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This was necessary so that user-privileged software tools could find user names and other information. The security of passwords is therefore protected only by the one-way functions (enciphering or hashing) used for the purpose. Early Unix implementations limited passwords to eight characters and used a 12-bit salt, which allowed for 4,096 possible salt values. This was an appropriate balance for 1970s computational and storage costs.
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32:
471:. CSPRNGs are designed to produce unpredictable random numbers which can be alphanumeric. While generally discouraged due to lower security, some systems use timestamps or simple counters as a source of salt. Sometimes, a salt may be generated by combining a random value with additional information, such as a timestamp or user-specific data, to ensure uniqueness across different systems or time periods.
573:
one of the account's passwords to access the other account. By salting the passwords with two random characters, even if two accounts use the same password, no one can discover this just by reading hashes. Salting also makes it extremely difficult to determine if a person has used the same password for multiple systems.
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to store the hashes of salted passwords (passwords prefixed with two-character random salts). In these older versions of Unix, the salt was also stored in the passwd file (as cleartext) together with the hash of the salted password. The password file was publicly readable for all users of the system.
499:
If a salt is too short, an attacker may precompute a table of every possible salt appended to every likely password. Using a long salt ensures such a table would be prohibitively large. 16 bytes (128 bits) or more is generally sufficient to provide a large enough space of possible values, minimizing
572:
Another (lesser) benefit of a salt is as follows: two users might choose the same string as their password. Without a salt, this password would be stored as the same hash string in the password file. This would disclose the fact that the two accounts have the same password, allowing anyone who knows
563:
system, in which password hashes and other security data are stored in a non-public file, somewhat mitigates these concerns. However, they remain relevant in multi-server installations which use centralized password management systems to push passwords or password hashes to multiple systems. In such
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Generation of precomputed tables for databases with unique salts for every password is not viable because of the computational cost of doing so. But, if a common salt is used for all the entries, creating such a table (that accounts for the salt) then becomes a viable and possibly successful attack.
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The salt and hash are then stored in the database. To later test if a password a user enters is correct, the same process can be performed on it (appending that user's salt to the password and calculating the resultant hash): if the result does not match the stored hash, it could not have been the
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the user's actual password, it will be accepted as if it were, because the system can only check passwords by computing the hash of the password entered and comparing it to the hash stored in the file. Thus, each match cracks a user password, and the chance of a match rises with the number of
550:. In either case, salting can defend against the use of precomputed tables by lengthening hashes and having them draw from larger character sets, making it less likely that the table covers the resulting hashes. In particular, a precomputed table would need to cover the string
568:
account on each individual system may be treated as less trusted than the administrators of the centralized password system, so it remains worthwhile to ensure that the security of the password hashing algorithm, including the generation of unique salt values, is adequate.
284:), by vastly growing the size of table needed for a successful attack. It also helps protect passwords that occur multiple times in a database, as a new salt is used for each password instance. Additionally, salting does not place any burden on users.
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Salts also combat the use of precomputed tables for cracking passwords. Such a table might simply map common passwords to their hashes, or it might do something more complex, like store the start and end points of a set of
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To understand the difference between cracking a single password and a set of them, consider a file with users and their hashed passwords. Say the file is unsalted. Then an attacker could pick a string, call it
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system is used to limit access to hashes and salt. The salt is eight characters, the hash is 86 characters, and the password length is effectively unlimited, barring stack overflow errors.
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632:. Some additional references for using a salt to secure password hashes in specific languages or libraries (PHP, the .NET libraries, etc.) can be found in the
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Because salt re-use can cause users with the same password to have the same hash, cracking a single hash can result in other passwords being compromised too.
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Without a salt, identical passwords will map to identical hash values, which could make it easier for a hacker to guess the passwords from their hash value.
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attack may yield easily crackable passwords. Because many users re-use passwords for multiple sites, the use of a salt is an important component of overall
388:
Instead, a salt is generated and appended to each password, which causes the resultant hash to output different values for the same original password.
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Using the same salt for all passwords is dangerous because a precomputed table which simply accounts for the salt will render the salt useless.
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is then stored with the salt in a database. The salt does not need to be encrypted, because knowing the salt would not help the attacker.
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It is common for a web application to store in a database the hash value of a user's password. Without a salt, a successful
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passwords in the file. In contrast, if salts are used, the attacker would have to compute
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the risk of collisions (i.e., two different passwords ending up with the same salt).
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280:. Salting helps defend against attacks that use precomputed tables (e.g.
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Security engineering: a guide to building dependable distributed systems
2017:
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Menezes, Alfred J.; Oorschot, Paul C. van; Vanstone, Scott A. (1997).
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Fenton, James L.; Grassi, Paul A.; Garcia, Michael E. (June 2017).
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6058B4EB46BD6487298B59440EC8E70EAE482239FF2B4E7CA69950DFBD5532F2
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9C9B913EB1B6254F4737CE947EFD16F16E916F9D6EE5C1102A2002E48D4C88BD
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EF92B778BAFE771E89245B89ECBC08A44A4E166C06659911881F383D4473E94F
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EF92B778BAFE771E89245B89ECBC08A44A4E166C06659911881F383D4473E94F
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Random data used as an additional input to a hash function
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885:"Secure Salted Password Hashing - How to do it Properly"
836:"Secure Salted Password Hashing - How to do it Properly"
1012:
Simson
Garfinkel; Gene Spafford; Alan Schwartz (2003).
858:
1954:
Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator
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1084:
97:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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619:
467:In practice, a salt is usually generated using a
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469:Cryptographically Secure Random Number Generator
306:Salting is broadly used in cybersecurity, from
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1800:
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899:"Password Storage - OWASP Cheat Sheet Series"
790:Boneh, Dan; Shoup, Victor (January 4, 2020).
987:Morris, Robert; Thompson, Ken (1978-04-03).
60:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1807:
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972:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
942:Computer security: principles and practice
789:
749:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
517:. A user whose hash stored in the file is
940:Stallings, William; Lawrie Brown (2015).
793:A Graduate Course in Applied Cryptography
721:(Third ed.). Indianapolis, Indiana.
237:Learn how and when to remove this message
219:Learn how and when to remove this message
157:Learn how and when to remove this message
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182:This article includes a list of general
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764:Godwin, Anthony (10 September 2021).
261:data fed as an additional input to a
1018:Practical UNIX and Internet Security
808:
806:
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95:adding citations to reliable sources
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25:
989:"Password Security: A Case History"
697:"NIST Special Publication 800-63-3"
666:"Spice" in the Hasty Pudding cipher
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464:correct password that was entered.
13:
704:NIST Technical Series Publications
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188:it lacks sufficient corresponding
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1068:"Storing Passwords - done right!"
1059:
813:Rosulek, Mike (January 3, 2021).
803:
41:This article has multiple issues.
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1814:
1020:(3rd ed.). O'Reilly Media.
861:Handbook of Applied Cryptography
601:
538:, compare against entry A, then
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30:
1075:OWASP Cryptographic Cheat Sheet
1066:Wille, Christoph (2004-01-05).
1042:"ISC Diary – Hashing Passwords"
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1014:"How Unix Implements Passwords"
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620:Web-application implementations
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1080:how to encrypt user passwords
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1128:message authentication codes
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815:"Chapter 11: Hash Functions"
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2119:Message authentication code
2074:Cryptographic hash function
1887:Cryptographic hash function
1671:Merkle–Damgård construction
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297:cryptographic hash function
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1998:Harvest now, decrypt later
944:(Third ed.). Boston.
903:cheatsheetseries.owasp.org
863:. CRC Press. p. 288.
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608:Passwd § Shadow file
451:)<,-<U(jLezy4j>*
443:)<,-<U(jLezy4j>*
2104:Quantum key distribution
2094:Authenticated encryption
1949:Random number generation
1465:key derivation functions
630:web application security
407:(Password + Salt value)
106:"Salt" cryptography
2177:Password authentication
2099:Public-key cryptography
2089:Symmetric-key algorithm
1892:Key derivation function
1852:Cryptographic primitive
1845:Authentication protocol
1835:Outline of cryptography
1830:History of cryptography
1743:Hash-based cryptography
1645:Length extension attack
822:The Joy of Cryptography
717:Anderson, Ross (2020).
548:precomputed hash chains
203:more precise citations.
1840:Cryptographic protocol
1753:Message authentication
310:system credentials to
1993:End-to-end encryption
1939:Cryptojacking malware
676:Pepper (cryptography)
656:Initialization vector
540:hash(attempt || salt)
536:hash(attempt || salt)
317:Salts are related to
21:Salt (disambiguation)
2109:Quantum cryptography
2033:Trusted timestamping
586:Earlier versions of
577:Unix implementations
400:String to be hashed
338:String to be hashed
319:cryptographic nonces
91:improve this article
19:For other uses, see
1872:Cryptographic nonce
1640:Side-channel attack
927:kestas.kuliukas.com
824:. pp. 204–205.
799:. pp. 693–695.
651:Cryptographic nonce
564:installations, the
553:rather than simply
525:. However, even if
513:, and then compute
1978:Subliminal channel
1962:Pseudorandom noise
1909:Key (cryptography)
1697:CAESAR Competition
1681:HAIFA construction
1630:Brute-force attack
766:"Passwords Matter"
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2038:Key-based routing
2028:Trapdoor function
1899:Digital signature
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1574:ChaCha20-Poly1305
1391:Password hashing/
994:Bell Laboratories
951:978-0-13-377392-7
728:978-1-119-64281-7
646:Password cracking
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1462:General purpose
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1001:on 2013-08-21.
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2084:Stream cipher
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2023:Shared secret
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1882:Hash function
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1758:Proof of work
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1635:Rainbow table
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1558:Authenticated
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1486:MAC functions
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1173:(compromised)
1172:
1169:
1167:(compromised)
1166:
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1160:
1156:
1150:
1149:Known attacks
1147:
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1129:
1125:
1118:
1113:
1111:
1106:
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1044:. Dshield.org
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1027:9780596003234
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870:0-8493-8523-7
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626:SQL injection
617:
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609:
602:1980s–present
599:
593:
592:password file
589:
574:
570:
567:
562:
557:
549:
543:
532:
519:hash(attempt)
515:hash(attempt)
501:
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304:
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298:
295:and fed to a
294:
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283:
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209:November 2010
202:
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161:
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150:
139:
136:
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129:
125:
122:
118:
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111:
108: –
107:
103:
102:Find sources:
96:
92:
86:
85:
80:This article
78:
74:
69:
68:
63:
61:
54:
53:
48:
47:
42:
37:
28:
27:
22:
2172:Cryptography
2079:Block cipher
1924:Key schedule
1914:Key exchange
1904:Kleptography
1867:Cryptosystem
1816:Cryptography
1762:
1046:. Retrieved
1036:
1017:
1007:
999:the original
992:
982:
941:
935:
926:
917:
906:. Retrieved
902:
893:
879:
860:
854:
843:. Retrieved
839:
830:
821:
792:
785:
774:. Retrieved
769:
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718:
712:
703:
690:
623:
611:
585:
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448:
423:
387:
374:
355:
328:
316:
305:
293:concatenated
286:
254:
251:cryptography
248:
233:
215:
206:
187:
153:
144:
134:
127:
120:
113:
101:
89:Please help
84:verification
81:
57:
50:
44:
43:Please help
40:
2067:Mathematics
2058:Mix network
1748:Merkle tree
1736:Utilization
1722:NSA Suite B
595:/etc/passwd
582:1970s–1980s
559:The modern
495:Salt length
480:Salt re-use
449:password123
424:password123
397:Salt value
375:password123
356:password123
201:introducing
2166:Categories
2018:Ciphertext
1988:Decryption
1983:Encryption
1944:Ransomware
1560:encryption
1337:RadioGatĂşn
1144:Comparison
1048:2011-10-15
908:2021-03-19
845:2021-03-19
776:2016-12-09
737:1224516855
682:References
606:See also:
301:hash value
278:passphrase
184:references
117:newspapers
46:improve it
2008:Plaintext
1477:KDF1/KDF2
1396:functions
1382:Whirlpool
968:cite book
960:874734678
745:cite book
394:Username
335:Username
147:June 2015
52:talk page
2147:Category
2053:Kademlia
2013:Codetext
1956:(CSPRNG)
1702:CRYPTREC
1533:Poly1305
1453:yescrypt
1367:Streebog
1247:CubeHash
1227:(winner)
640:See also
504:Benefits
274:password
1823:General
1608:Attacks
1538:SipHash
1494:CBC-MAC
1428:LM hash
1408:Balloon
1272:HAS-160
661:Padding
590:used a
527:attempt
523:attempt
511:attempt
325:Example
197:improve
131:scholar
1934:Keygen
1768:Pepper
1707:NESSIE
1654:Design
1448:scrypt
1443:PBKDF2
1418:Catena
1413:bcrypt
1403:Argon2
1362:Snefru
1357:Shabal
1352:SWIFFT
1332:RIPEMD
1327:N-hash
1302:MASH-2
1297:MASH-1
1282:Kupyna
1242:BLAKE3
1225:Keccak
1210:Grøstl
1187:BLAKE2
1024:
958:
948:
867:
772:(Blog)
735:
725:
405:SHA256
343:SHA256
291:) are
267:hashes
259:random
186:, but
133:
126:
119:
112:
104:
1964:(PRN)
1562:modes
1438:Makwa
1433:Lyra2
1423:crypt
1372:Tiger
1322:MDC-2
1277:HAVAL
1262:Fugue
1220:Skein
1205:BLAKE
1182:SHA-3
1177:SHA-2
1171:SHA-1
818:(PDF)
797:(PDF)
700:(PDF)
438:user2
413:user1
369:user2
350:user1
265:that
138:JSTOR
124:books
1763:Salt
1727:CNSA
1594:IAPM
1548:VMAC
1543:UMAC
1528:PMAC
1523:CMAC
1519:OMAC
1514:NMAC
1509:HMAC
1504:GMAC
1473:HKDF
1342:SIMD
1292:Lane
1267:GOST
1252:ECOH
1139:List
1126:and
1022:ISBN
974:link
956:OCLC
946:ISBN
865:ISBN
751:link
733:OCLC
723:ISBN
612:The
588:Unix
566:root
308:Unix
272:, a
270:data
255:salt
253:, a
110:news
1599:OCB
1589:GCM
1584:EAX
1579:CWC
1569:CCM
1499:DAA
1377:VSH
1347:SM3
1317:MD6
1312:MD4
1307:MD2
1287:LSH
1257:FSB
1165:MD5
556:.
531:not
529:is
276:or
257:is
249:In
93:by
2168::
1215:JH
1016:.
991:.
970:}}
966:{{
954:.
925:.
901:.
838:.
820:.
805:^
768:.
747:}}
743:{{
731:.
702:.
321:.
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55:.
1808:e
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1794:v
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154:(
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145:(
135:·
128:·
121:·
114:·
87:.
62:)
58:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
