoto. H Matsumotot; K Yamada & S Hoshino (2002). Van Renesse, Rudolf L. (ed.). "Impact of artificial 'Gummy' Fingers on Fingerprint Systems".

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security) can also be subjected to high rate guessing. Lists of common passwords are widely available and can make password attacks very efficient. (See

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including letters, digits, or other symbols. If the permissible characters are constrained to be numeric, the corresponding secret is sometimes called a

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The security of a password-protected system depends on several factors. The overall system must be designed for sound security, with protection against

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vulnerabilities, such systems can be effectively secure with relatively simple passwords if they have been well chosen and are not easily guessed.

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national authentication frameworks that define requirements for user authentication to government services, including requirements for passwords.

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It is common practice amongst computer users to reuse the same password on multiple sites. This presents a substantial security risk, because an

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Passwords in military use evolved to include not just a password, but a password and a counterpassword; for example in the opening days of the

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Not displaying the password on the display screen as it is being entered or obscuring it as it is typed by using asterisks (*) or bullets (•).

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and leaked the same day. "The leak, dubbed 'Military Meltdown Monday,' includes 90,000 logins of military personnel—including personnel from

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needs to only compromise a single site in order to gain access to other sites the victim uses. This problem is exacerbated by also reusing

573:, a message containing a password is readable without effort during transport by any eavesdropper. Further, the message will be stored as 2886: 2160: 1810: 634:(i.e., password) is, and to do this, the server must be able to obtain the shared secret from its stored form. On many systems (including 1608: 3562: 2570: 2047: 3133: 2978: 3527: 2241: 1889: 817:

Some of the more stringent policy enforcement measures can pose a risk of alienating users, possibly decreasing security as a result.

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Requiring more than one authentication system, such as two-factor authentication (something a user has and something the user knows).

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and if the new password is given to a compromised employee, little is gained. Some websites include the user-selected password in an

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operating systems, including early versions of Unix and Windows, limited passwords to an 8 character maximum, reducing security.)

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Some specific password management issues that must be considered when thinking about, choosing, and handling, a password follow.

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recommend that people use passwords that are too complicated to memorize, write them down on paper, and keep them in a wallet.

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Passwords have been used since ancient times. Sentries would challenge those wishing to enter an area to supply a password or

3838: 3467: 2710: 2519: 2265: 1917: 1686: 627: 2862: 1293:, others suggest that people will be just as likely to pick common images or sequences as they are to pick common passwords. 3448:"Confident Technologies Delivers Image-Based, Multifactor Authentication to Strengthen Passwords on Public-Facing Websites" 2923: 2604: 2020: 1692: 1201:. The necessary keys are usually too large to memorize (but see proposal Passmaze) and must be stored on a local computer, 1180: 799: 658: 647: 330: 3881: 3488: 3286: 1743: 497:

If a cryptographic hash function is well designed, it is computationally infeasible to reverse the function to recover a

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remembering long, complex passwords for a few important accounts, such as bank accounts. Similar arguments were made by

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Email is sometimes used to distribute passwords but this is generally an insecure method. Since most email is sent as

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How to prevent Windows from storing a LAN manager hash of your password in Active Directory and local SAM databases

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software can also store passwords relatively safely, in an encrypted file sealed with a single master password.

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The risk of interception of passwords sent over the Internet can be reduced by, among other approaches, using

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systems are increasingly used to automate the issuance of replacements for lost passwords, a feature called

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The way in which they secure the passing round of the watchword for the night is as follows: from the tenth

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Introducing a delay between password submission attempts to slow down automated password guessing programs.

250: 2800: 3914: 1933: 893: 705: 450: 377: 236:, accessing applications, databases, networks, web sites, and even reading the morning newspaper online. 205: 108:. A passphrase is similar to a password in usage, but the former is generally longer for added security. 3243: 2089: 857:

in not change passwords as often as many "experts" advise, due to the same limitations in human memory.

3101: 1125: 826: 245: 3781:"The Quest to Replace Passwords: A Framework for Comparative Evaluation of Web Authentication Schemes" 3614: 3502: 2316: 2112: 1144:, revealing that even military personnel look for shortcuts and ways around the password requirements. 3584: 3014: 2446: 1869: 1445: 1331: 769: 354: 89: 33: 17: 2282: 1783: 1594: 737:

Common techniques used to improve the security of computer systems protected by a password include:

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Kok-Wah Lee "Methods and Systems to Create Big Memorizable Secrets and Their Applications" Patent

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Cracking Story – How I Cracked Over 122 Million SHA1 and MD5 Hashed Passwords « Thireus' Bl0g

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considerably longer before seeing the funeral procession for passwords arrive at the cemetery."

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Requiring users to re-enter their password after a period of inactivity (a semi log-off policy).

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Attempting to crack passwords by trying as many possibilities as time and money permit is a

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The easier a password is for the owner to remember generally means it will be easier for an

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methods. If it is carried as packeted data over the Internet, anyone able to watch the

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alternative, users should have the option to show or hide passwords as they type them.

2386:"Forbes: Why You Should Ignore Everything You Have Been Told About Choosing Passwords" 2064: 1234:

sign-on is secure against attack. As yet, no satisfactory standard has been developed.

907:

Password rotation is a policy that is commonly implemented with the goal of enhancing

3834: 3796: 3753: 2994: 2299: 1965: 1913: 1840: 1682: 1496: 1476: 1315: 1290: 1285: 1261: 1166: 1133: 1113: 1094: 1090: 1062: 985: 979: 969: 908: 759: 687: 583: 566:

containing the logon information can snoop with a very low probability of detection.

559: 503: 393: 339: 335: 194: 3825:. 2012 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. San Francisco, CA. pp. 553–567. 3356: 1508: 1244:

or mouse-movement based passwords. Graphical passwords are an alternative means of

3919: 3826: 3788: 3344: 3053: 2961: 2645: 2287: 1773:

Morris, Robert; Thompson, Ken (3 April 1978). "Password Security: A Case History".

1715: 1560: 1488: 1420: 1390: 1351: 872: 842: 830: 446: 305: 213: 201: 40: 3876: 3484: 3464: 2601: 2303: 1552: 1082:

Application Defense Center (ADC) did an analysis on the strength of the passwords.

1057:

In September 2001, after the deaths of 658 of their 960 New York employees in the

164:

Passwords have been used with computers since the earliest days of computing. The

3893: 3471: 3415: 3396: 3376: 3314: 3040: 3021: 2759: 2714: 2690: 2652: 2608: 2523: 2505: 2473: 2453: 2342: 2323: 2248: 2229: 2206: 2187: 2164: 2129:

Wilkes, M. V. Time-Sharing Computer Systems. American Elsevier, New York, (1968).

2071: 2051: 1959: 1893: 1676: 1662: 1634: 1400: 1347: 1281: 1265: 1206: 1017: 1013: 926: 920: 849: 755: 385: 2914: 2827:"Improving Usability of Password Management with Standardized Password Policies" 2696:"your password ... in a secure place, such as the back of your wallet or purse." 3779:

Bonneau, Joseph; Herley, Cormac; Oorschot, Paul C. van; Stajano, Frank (2012).

2965: 1720: 1440: 1335: 1245: 1230: 1224: 1202: 1170: 1025: 866: 646:

Rather than transmitting a password, or transmitting the hash of the password,

563: 405: 404:, apply a computation-intensive hash to the password to slow such attacks. See 322: 309: 209: 3856: 3421: 3278: 1492: 177:

developed a system of storing login passwords in a hashed form as part of the

53: 3903: 3800: 2497: 2488: : "NT dialog boxes ... limited passwords to a maximum of 14 characters" 1565: 1500: 1359: 1174: 745: 631: 490: 454: 229: 630:; the latter requires a client to prove to a server that they know what the 511:

algorithm was used as the basis for the password hashing algorithm in early

153:—which was presented as a challenge, and answered with the correct response— 120:, and would only allow a person or group to pass if they knew the password. 3871: 3528:"IBM Reveals Five Innovations That Will Change Our Lives within Five Years" 2777: 2575: 2424:. CESG: the Information Security Arm of GCHQ. 15 April 2016. Archived from 1798: 1248:

for log-in intended to be used in place of conventional password; they use

1198: 1109: 615: 599: 516: 217: 182: 3727: 3326: 2291: 329:

and the like. Physical security issues are also a concern, from deterring

3156:"Anonymous Leaks 90,000 Military Email Accounts in Latest Antisec Attack" 1277: 1220: 1210: 911:. In 2019, Microsoft stated that the practice is "ancient and obsolete". 611: 3555:"Kill the Password: Why a String of Characters Can't Protect Us Anymore" 1991: 3830: 3814: 1450: 1327: 1186: 1009: 787: 786:

Providing an alternative to keyboard entry (e.g., spoken passwords, or

698:

confirmation e-mail message, with the obvious increased vulnerability.

695: 442: 105: 3348: 2773:"Microsoft says mandatory password changing is "ancient and obsolete"" 367: 2684:"The Memorability and Security of Passwords – Some Empirical Results" 1343: 1339: 1319: 1216: 1066: 574: 570: 498: 494:

have been salted and hashed is cracking both necessary and possible.

434: 350: 264: 77:

while the party verifying the identity of the claimant is called the

70: 3792: 2887:"The Man Who Wrote Those Password Rules Has a New Tip: N3v$ r M1^d!" 2825:

AlFayyadh, Bander; Thorsheim, Per; Jøsang, Audun; Klevjer, Henning.

1905: 1004:; passwords very difficult or impossible to discover are considered 2542: 2345:. support.microsoft.com (3 December 2007). Retrieved on 2012-05-20. 2102:. Modernlifeisrubbish.co.uk (26 May 2006). Retrieved on 2012-05-20. 1551:

Grassi, Paul A.; Garcia, Michael E.; Fenton, James L. (June 2017).

1395: 1253: 1148: 1029: 834: 691: 626:

There is a conflict between stored hashed-passwords and hash-based

232:

has passwords for many purposes: logging into accounts, retrieving

221: 149:, paratroopers of the U.S. 101st Airborne Division used a password— 121: 3465:

User Manual for 2-Dimensional Key (2D Key) Input Method and System

3307: 2498:"You must provide a password between 1 and 8 characters in length" 2167:. Bugcharmer.blogspot.com (20 June 2012). Retrieved on 2013-07-30. 384:

Passwords that are used to generate cryptographic keys (e.g., for

1665:. Ancienthistory.about.com (2012-04-13). Retrieved on 2012-05-20. 1415: 1410: 1257: 1141: 1098: 1079: 1074: 1033: 948: 547: 541: 138: 2571:"Microsoft: You NEED bad passwords and should re-use them a lot" 2356:"Why You Should Lie When Setting Up Password Security Questions" 1553:"NIST Special Publication 800-63-3: Digital Identity Guidelines" 690:) before the new password can even be installed in the password 3785:

Technical Report - University of Cambridge. Computer Laboratory

3772: 3379:. waelchatila.com (18 September 2005). Retrieved on 2012-05-20. 2727:

Redding, David E.; Features, AEP published in (19 April 2019).

2390: 1851:. Fred Cohen and Associates. All.net. Retrieved on 20 May 2012. 1744:"Passwords Evolved: Authentication Guidance for the Modern Era" 1296: 1156: 854: 579: 537: 533: 529: 471: 316: 233: 124:

describes the system for the distribution of watchwords in the

3787:. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory. 3754:"A Research Agenda Acknowledging the Persistence of Passwords" 2915:"Experts Say We Can Finally Ditch Those Stupid Password Rules" 1305:

use question and answer cue/response pairs to verify identity.

978:. A related method, rather more efficient in most cases, is a 802:

to prevent access to transmitted passwords via network attacks

654:, which proves knowledge of the password without exposing it. 528:

systems) use more secure password hashing algorithms such as

3331:. Optical Security and Counterfeit Deterrence Techniques IV. 2863:"Hate silly password rules? So does the guy who created them" 2251:. Blog.thireus.com (29 August 2012). Retrieved on 2013-07-30. 1355: 1249: 666: 521: 389: 279:

The name of a pet, child, family member, or significant other

158: 3820: 3778: 3474:. xpreeli.com. (8 September 2008) . Retrieved on 2012-05-20. 1994:"Google Reveals the 10 Worst Password Ideas | TIME.com" 253:) than shorter passwords with a wide variety of characters. 39:"Passcode" redirects here. For the Japanese idol group, see 2824: 2798: 2263: 1772: 1273: 1086: 635: 512: 467: 411: 239: 178: 3418:. searchsecurity.techtarget.com. Retrieved on 20 May 2012. 3370:

Using AJAX for Image Passwords – AJAX Security Part 1 of 3

2623: : Myth #7. You Should Never Write Down Your Password 2379: 2377: 2175: 2173: 1992:

Techlicious / Fox Van Allen @techlicious (8 August 2013).

1611:. Computer Security Resource Center (NIST). Archived from 593: 3672:"Russian credential theft shows why the password is dead" 3409:

graphical password or graphical user authentication (GUA)

3218:"The top 12 password-cracking techniques used by hackers" 2562: 1716:"The World's First Computer Password? It Was Useless Too" 525: 463: 267:

for generating obscure passwords is another good method.

169: 85:, the verifier is able to infer the claimant's identity. 3888:

Centre for Security, Communications and Network Research

3887: 621: 3043:. Wired.com (27 October 2006). Retrieved on 2012-05-20. 2374: 2170: 3882:

Procedural Advice for Organisations and Administrators

2223:

An Administrator's Guide to Internet Password Research

956:

passwords into thinking the user did something good."

947:

According to a 2017 rewrite of this NIST report, many

552: 193:

algorithm 25 times to reduce the risk of pre-computed

2447:

Schneier on Security discussion on changing passwords

1678:

101st Airborne: The Screaming Eagles in World War II

838: 680: 482: 478: 2939:"NIST's new password rules – what you need to know" 2729:"Your Estate Could Have a Serious Password Problem" 2418:"The problems with forcing regular password expiry" 2259: 2257: 2190:. Bugcharmer.blogspot.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-30. 1318:. The reasons given often include reference to the 1309: 368:

Rate at which an attacker can try guessed passwords

204:and passwords are commonly used by people during a 29:

Text used for user authentication to prove identity

3073: 3071: 2913: 2885: 2538:"Password Reuse Is All Too Common, Research Shows" 1550: 1546: 1544: 1272:. One system requires users to select a series of 860: 783:to block the use of weak, easily guessed passwords 3702:"NSTIC head Jeremy Grant wants to kill passwords" 3427: 2529: 2467:"American Express: Strong Credit, Weak Passwords" 1803:"If Your Password Is 123456, Just Make It HackMe" 1073:In December 2009, a major password breach of the 732: 641: 46:For assistance with your Knowledge password, see 3901: 3430:"Images Could Change the Authentication Picture" 2999:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 2634:Microsoft security guru: Jot down your passwords 2383: 2317:Password Protection for Modern Operating Systems 2254: 1845:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 1763:CTSS Programmers Guide, 2nd Ed., MIT Press, 1965 3078:Urbina, Ian; Davis, Leslye (23 November 2014). 3068: 2726: 2500:. Jira.codehaus.org. Retrieved on 20 May 2012. 1906:Michael E. Whitman; Herbert J. Mattord (2014). 1541: 884:records are secure, to prevent theft or fraud. 723: 298: 3872:Research Papers on Password-based Cryptography 3867:Large collection of statistics about passwords 2801:"The Debate Around Password Rotation Policies" 2479: 2181:The Bug Charmer: How long should passwords be? 2086:"Top ten passwords used in the United Kingdom" 1557:National Institute of Standards and Technology 1314:"The password is dead" is a recurring idea in 936:National Institute of Standards and Technology 887: 548:Methods of verifying a password over a network 433:Some computer systems store user passwords as 3046: 2981:. Archived from the original on 23 April 2007 2614: 2568: 1520: 1518: 744:Allowing passwords of adequate length. (Some 657:Moving a step further, augmented systems for 3894:2017 draft update to NIST password standards 3642:"The Password Is Finally Dying. Here's Mine" 3585:"Google security exec: 'Passwords are dead'" 3317:. eprint.iacr.org. Retrieved on 20 May 2012. 2799:Kristen Ranta-Haikal Wilson (9 March 2020). 2602:Bruce Schneier : Crypto-Gram Newsletter 2535: 2326:(pdf). Usenix.org. Retrieved on 20 May 2012. 1827:. Archived from the original on 2 March 2008 1157:Alternatives to passwords for authentication 544:for a widely deployed and insecure example. 317:Factors in the security of a password system 3823:2012 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy 3756:. IEEE Security&Privacy. January 2012. 3077: 2664: 2264:Morris, Robert & Thompson, Ken (1979). 1934:"How to Create a Random Password Generator" 1896:(pdf). ncl.ac.uk. Retrieved on 20 May 2012. 610:) feature built into most current Internet 428: 291:Something related to a favorite sports team 3308:Cryptology ePrint Archive: Report 2005/434 2936: 2717:. World.std.com. Retrieved on 20 May 2012. 2526:. World.std.com. Retrieved on 20 May 2012. 2045:Lyquix Blog: Do We Need to Hide Passwords? 1887:The Memorability and Security of Passwords 1674: 1637:. Computer Security Resource Center (NIST) 1527:"Average person has 100 passwords - study" 1515: 848:It has been argued by Redmond researchers 586:or history files on any of these systems. 258:The Memorability and Security of Passwords 168:(CTSS), an operating system introduced at 3102:"Consumer Password Worst Practices (pdf)" 3024:. Schneier.com. Retrieved on 20 May 2012. 2636:. News.cnet.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-20. 2456:. Schneier.com. Retrieved on 20 May 2012. 2281: 2200:"passlib.hash - Password Hashing Schemes" 2138: 2018: 1782: 1564: 2883: 2856: 2854: 2132: 1713: 1524: 1474: 602:protection. The most widely used is the 412:Limits on the number of password guesses 240:Choosing a secure and memorable password 52: 3530:. IBM. 19 December 2011. Archived from 3500: 3273: 3271: 2911: 2907: 2905: 2673:from the original on 18 September 2010. 2054:. Lyquix.com. Retrieved on 20 May 2012. 1475:Ranjan, Pratik; Om, Hari (6 May 2016). 1456:Usability of web authentication systems 1108:, a consulting firm that does work for 996:Passwords easily discovered are termed 594:Transmission through encrypted channels 88:In general, a password is an arbitrary 14: 3902: 3877:The international passwords conference 3503:"Gates predicts death of the password" 3436:from the original on 10 November 2010. 3399:. mcpmag.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-20. 3279:"Gates predicts death of the password" 3244:"The Quest to Replace Passwords (pdf)" 3090:from the original on 28 November 2014. 2937:Wisniewski, Chester (18 August 2016). 2770: 1867: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1813:from the original on 11 February 2017. 1147:On 5 June 2012, a security breach at 3862:Large list of commonly used passwords 3552: 3454:from the original on 7 November 2010. 3428:Ericka Chickowski (3 November 2010). 2851: 2517:"To Capitalize or Not to Capitalize?" 2476:. Pcmag.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-20. 2398:from the original on 12 November 2014 2384:Joseph Steinberg (12 November 2014). 2040: 2038: 2019:Fleishman, Glenn (24 November 2015). 1957: 1797: 1525:Williams, Shannon (21 October 2020). 1205:or portable memory device, such as a 715: 622:Hash-based challenge–response methods 3639: 3268: 2902: 2860: 2708:"Should I write down my passphrase?" 2362:from the original on 23 October 2013 2000:from the original on 22 October 2013 1741: 1714:McMillan, Robert (27 January 2012). 1362:and various Identity 2.0 proposals. 1181:Time-synchronized one-time passwords 963: 902: 800:password-authenticated key agreement 765:Assigning randomly chosen passwords. 659:password-authenticated key agreement 648:password-authenticated key agreement 3730:. FIDO Alliance. 25 February 2014. 3501:Kotadia, Munir (25 February 2004). 3388:Butler, Rick A. (21 December 2004) 2898:from the original on 9 August 2017. 2873:from the original on 29 March 2018. 2583:from the original on 12 August 2014 2550:from the original on 12 August 2014 2410: 2266:"Password Security: A Case History" 2232:. (pdf) Retrieved on 14 March 2015. 1854: 553:Simple transmission of the password 189:and invoked a modified form of the 24: 3734:from the original on 15 March 2015 3708:from the original on 18 March 2015 3652:from the original on 13 March 2015 3640:Mims, Christopher (14 July 2014). 3565:from the original on 16 March 2015 3256:from the original on 19 March 2015 3180:from the original on 15 July 2011. 3162:from the original on 14 July 2017. 3114:from the original on 28 July 2011. 2926:from the original on 28 June 2018. 2912:Roberts, Jeff John (11 May 2017). 2884:McMillan, Robert (7 August 2017). 2465:Seltzer, Larry. (9 February 2010) 2179:Alexander, Steven. (20 June 2012) 2035: 1909:Principles of Information Security 1326:Alternatives to passwords include 1240:Non-text-based passwords, such as 1175:Transaction Authentication Numbers 57:A password field in a sign-in form 25: 3931: 3850: 3760:from the original on 20 June 2015 3682:from the original on 2 April 2015 3621:from the original on 2 April 2015 3595:from the original on 2 April 2015 3289:from the original on 2 April 2015 3136:from the original on 29 June 2011 2839:from the original on 20 June 2013 2536:Thomas, Keir (10 February 2011). 2158:The Bug Charmer: Passwords Matter 2139:Schofield, Jack (10 March 2003). 2065:Malaysia car thieves steal finger 1912:. Cengage Learning. p. 162. 914: 820: 681:Procedures for changing passwords 628:challenge–response authentication 3034:MySpace Passwords Aren't So Dumb 1868:Lundin, Leigh (11 August 2013). 1695:from the original on 2 June 2013 1481:Wireless Personal Communications 441:a one-way derivation, such as a 3896:for the U.S. federal government 3746: 3720: 3704:. Fedscoop. 14 September 2014. 3694: 3664: 3633: 3607: 3577: 3546: 3520: 3494: 3491:. Filing date: 18 December 2008 3477: 3458: 3402: 3382: 3363: 3320: 3301: 3236: 3210: 3184: 3166: 3148: 3118: 3094: 3027: 3008: 2971: 2953: 2930: 2877: 2818: 2792: 2764: 2746: 2720: 2701: 2677: 2665:Bob Jenkins (11 January 2013). 2658: 2639: 2626: 2595: 2510: 2491: 2459: 2440: 2348: 2329: 2310: 2235: 2193: 2151: 2123: 2105: 2077: 2057: 2012: 1985: 1951: 1926: 1899: 1880: 1817: 1791: 1766: 1757: 861:Writing down passwords on paper 839:writing passwords down on paper 282:Anniversary dates and birthdays 3890:, University of Plymouth (PDF) 3080:"The Secret Life of Passwords" 3015:Schneier, Real-World Passwords 2569:Pauli, Darren (16 July 2014). 1735: 1707: 1668: 1656:Polybius on the Roman Military 1649: 1627: 1601: 1468: 1112:, had their servers hacked by 878: 733:Password security architecture 642:Zero-knowledge password proofs 166:Compatible Time-Sharing System 98:personal identification number 13: 1: 3857:Graphical Passwords: A Survey 2646:"The Strong Password Dilemma" 2632:Kotadia, Munir (23 May 2005) 2358:. Techlicious. 8 March 2013. 1462: 1276:as a password, utilizing the 1028:, examining data from a 2006 925:Most organizations specify a 652:zero-knowledge password proof 3174:"Military Password Analysis" 2861:Tung, Liam (9 August 2017). 2621:"Ten Windows Password Myths" 2486:"Ten Windows Password Myths" 1870:"PINs and Passwords, Part 2" 1426:Password notification e-mail 1386:Access code (disambiguation) 1044: 724:Number of users per password 520:or Unix-like systems (e.g., 299:Alternatives to memorization 7: 2771:Goodin, Dan (3 June 2019). 2667:"Choosing Random Passwords" 1825:"Managing Network Security" 1742:Hunt, Troy (26 July 2017). 1378: 1093:, a movement that includes 894:Multi-factor authentication 888:Multi-factor authentication 798:Using encrypted tunnels or 706:self-service password reset 10: 3936: 3553:Honan, Mat (15 May 2012). 2966:10.1109/ISNCC.2018.8531061 1681:. Mbi Publishing Company. 1173:, where they are known as 1061:, financial services firm 967: 918: 891: 590:most often in clear text. 288:Name of a favorite holiday 111: 45: 38: 31: 3728:"Specifications Overview" 3617:. IEEE. 25 January 2013. 3615:"Authentciation at Scale" 3020:23 September 2008 at the 2753:Two-factor authentication 2270:Communications of the ACM 2186:20 September 2012 at the 1609:"authentication protocol" 1493:10.1007/s11277-016-3342-5 1446:Random password generator 1332:two-factor authentication 1193:Access controls based on 355:rubber hose cryptanalysis 327:man-in-the-middle attacks 226:automated teller machines 34:Password (disambiguation) 3414:21 February 2009 at the 2713:17 February 2009 at the 2689:19 February 2011 at the 2607:15 November 2011 at the 2522:17 February 2009 at the 2452:30 December 2010 at the 2228:14 February 2015 at the 2070:20 November 2010 at the 1964:. Lulu.com. p. 17. 1876:. Orlando: SleuthSayers. 1566:10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63-3 1436:Password synchronization 808:denial of service attack 606:(TLS, previously called 604:Transport Layer Security 429:Form of stored passwords 419:denial of service attack 3910:Password authentication 3646:The Wall Street Journal 2892:The Wall Street Journal 2163:2 November 2013 at the 1195:public-key cryptography 941:The Wall Street Journal 558:subject to snooping by 228:(ATMs), etc. A typical 83:authentication protocol 2247:30 August 2012 at the 1589:Cite journal requires 1310:"The password is dead" 650:systems can perform a 342:for more information. 212:to protected computer 143: 58: 3249:. IEEE. 15 May 2012. 3039:29 March 2014 at the 2322:11 March 2016 at the 2292:10.1145/359168.359172 2113:US patent 8046827 2074:. BBC (31 March 2005) 2050:25 April 2012 at the 1996:. Techland.time.com. 1892:14 April 2012 at the 919:Further information: 376:Many systems store a 130: 65:, sometimes called a 56: 3591:. 25 February 2004. 3470:18 July 2011 at the 3395:27 June 2006 at the 3375:16 June 2006 at the 3313:14 June 2006 at the 3285:. 25 February 2004. 2758:18 June 2016 at the 2651:18 July 2010 at the 2472:12 July 2017 at the 2205:21 July 2013 at the 1958:Lewis, Dave (2011). 1167:Single-use passwords 1059:September 11 attacks 32:For other uses, see 3450:. 28 October 2010. 3341:2002SPIE.4677..275M 2504:21 May 2015 at the 1801:(10 January 2010). 1675:Mark Bando (2007). 1431:Password psychology 1406:Kerberos (protocol) 1303:Cognitive passwords 1242:graphical passwords 1106:Booz Allen Hamilton 835:mnemonic techniques 702:Identity management 359:side channel attack 294:The word "password" 48:Help:Reset password 3915:Identity documents 3831:10.1109/SP.2012.44 3678:. 14 August 2014. 3196:www.trendmicro.com 3126:"NATO site hacked" 3084:The New York Times 2341:9 May 2006 at the 2221:Florencio et al., 2092:on 8 November 2006 1807:The New York Times 1661:2008-02-07 at the 1270:special characters 976:brute force attack 781:password blacklist 768:Requiring minimum 716:Password longevity 423:social engineering 378:cryptographic hash 195:dictionary attacks 147:Battle of Normandy 59: 3840:978-1-4673-1244-8 3390:Face in the Crowd 3349:10.1117/12.462719 3224:. 14 October 2019 3005:. cs.columbia.edu 2428:on 17 August 2016 2306:on 22 March 2003. 1919:978-1-305-17673-7 1775:Bell Laboratories 1688:978-0-7603-2984-9 1370:usability, while 1316:computer security 1286:one-time password 1134:Homeland Security 1104:On 11 July 2011, 1091:Operation AntiSec 1063:Cantor Fitzgerald 1050:On 16 July 1998, 986:Password strength 980:dictionary attack 970:Password cracking 964:Password cracking 909:computer security 903:Password rotation 760:password strength 504:password cracking 449:, or an advanced 394:Password cracking 340:computer security 336:password strength 306:password managers 214:operating systems 200:In modern times, 16:(Redirected from 3927: 3845: 3844: 3818: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3776: 3770: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3750: 3744: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3724: 3718: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3698: 3692: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3668: 3662: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3637: 3631: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3611: 3605: 3604: 3602: 3600: 3581: 3575: 3574: 3572: 3570: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3541: 3539: 3534:on 17 March 2015 3524: 3518: 3517: 3515: 3513: 3498: 3492: 3481: 3475: 3462: 3456: 3455: 3444: 3438: 3437: 3432:. Dark Reading. 3425: 3419: 3406: 3400: 3386: 3380: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3324: 3318: 3305: 3299: 3298: 3296: 3294: 3275: 3266: 3265: 3263: 3261: 3255: 3248: 3240: 3234: 3233: 3231: 3229: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3188: 3182: 3181: 3176:. 12 July 2011. 3170: 3164: 3163: 3158:. 11 July 2011. 3152: 3146: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3132:. 24 June 2011. 3122: 3116: 3115: 3113: 3106: 3098: 3092: 3091: 3075: 3066: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3050: 3044: 3031: 3025: 3012: 3006: 3004: 2998: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2975: 2969: 2957: 2951: 2950: 2949:on 28 June 2018. 2945:. Archived from 2934: 2928: 2927: 2917: 2909: 2900: 2899: 2889: 2881: 2875: 2874: 2858: 2849: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2838: 2831: 2822: 2816: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2796: 2790: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2768: 2762: 2750: 2744: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2724: 2718: 2705: 2699: 2681: 2675: 2674: 2662: 2656: 2643: 2637: 2630: 2624: 2618: 2612: 2599: 2593: 2592: 2590: 2588: 2566: 2560: 2559: 2557: 2555: 2533: 2527: 2514: 2508: 2495: 2489: 2483: 2477: 2463: 2457: 2444: 2438: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2405: 2403: 2381: 2372: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2352: 2346: 2333: 2327: 2314: 2308: 2307: 2302:. Archived from 2285: 2261: 2252: 2239: 2233: 2219: 2210: 2197: 2191: 2177: 2168: 2155: 2149: 2148: 2136: 2130: 2127: 2121: 2120: 2119: 2115: 2109: 2103: 2101: 2099: 2097: 2088:. Archived from 2081: 2075: 2061: 2055: 2042: 2033: 2032: 2030: 2028: 2016: 2010: 2009: 2007: 2005: 1989: 1983: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1955: 1949: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1930: 1924: 1923: 1903: 1897: 1884: 1878: 1877: 1865: 1852: 1850: 1844: 1836: 1834: 1832: 1821: 1815: 1814: 1795: 1789: 1788: 1786: 1770: 1764: 1761: 1755: 1754: 1752: 1750: 1739: 1733: 1732: 1730: 1728: 1711: 1705: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1672: 1666: 1653: 1647: 1646: 1644: 1642: 1631: 1625: 1624: 1622: 1620: 1605: 1599: 1598: 1592: 1587: 1585: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1568: 1548: 1539: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1522: 1513: 1512: 1472: 1421:Password fatigue 1391:Combination lock 1352:Liberty Alliance 1138:State Department 873:Password manager 843:password manager 770:password lengths 331:shoulder surfing 323:computer viruses 185:, used a 12-bit 41:Passcode (group) 21: 3935: 3934: 3930: 3929: 3928: 3926: 3925: 3924: 3900: 3899: 3853: 3848: 3841: 3819: 3815: 3805: 3803: 3793:10.48456/tr-817 3777: 3773: 3763: 3761: 3752: 3751: 3747: 3737: 3735: 3726: 3725: 3721: 3711: 3709: 3700: 3699: 3695: 3685: 3683: 3670: 3669: 3665: 3655: 3653: 3638: 3634: 3624: 3622: 3613: 3612: 3608: 3598: 3596: 3583: 3582: 3578: 3568: 3566: 3551: 3547: 3537: 3535: 3526: 3525: 3521: 3511: 3509: 3499: 3495: 3482: 3478: 3472:Wayback Machine 3463: 3459: 3446: 3445: 3441: 3426: 3422: 3416:Wayback Machine 3407: 3403: 3397:Wayback Machine 3387: 3383: 3377:Wayback Machine 3368: 3364: 3325: 3321: 3315:Wayback Machine 3306: 3302: 3292: 3290: 3277: 3276: 3269: 3259: 3257: 3253: 3246: 3242: 3241: 3237: 3227: 3225: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3201: 3199: 3190: 3189: 3185: 3172: 3171: 3167: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3139: 3137: 3124: 3123: 3119: 3111: 3104: 3100: 3099: 3095: 3076: 3069: 3059: 3057: 3054:"CERT IN-98.03" 3052: 3051: 3047: 3041:Wayback Machine 3032: 3028: 3022:Wayback Machine 3013: 3009: 2992: 2991: 2984: 2982: 2977: 2976: 2972: 2958: 2954: 2935: 2931: 2910: 2903: 2882: 2878: 2859: 2852: 2842: 2840: 2836: 2829: 2823: 2819: 2809: 2807: 2797: 2793: 2783: 2781: 2769: 2765: 2760:Wayback Machine 2751: 2747: 2737: 2735: 2725: 2721: 2715:Wayback Machine 2706: 2702: 2691:Wayback Machine 2682: 2678: 2663: 2659: 2653:Wayback Machine 2644: 2640: 2631: 2627: 2619: 2615: 2609:Wayback Machine 2600: 2596: 2586: 2584: 2567: 2563: 2553: 2551: 2534: 2530: 2524:Wayback Machine 2515: 2511: 2506:Wayback Machine 2496: 2492: 2484: 2480: 2474:Wayback Machine 2464: 2460: 2454:Wayback Machine 2445: 2441: 2431: 2429: 2416: 2415: 2411: 2401: 2399: 2382: 2375: 2365: 2363: 2354: 2353: 2349: 2343:Wayback Machine 2334: 2330: 2324:Wayback Machine 2315: 2311: 2283:10.1.1.135.2097 2276:(11): 594–597. 2262: 2255: 2249:Wayback Machine 2240: 2236: 2230:Wayback Machine 2220: 2213: 2207:Wayback Machine 2198: 2194: 2188:Wayback Machine 2178: 2171: 2165:Wayback Machine 2156: 2152: 2141:"Roger Needham" 2137: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2117: 2111: 2110: 2106: 2095: 2093: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2072:Wayback Machine 2063:Jonathan Kent 2062: 2058: 2052:Wayback Machine 2043: 2036: 2026: 2024: 2017: 2013: 2003: 2001: 1990: 1986: 1976: 1974: 1972: 1961:Ctrl-Alt-Delete 1956: 1952: 1942: 1940: 1932: 1931: 1927: 1920: 1904: 1900: 1894:Wayback Machine 1885: 1881: 1866: 1855: 1838: 1837: 1830: 1828: 1823: 1822: 1818: 1796: 1792: 1784:10.1.1.128.1635 1771: 1767: 1762: 1758: 1748: 1746: 1740: 1736: 1726: 1724: 1712: 1708: 1698: 1696: 1689: 1673: 1669: 1663:Wayback Machine 1654: 1650: 1640: 1638: 1633: 1632: 1628: 1618: 1616: 1607: 1606: 1602: 1590: 1588: 1579: 1578: 1571: 1569: 1549: 1542: 1532: 1530: 1523: 1516: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1401:Electronic lock 1381: 1348:Higgins project 1312: 1207:USB flash drive 1159: 1047: 1032:attack, 55% of 1014:John the Ripper 972: 966: 927:password policy 923: 921:Password policy 917: 905: 896: 890: 881: 863: 850:Dinei Florencio 823: 756:password policy 735: 726: 718: 683: 644: 624: 596: 555: 550: 524:or the various 431: 414: 386:disk encryption 370: 319: 301: 242: 210:controls access 114: 51: 44: 37: 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3933: 3923: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3898: 3897: 3891: 3885: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3852: 3851:External links 3849: 3847: 3846: 3839: 3813: 3771: 3745: 3719: 3693: 3676:Computer World 3663: 3632: 3606: 3576: 3545: 3519: 3493: 3476: 3457: 3439: 3420: 3401: 3381: 3362: 3319: 3300: 3267: 3235: 3209: 3183: 3165: 3147: 3117: 3093: 3067: 3056:. 16 July 1998 3045: 3026: 3007: 2970: 2952: 2943:Naked Security 2929: 2901: 2876: 2850: 2817: 2805:SANS Institute 2791: 2763: 2745: 2719: 2700: 2698: 2697: 2676: 2657: 2638: 2625: 2613: 2594: 2561: 2528: 2509: 2490: 2478: 2458: 2439: 2409: 2373: 2347: 2328: 2309: 2253: 2234: 2211: 2192: 2169: 2150: 2131: 2122: 2104: 2076: 2056: 2034: 2011: 1984: 1971:978-1471019111 1970: 1950: 1925: 1918: 1898: 1879: 1853: 1816: 1790: 1765: 1756: 1734: 1721:Wired magazine 1706: 1687: 1667: 1648: 1626: 1615:on 17 May 2019 1600: 1591:|journal= 1540: 1514: 1487:(1): 217–244. 1466: 1464: 1461: 1459: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1443: 1441:Pre-shared key 1438: 1433: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1336:single sign-on 1311: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1300: 1294: 1280:'s ability to 1246:authentication 1238: 1235: 1231:Single sign-on 1228: 1214: 1203:security token 1191: 1184: 1178: 1171:online banking 1158: 1155: 1154: 1153: 1145: 1102: 1085:In June 2011, 1083: 1071: 1055: 1046: 1043: 1026:Bruce Schneier 968:Main article: 965: 962: 916: 915:Password rules 913: 904: 901: 892:Main article: 889: 886: 880: 877: 867:Bruce Schneier 862: 859: 822: 821:Password reuse 819: 815: 814: 811: 803: 796: 795: 794: 791: 784: 777: 773: 766: 762:and security. 752: 749: 742: 734: 731: 725: 722: 717: 714: 682: 679: 643: 640: 623: 620: 595: 592: 554: 551: 549: 546: 430: 427: 413: 410: 406:key stretching 369: 366: 318: 315: 310:single sign-on 300: 297: 296: 295: 292: 289: 286: 283: 280: 241: 238: 126:Roman military 113: 110: 28: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3932: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3907: 3905: 3895: 3892: 3889: 3886: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3858: 3855: 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1864: 1862: 1860: 1858: 1848: 1842: 1826: 1820: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1799:Vance, Ashlee 1794: 1785: 1780: 1776: 1769: 1760: 1745: 1738: 1723: 1722: 1717: 1710: 1694: 1690: 1684: 1680: 1679: 1671: 1664: 1660: 1657: 1652: 1636: 1630: 1614: 1610: 1604: 1596: 1583: 1567: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1547: 1545: 1528: 1521: 1519: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1471: 1467: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1383: 1376: 1373: 1367: 1363: 1361: 1360:FIDO Alliance 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1324: 1321: 1317: 1304: 1301: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1236: 1232: 1229: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1165: 1164: 1163: 1150: 1146: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1081: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1053: 1049: 1048: 1042: 1040: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 994: 992: 987: 983: 981: 977: 971: 961: 957: 953: 950: 945: 943: 942: 937: 931: 928: 922: 912: 910: 900: 895: 885: 876: 874: 870: 868: 858: 856: 851: 846: 844: 841:, or using a 840: 836: 832: 828: 818: 812: 809: 804: 801: 797: 792: 790:identifiers). 789: 785: 782: 778: 774: 771: 767: 764: 763: 761: 757: 753: 750: 747: 743: 740: 739: 738: 730: 721: 713: 709: 707: 703: 699: 697: 693: 689: 678: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 655: 653: 649: 639: 637: 633: 632:shared secret 629: 619: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 600:cryptographic 591: 587: 585: 581: 576: 572: 567: 565: 561: 545: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 518: 515:systems. The 514: 510: 505: 500: 495: 492: 491:rainbow table 486: 484: 480: 475: 473: 469: 465: 461: 456: 455:Roger Needham 452: 451:hash function 448: 444: 438: 436: 426: 424: 420: 409: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 382: 379: 374: 365: 362: 360: 356: 352: 347: 343: 341: 337: 332: 328: 324: 314: 311: 307: 293: 290: 287: 284: 281: 278: 277: 276: 272: 268: 266: 261: 259: 254: 252: 247: 237: 235: 231: 230:computer user 227: 223: 219: 218:mobile phones 215: 211: 208:process that 207: 203: 198: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 175:Robert Morris 171: 167: 162: 160: 156: 152: 148: 142: 140: 135: 129: 127: 123: 119: 109: 107: 101: 99: 95: 91: 86: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 55: 49: 42: 35: 27: 19: 3822: 3816: 3804:. Retrieved 3784: 3774: 3762:. Retrieved 3748: 3736:. Retrieved 3722: 3710:. Retrieved 3696: 3684:. Retrieved 3675: 3666: 3654:. Retrieved 3645: 3635: 3623:. Retrieved 3609: 3597:. Retrieved 3588: 3579: 3567:. Retrieved 3558: 3548: 3536:. Retrieved 3532:the original 3522: 3510:. Retrieved 3506: 3496: 3489:WO2010010430 3479: 3460: 3442: 3423: 3404: 3384: 3365: 3332: 3328: 3322: 3303: 3291:. Retrieved 3282: 3258:. Retrieved 3238: 3226:. Retrieved 3221: 3212: 3200:. Retrieved 3195: 3186: 3168: 3150: 3138:. Retrieved 3130:The Register 3129: 3120: 3096: 3083: 3058:. Retrieved 3048: 3029: 3010: 2983:. Retrieved 2973: 2955: 2947:the original 2942: 2932: 2919: 2891: 2879: 2866: 2841:. Retrieved 2820: 2808:. Retrieved 2804: 2794: 2782:. Retrieved 2778:Ars Technica 2776: 2766: 2748: 2736:. Retrieved 2732: 2722: 2703: 2679: 2660: 2641: 2628: 2616: 2597: 2585:. Retrieved 2576:The Register 2574: 2564: 2552:. Retrieved 2541: 2531: 2512: 2493: 2481: 2461: 2442: 2430:. Retrieved 2426:the original 2421: 2412: 2400:. Retrieved 2389: 2364:. Retrieved 2350: 2331: 2312: 2304:the original 2273: 2269: 2237: 2195: 2153: 2145:The Guardian 2144: 2134: 2125: 2107: 2094:. Retrieved 2090:the original 2079: 2059: 2025:. Retrieved 2014: 2002:. Retrieved 1987: 1975:. Retrieved 1960: 1953: 1941:. Retrieved 1937: 1928: 1908: 1901: 1882: 1873: 1829:. Retrieved 1819: 1806: 1793: 1774: 1768: 1759: 1747:. Retrieved 1737: 1725:. Retrieved 1719: 1709: 1697:. Retrieved 1677: 1670: 1651: 1639:. Retrieved 1635:"Passphrase" 1629: 1617:. Retrieved 1613:the original 1603: 1582:cite journal 1570:. Retrieved 1531:. Retrieved 1484: 1480: 1470: 1371: 1368: 1364: 1325: 1313: 1282:recall faces 1221:fingerprints 1160: 1132:facilities, 1126:Marine corps 1110:the Pentagon 1038: 1022: 1005: 1001: 997: 995: 984: 973: 958: 954: 946: 939: 932: 924: 906: 897: 882: 871: 864: 847: 824: 816: 758:to increase 754:Enforcing a 736: 727: 719: 710: 700: 684: 656: 645: 625: 616:cryptography 597: 588: 568: 556: 496: 487: 481:file or the 476: 439: 432: 415: 383: 375: 371: 363: 348: 344: 320: 302: 273: 269: 262: 257: 255: 243: 199: 163: 154: 150: 144: 131: 128:as follows: 117: 115: 102: 87: 78: 74: 66: 62: 60: 26: 3060:9 September 2611:15 May 2001 2402:12 November 1943:5 September 1278:human brain 1260:instead of 1211:floppy disk 1075:Rockyou.com 879:After death 696:unencrypted 688:wiretapping 560:wiretapping 483:/etc/shadow 479:/etc/passwd 3904:Categories 3202:11 October 2979:"Password" 2843:12 October 2810:31 October 2784:1 November 2422:IA Matters 2366:16 October 2023:. MacWorld 2004:16 October 1529:. NordPass 1463:References 1451:Shibboleth 1328:biometrics 1187:PassWindow 1128:, various 1070:passwords. 1010:L0phtCrack 1002:vulnerable 776:passwords. 443:polynomial 285:Birthplace 224:decoders, 202:user names 106:passphrase 94:characters 3801:1476-2986 3329:Proc SPIE 2738:17 August 2587:10 August 2554:10 August 2300:207656012 2278:CiteSeerX 2096:14 August 1874:Passwords 1779:CiteSeerX 1501:0929-6212 1344:Cardspace 1340:Microsoft 1320:usability 1217:Biometric 1152:accounts. 1130:Air Force 1118:USCENTCOM 1114:Anonymous 1095:Anonymous 1067:Microsoft 1045:Incidents 1039:password1 831:usernames 788:biometric 779:Employ a 575:plaintext 571:plaintext 499:plaintext 435:plaintext 402:Wi-Fi WPA 351:extortion 265:algorithm 118:watchword 71:memorized 18:Passwords 3806:22 March 3758:Archived 3738:15 March 3732:Archived 3712:14 March 3706:Archived 3686:14 March 3680:Archived 3656:14 March 3650:Archived 3625:12 March 3619:Archived 3599:14 March 3593:Archived 3569:14 March 3563:Archived 3538:14 March 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692:database 612:browsers 246:attacker 222:cable TV 183:crypt(3) 122:Polybius 79:verifier 75:claimant 67:passcode 63:password 3920:Secrecy 3764:20 June 3337:Bibcode 3335:: 275. 3228:18 July 3140:24 July 2920:Fortune 1977:10 July 1416:PassMap 1411:Keyfile 1262:letters 1258:colours 1190:screen. 1142:Imperva 1099:LulzSec 1080:Imperva 1034:MySpace 991:entropy 667:B-SPEKE 661:(e.g., 564:packets 542:LM hash 447:modulus 251:entropy 155:thunder 139:tribune 134:maniple 112:History 100:(PIN). 3837: 3799: 3355: 3222:IT PRO 2985:20 May 2693:(pdf) 2391:Forbes 2298: 2280: 2118: 1968: 1916: 1781: 1699:20 May 1685: 1641:17 May 1619:17 May 1572:17 May 1507: 1499: 1358:, the 1350:, the 1346:, the 1297:2D Key 1266:digits 1250:images 1225:irises 1124:, the 1016:, and 1006:strong 855:Forbes 746:legacy 580:backup 538:scrypt 536:, and 534:bcrypt 530:PBKDF2 485:file. 472:PBKDF2 357:, and 234:e-mail 206:log in 90:string 3884:(PDF) 3559:Wired 3512:8 May 3507:ZDNet 3353:S2CID 3254:(PDF) 3247:(PDF) 3112:(PDF) 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