1634:
regulatory subunit of MPF, thus permitting the MII-arrested oocyte to proceed through meiosis. To initiate parthenogenesis of swine oocytes, various methods exist to induce an artificial activation that mimics sperm entry, such as calcium ionophore treatment, microinjection of calcium ions, or electrical stimulation. Treatment with cycloheximide, a non-specific protein synthesis inhibitor, enhances parthenote development in swine presumably by continual inhibition of MPF/cyclin B. As meiosis proceeds, extrusion of the second polar is blocked by exposure to cytochalasin B. This treatment results in a diploid (2 maternal genomes) parthenote. Parthenotes can be surgically transferred to a recipient oviduct for further development, but will succumb by developmental failure after ≈30 days of gestation. The swine parthenote placentae often appears hypo-vascular and is approximately 50% smaller than biparental offspring placentae: see free image (Figure 1) in linked reference.
365:). In these species asexual reproduction occurs either in summer (aphids) or as long as conditions are favourable. This is because in asexual reproduction a successful genotype can spread quickly without being modified by sex or wasting resources on male offspring who will not give birth. Some species can produce both sexually and through parthenogenesis, and offspring in the same clutch of a species of tropical lizard can be a mix of sexually produced offspring and parthenogenically produced offspring. In California Condors facultative parthenogenesis can occur even when a male is present and available for a female to breed with. In times of stress, offspring produced by sexual reproduction may be fitter as they have new, possibly beneficial gene combinations. In addition, sexual reproduction provides the benefit of meiotic recombination between non-
612:
albeit through highly diverse mechanisms. These transitions often occur as a result of inbreeding or mutation within large populations. There are a number of documented species, specifically salamanders and geckos, that rely on obligate parthenogenesis as their major method of reproduction. As such, there are over 80 species of unisex reptiles (mostly lizards but including a single snake species), amphibians and fishes in nature for which males are no longer a part of the reproductive process. A female will produce an ovum with a full set (two sets of genes) provided solely by the mother. Thus, a male is not needed to provide sperm to fertilize the egg. This form of asexual reproduction is thought in some cases to be a serious threat to biodiversity for the subsequent lack of gene variation and potentially decreased fitness of the offspring.
1044:, queens produce more queens through automictic parthenogenesis with central fusion. Sterile workers usually are produced from eggs fertilized by males. In some of the eggs fertilized by males, however, the fertilization can cause the female genetic material to be ablated from the zygote. In this way, males pass on only their genes to become fertile male offspring. This is the first recognized example of an animal species where both females and males can reproduce clonally resulting in a complete separation of male and female gene pools. As a consequence, the males will only have fathers and the queens only mothers, while the sterile workers are the only ones with both parents of both sexes.
1682:) to be lacking in any genetic content from his father. Scientists believe that an unfertilized egg began to self-divide but then had some (but not all) of its cells fertilized by a sperm cell; this must have happened early in development, as self-activated eggs quickly lose their ability to be fertilized. The unfertilized cells eventually duplicated their DNA, boosting their chromosomes to 46. When the unfertilized cells hit a developmental block, the fertilized cells took over and developed that tissue. The boy had asymmetrical facial features and learning difficulties but was otherwise healthy. This would make him a parthenogenetic
1627:
436:
1265:. This female American crocodile, housed at Parque Reptilania, produced a genetically identical foetus, with a 99.9% similarity to herself. The scientists speculate that this unique ability might be inherited from an evolutionary ancestor, suggesting that even dinosaurs could have possessed the capability for self-reproduction. The 18-year-old crocodile laid the egg in January 2018, the fully formed foetus did not hatch and was stillborn. Notably, this crocodile had been kept separated from other crocodiles throughout her entire life since being acquired at the age of two.
4726:
1643:
enhances parthenote development in swine presumably by continual inhibition of MPF/cyclin B. As meiosis proceeds, extrusion of the second polar is blocked by exposure to cytochalasin B. This treatment results in a diploid (2 maternal genomes) parthenote
Parthenotes can be surgically transferred to a recipient oviduct for further development, but will succumb to developmental failure after ≈30 days of gestation. The swine parthenote placentae often appears hypo-vascular: see free image (Figure 1) in linked reference.
991:, which normally suppress ovarian development in workers. Worker bees are unable to mate, and the unfertilized eggs produce only drones (males), which can mate only with a queen. Thus, in a relatively short period, all the worker bees die off, and the new drones follow if they have not been able to mate before the collapse of the colony. This behavior is believed to have evolved to allow a doomed colony to produce drones which may mate with a virgin queen and thus preserve the colony's genetic progeny.
1671:), claimed in 1955 that parthenogenesis, which occurs in the guppy in nature, may also occur (though very rarely) in the human species, leading to so-called "virgin births". This created some sensation among her colleagues and the lay public alike. Sometimes an embryo may begin to divide without fertilization, but it cannot fully develop on its own; so while it may create some skin and nerve cells, it cannot create others (such as skeletal muscle) and becomes a type of benign tumor called an ovarian
1280:
2037:
956:
1574:
324:
1686:(a child with two cell lineages in his body). While over a dozen similar cases have been reported since then (usually discovered after the patient demonstrated clinical abnormalities), there have been no scientifically confirmed reports of a non-chimeric, clinically healthy human parthenote (i.e. produced from a single, parthenogenetic-activated oocyte).
554:; presumably, this is the default reproductive mode of all species in this insect order. Facultative parthenogenesis has generally been believed to be a response to a lack of a viable male. A female may undergo facultative parthenogenesis if a male is absent from the habitat or if it is unable to produce viable offspring. However,
1690:
The process may offer a way for creating stem cells that are genetically matched to a particular female for the treatment of degenerative diseases that might affect her. In
December 2007, Dr. Revazova and ISCC published an article illustrating a breakthrough in the use of parthenogenesis to produce human stem cells that are
29:
1719:
created by Tokyo scientists in 2004. Although Hwang deceived the world about being the first to create artificially cloned human embryos, he contributed a major breakthrough to stem cell research by creating human embryos using parthenogenesis. The truth was discovered in 2007, long after the embryos
1383:
In 2012, facultative parthenogenesis was reported in wild vertebrates for the first time by US researchers amongst captured pregnant copperhead and cottonmouth female pit-vipers. The Komodo dragon, which normally reproduces sexually, has also been found able to reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis.
1203:
in
Virginia reproduced via parthenogenesis. On 10 October 2008, scientists confirmed the second case of a "virgin birth" in a shark. The Journal of Fish Biology reported a study in which scientists said DNA testing proved that a pup carried by a female Atlantic blacktip shark in the Virginia Aquarium
470:
of anaphase I or of anaphase II are joined. The criterion for "sexuality" varies from all cases of restitutional meiosis, to those where the nuclei fuse or to only those where gametes are mature at the time of fusion. Those cases of automixis that are classified as sexual reproduction are compared to
469:
Some authors consider all forms of automixis sexual as they involve recombination. Many others classify the endomitotic variants as asexual and consider the resulting embryos parthenogenetic. Among these authors, the threshold for classifying automixis as a sexual process depends on when the products
1714:
unknowingly produced the first human embryos resulting from parthenogenesis. Initially, Hwang claimed he and his team had extracted stem cells from cloned human embryos, a result later found to be fabricated. Further examination of the chromosomes of these cells show indicators of parthenogenesis in
1698:
region of DNA. These stem cells are called HLA homozygous parthenogenetic human stem cells (hpSC-Hhom) and have unique characteristics that would allow derivatives of these cells to be implanted into millions of people without immune rejection. With proper selection of oocyte donors according to HLA
1638:
During oocyte development, high metaphase promoting factor (MPF) activity causes mammalian oocytes to arrest at the metaphase II stage until fertilization by a sperm. The fertilization event causes intracellular calcium oscillations, and targeted degradation of cyclin B, a regulatory subunit of MPF,
1387:
Some reptile species use a ZW chromosome system, which produces either males (ZZ) or females (ZW). Until 2010, it was thought that the ZW chromosome system used by reptiles was incapable of producing viable WW offspring, but a (ZW) female boa constrictor was discovered to have produced viable female
549:
Facultative parthenogenesis is the term for when a female can produce offspring either sexually or via asexual reproduction. Facultative parthenogenesis is extremely rare in nature, with only a few examples of animal taxa capable of facultative parthenogenesis. One of the best-known examples of taxa
1546:
genetic regions, where either the maternal or the paternal chromosome is inactivated in the offspring in order for development to proceed normally. A mammal created by parthenogenesis would have double doses of maternally imprinted genes and lack paternally imprinted genes, leading to developmental
1399:
of which 15 species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis. These lizards live in the dry and sometimes harsh climate of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. All these asexual species appear to have arisen through the hybridization of two or three of the sexual species in the genus
1689:
On 26 June 2007, the
International Stem Cell Corporation (ISCC), a California-based stem cell research company, announced that their lead scientist, Dr. Elena Revazova, and her research team were the first to intentionally create human stem cells from unfertilized human eggs using parthenogenesis.
481:
occurs (restitutional meiosis of anaphase I or the fusion of its products), the offspring get all to more than half of the mother's genetic material and heterozygosity is mostly preserved (if the mother has two alleles for a locus, it is likely that the offspring will get both). This is because in
1642:
To initiate parthenogenesis of swine oocytes, various methods exist to induce an artificial activation that mimics sperm entry, such as calcium ionophore treatment, microinjection of calcium ions, or electrical stimulation. Treatment with cycloheximide, a non-specific protein synthesis inhibitor,
1191:
in
Nebraska, in a tank containing three female hammerheads, but no males. The pup was thought to have been conceived through parthenogenesis. It was concluded after DNA testing that the reproduction was parthenogenetic, as the female pup's DNA matched only one female who lived in the tank, and no
611:
Obligate parthenogenesis is the process in which organisms exclusively reproduce through asexual means. Many species have been shown to transition to obligate parthenogenesis over evolutionary time. Well documented transitions to obligate parthenogenesis have been found in numerous metazoan taxa,
1763:
are gynogenetic and appear to have been so for over a million years. It is believed that the success of those salamanders may be due to rare fertilization of eggs by males, introducing new material to the gene pool, which may result from perhaps only one mating out of a million. In addition, the
1408:
An interesting aspect to reproduction in these asexual lizards is that mating behaviors are still seen, although the populations are all female. One female plays the role played by the male in closely related species, and mounts the female that is about to lay eggs. This behaviour is due to the
540:
In many hymenopteran insects such as honeybees, female eggs are produced sexually, using sperm from a drone father, while the production of further drones (males) depends on the queen (and occasionally workers) producing unfertilized eggs. This means that females (workers and queens) are always
1559:
for use in medical treatment, not as a reproductive strategy. In 2022, researchers reported that they have achieved parthenogenesis in mice for viable offspring born from unfertilized eggs, addressing the problems of genomic imprinting by "targeted DNA methylation rewriting of seven imprinting
1633:
Parthenogenetic development of swine oocytes. High metaphase promoting factor (MPF) activity causes mammalian oocytes to arrest at the metaphase II stage until fertilization by a sperm. The fertilization event causes intracellular calcium oscillations, and targeted degradation of cyclin B, a
1404:
individuals. The mechanism by which the mixing of chromosomes from two or three species can lead to parthenogenetic reproduction is unknown. Recently, a hybrid parthenogenetic whiptail lizard was bred in the laboratory from a cross between an asexual and a sexual whiptail. Because multiple
343:), while others can switch between sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis. This is called facultative parthenogenesis (other terms are cyclical parthenogenesis, heterogamy or heterogony). The switch between sexuality and parthenogenesis in such species may be triggered by the season (
784:
rotifers, females can alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction (cyclical parthenogenesis). At least in one normally cyclical parthenogenetic species obligate parthenogenesis can be inherited: a recessive allele leads to loss of sexual reproduction in homozygous offspring.
599:, and a variety of domesticated birds were widely attributed to facultative parthenogenesis. These cases are examples of spontaneous parthenogenesis. The occurrence of such asexually produced eggs in sexual animals can be explained by a meiotic error, leading to eggs produced via
982:
are produced from unfertilized eggs. Usually, eggs are laid only by the queen, but the unmated workers may also lay haploid, male eggs either regularly (e.g. stingless bees) or under special circumstances. An example of non-viable parthenogenesis is common among domesticated
510:
In apomictic parthenogenesis, the offspring are clones of the mother and hence (except for aphids) are usually female. In the case of aphids, parthenogenetically produced males and females are clones of their mother except that the males lack one of the X chromosomes (XO).
1409:
hormonal cycles of the females, which cause them to behave like males shortly after laying eggs, when levels of progesterone are high, and to take the female role in mating before laying eggs, when estrogen dominates. Lizards who act out the courtship ritual have greater
671:, strict parthenogenesis is only known to occur in lizards, snakes, birds, and sharks, with fish, amphibians, and reptiles exhibiting various forms of gynogenesis and hybridogenesis (an incomplete form of parthenogenesis). The first all-female (unisexual) reproduction in
987:. The queen bee is the only fertile female in the hive; if she dies without the possibility of a viable replacement queen, it is not uncommon for the worker bees to lay eggs. This is a result of the lack of the queen's pheromones and the pheromones secreted by uncapped
376:
Many taxa with heterogony have within them species that have lost the sexual phase and are now completely asexual. Many other cases of obligate parthenogenesis (or gynogenesis) are found among polyploids and hybrids where the chromosomes cannot pair for meiosis.
1047:
These ants get both the benefits of both asexual and sexual reproduction—the daughters who can reproduce (the queens) have all of the mother's genes, while the sterile workers whose physical strength and disease resistance are important are produced sexually.
1752:
in order to develop. However, the sperm cell does not contribute any genetic material to the offspring. Since gynogenetic species are all female, activation of their eggs requires mating with males of a closely related species for the needed stimulus. Some
717:, resulting in an organism that is genetically identical to the donor. Parthenogenesis is different, in that it originates from the genetic material contained within an egg cell and the new organism is not necessarily genetically identical to the parent.
681:
in 1932. Since then at least 50 species of unisexual vertebrate have been described, including at least 20 fish, 25 lizards, a single snake species, frogs, and salamanders. Other usually sexual species may occasionally reproduce parthenogenetically; the
623:: it obviates the need for individuals in a very sparse initial population to search for mates; and an exclusively female sex distribution allows a population to multiply and invade more rapidly (potentially twice as fast). Examples include several
1384:
A case has been documented of a Komodo dragon reproducing via sexual reproduction after a known parthenogenetic event, highlighting that these cases of parthenogenesis are reproductive accidents, rather than adaptive, facultative parthenogenesis.
1405:
hybridization events can occur, individual parthenogenetic whiptail species can consist of multiple independent asexual lineages. Within lineages, there is very little genetic diversity, but different lineages may have quite different genotypes.
486:
the homologous chromosomes are separated. Heterozygosity is not completely preserved when crossing over occurs in central fusion. In the case of pre-meiotic doubling, recombination, if it happens, occurs between identical sister chromatids.
1675:. Spontaneous ovarian activation is not rare and has been known about since the 19th century. Some teratomas can even become primitive fetuses (fetiform teratoma) with imperfect heads, limbs and other structures, but are non-viable.
423:, the ploidy is restored to diploidy by various means. This is because haploid individuals are not viable in most species. In automictic parthenogenesis, the offspring differ from one another and from their mother. They are called
494:(restitutional meiosis of anaphase II or the fusion of its products) occurs, a little over half the mother's genetic material is present in the offspring and the offspring are mostly homozygous. This is because at anaphase II the
1720:
were created by him and his team in
February 2004. This made Hwang the first, unknowingly, to successfully perform the process of parthenogenesis to create a human embryo and, ultimately, a human parthenogenetic stem cell line.
6102:
Murphy, R.W.; Darevsky, I.S.; MacCulloch, R.D.; Fu, J.; Kupriyanova, L.A.; Upton, D.E.; Danielyan, F. (1997). "Old age, multiple formations or genetic plasticity? Clonal diversity in a parthenogenetic
Caucasian rock lizard,
5820:
Schuett, G.W.; Fernandez, P.J.; Gergits, W.F.; Casna, N.J.; Chiszar, D.; Smith, H.M.; et al. (1997). "Production of offspring in the absence of males: Evidence for facultative parthenogenesis in bisexual snakes".
1743:
A form of asexual reproduction related to parthenogenesis is gynogenesis. Here, offspring are produced by the same mechanism as in parthenogenesis, but with the requirement that the egg merely be stimulated by the
1237:
held in captivity from all males for eight years was reported pregnant in 2024. In June 2024, the aquarium where the ray resided reported that she was not pregnant, and instead had a rare reproductive disease.
498:
are separated and whatever heterozygosity is present is due to crossing over. In the case of endomitosis after meiosis, the offspring is completely homozygous and has only half the mother's genetic material.
6606:
Revazova, E.S.; Turovets, N.A.; Kochetkova, O.D.; Kindarova, L.B.; Kuzmichev, L.N.; Janus, J.D.; Pryzhkova, M.V. (2007). "Patient-Specific Stem Cell Lines
Derived from Human Parthenogenetic Blastocysts".
698:, there are both costs (low genetic diversity and therefore susceptibility to adverse mutations that might occur) and benefits (reproduction without the need for a male) associated with parthenogenesis.
564:
both can produce parthenogenic offspring in the presence of males, indicating that facultative parthenogenesis may be more common than previously thought and is not simply a response to a lack of males.
1420:
Some lizard parthenogens show a pattern of geographic parthenogenesis, occupying high mountain areas where their ancestral forms have an inferior competition ability. In
Caucasian rock lizards of genus
742:
from an experimental cross were germinated, and some of the progeny were genetically identical to one or other parent, implying that meiosis did not occur and the oospores developed by parthenogenesis.
6642:
Revazova, E.S.; Turovets, N.A.; Kochetkova, O.D.; Agapova, L.S.; Sebastian, J.L.; Pryzhkova, M.V.; et al. (2008). "HLA homozygous stem cell lines derived from human parthenogenetic blastocysts".
6326:
Kawahara, Manabu; Wu, Qiong; Takahashi, Nozomi; Morita, Shinnosuke; Yamada, Kaori; Ito, Mitsuteru; et al. (2007). "High-frequency generation of viable mice from engineered bi-maternal embryos".
1917:
1501:
There are no known cases of naturally occurring mammalian parthenogenesis in the wild. Parthenogenetic progeny of mammals would have two X chromosomes, and would therefore be genetically female.
1493:
breeding program hatch. This is the first known example of parthenogenesis in this species, as well as one of the only known examples of parthenogenesis happening where males are still present.
1103:
in the 1990s. Offspring are genetically identical to the parent, indicating it reproduces by apomixis, i.e. parthenogenesis in which the eggs did not undergo meiosis. Spinycheek crayfish (
4032:
286:
and those having only half are called half clones. Full clones are usually formed without meiosis. If meiosis occurs, the offspring will get only a fraction of the mother's alleles since
278:
chromosome number. Depending on the mechanism involved in restoring the diploid number of chromosomes, parthenogenetic offspring may have anywhere between all and half of the mother's
1413:
than those kept in isolation, due to the increase in hormones that accompanies the mounting. So, although the populations lack males, they still require sexual behavioral stimuli for
2013:
Examples of parthenogenesis, in the form of reproduction from a single individual (typically a god), are common in mythology and folklore around the world, including in ancient
587:
Facultative parthenogenesis is often used to describe cases of spontaneous parthenogenesis in normally sexual animals. For example, many cases of spontaneous parthenogenesis in
3730:
2916:
Ryder, Oliver A; Thomas, Steven; Judson, Jessica Martin; Romanov, Michael N.; Dandekar, Sugandha; Papp, Jeanette C.; et al. (17 December 2021). Murphy, William J. (ed.).
1478:; most embryos produced in this way die early in development. Rarely, viable birds result from this process, and the rate at which this occurs in turkeys can be increased by
1115:), which normally reproduces sexually, has also been suggested to reproduce by parthenogenesis, although no individuals of this species have been reared this way in the lab.
822:, alternatively referred to as gynogenetic). A complex cycle of matings between diploid sexual and polyploid parthenogenetic individuals produces new parthenogenetic lines.
615:
Some invertebrate species that feature (partial) sexual reproduction in their native range are found to reproduce solely by parthenogenesis in areas to which they have been
2281:
6087:
Vrijenhoek, R.C.; Parker, E.D. (2009). "Geographical parthenogenesis: General purpose genotypes and frozen niche variation". In Schön I; Martens K.; van Dijk P. (eds.).
7427:
Kono, T.; Obata, Y.; Wu, Q.; Niwa, K.; Ono, Y.; Yamamoto, Y.; Park, E.S.; Seo, J.-S.; Ogawa, H. (2004). "Birth of parthenogenetic mice that can develop to adulthood".
3589:
Funk, David H.; Sweeney, Bernard W.; Jackson, John K. (2010). "Why stream mayflies can reproduce without males but remain bisexual: A case of lost genetic variation".
897:
A related phenomenon, polyembryony is a process that produces multiple clonal offspring from a single egg cell. This is known in some hymenopteran parasitoids and in
259:). This type of reproduction has been induced artificially in a number of animal species that naturally reproduce through sex, including fish, amphibians, and mice.
5789:
Reynolds, R.G.; Booth, W.; Schuett, G.W.; Fitzpatrick, B.M.; Burghardt, G.M. (2012). "Successive virgin births of viable male progeny in the checkered gartersnake,
1142:
452:
Diploidy might be restored by the doubling of the chromosomes without cell division before meiosis begins or after meiosis is completed. This is referred to as an
6881:
309:, they have either two Z chromosomes (male) or two W chromosomes (mostly non-viable but rarely a female), or they could have one Z and one W chromosome (female).
6238:
2792:
5615:
335:, produced through parthenogenesis. Komodo dragons are an example of a species which can produce offspring both through sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis.
894:) are known to occur. The egg cells, depending on the species may be produced without meiosis (apomictically) or by one of the several automictic mechanisms.
7639:
5532:
Darevskii IS. 1967. Rock lizards of the
Caucasus: systematics, ecology and phylogenesis of the polymorphic groups of Caucasian rock lizards of the subgenus
5892:
904:
In automictic species the offspring can be haploid or diploid. Diploids are produced by doubling or fusion of gametes after meiosis. Fusion is seen in the
5264:
1823:
This process continues, so that each generation is half (or hemi-) clonal on the mother's side and has half new genetic material from the father's side.
7582:
7598:
5238:
2827:
Pujade-Villar, Juli; Bellido, D.; Segu, G.; Melika, George (2001). "Current state of knowledge of heterogony in Cynipidae (Hymenoptera, Cynipoidea)".
2474:
Ryder, Oliver A.; Thomas, Steven; Judson, Jessica Martin; Romanov, Michael N.; Dandekar, Sugandha; Papp, Jeanette C.; et al. (17 December 2021).
1623:
Use of an electrical or chemical stimulus can produce the beginning of the process of parthenogenesis in the asexual development of viable offspring.
1152:, are thought to be parthenogenetic, as no males have ever been collected. Parthenogenetic reproduction has been demonstrated in the laboratory for
3205:
Cuellar, Orlando (1 February 1971). "Reproduction and the mechanism of meiotic restitution in the parthenogenetic lizard Cnemidophorus uniparens".
1592:
994:
A few ants and bees are capable of producing diploid female offspring parthenogenetically. These include a honey bee subspecies from South Africa,
5549:
Tarkhnishvili, D.N. (2012). "Evolutionary history, habitats, diversification, and speciation in Caucasian rock lizards". In Jenkins, O.P. (ed.).
4628:
Copeland, Claudia S.; Hoy, Marjorie A.; Jeyaprakash, Ayyamperumal; Aluja, Martin; Ramirez-Romero, Ricardo; Sivinski, John M. (1 September 2010).
462:. Other species restore their ploidy by the fusion of the meiotic products. The chromosomes may not separate at one of the two anaphases (called
4434:
Lentati, G. Benazzi (1966). "Amphimixis and pseudogamy in fresh-water triclads: Experimental reconstitution of polyploid pseudogamic biotypes".
2137:
870:
Parthenogenesis in insects can cover a wide range of mechanisms. The offspring produced by parthenogenesis may be of both sexes, only female (
526:
the offspring genotype may be one of ZW (female), ZZ (male), or WW (non-viable in most species, but a fertile, viable female in a few, e.g.,
2849:
Kratochvíl, Lukáš; Vukić, Jasna; Červenka, Jan; Kubička, Lukáš; Johnson Pokorná, Martina; Kukačková, Dominika; et al. (November 2020).
1222:, a type of carpet shark. DNA genotyping demonstrated that individual zebra sharks can switch from sexual to parthenogenetic reproduction.
5916:
3263:"Genetic Polymorphism and Evolution in Parthenogenetic Animals. Ii. Diploid and Polyploid Solenobia Triquetrella (lepidoptera: Psychidae)"
5163:
Robinson, D.P.; Baverstock, W.; Al-Jaru, A.; Hyland, K.; Khazanehdari, K.A. (2011). "Annually recurring parthenogenesis in a zebra shark
1455:. In most cases the egg fails to develop normally or completely to hatching. The first description of parthenogenetic development in a
477:
The genetic composition of the offspring depends on what type of automixis takes place. When endomitosis occurs before meiosis or when
400:. Mature egg cells are produced by mitotic divisions, and these cells directly develop into embryos. In flowering plants, cells of the
4549:"Population Structure of an Invasive Parthenogenetic Gastropod in Coastal Lakes and Estuaries of Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa"
2211:; Serrano-Serrano, Martha; Barrera-Redondo, Josué; Luthringer, Rémy; Peters, Akira F.; Destombe, Christophe; et al. (July 2021).
1192:
male DNA was present in the pup. The pup was not a twin or clone of her mother, but rather, contained only half of her mother's DNA ("
7747:
7632:
5465:
Booth, Warren; Levine, Brenna A.; Corush, Joel B.; Davis, Mark A.; Dwyer, Quetzal; De Plecker, Roel; Schuett, Gordon W. (June 2023).
2294:
Some female birds, reptiles, and other animals can make a baby on their own. But for mammals like us, eggs and sperm need each other.
2271:
2087: – German-born American physiologist and biologist – caused the eggs of sea urchins to begin embryonic development without sperm
1360:
are unisexual and obligately parthenogenetic. Other reptiles, such as the Komodo dragon, other monitor lizards, and some species of
7858:
3521:"Lack of detectable genetic recombination on the X chromosome during the parthenogenetic production of female and male aphids"
2439:
274:
as their mother's body cells. Haploid individuals, however, are usually non-viable, and parthenogenetic offspring usually have the
3324:
Groot, T V M; E Bruins; J A J Breeuwer (28 February 2003). "Molecular genetic evidence for parthenogenesis in the Burmese python,
1004:
eggs parthenogenetically, and replacing the queen if she dies; other examples include some species of small carpenter bee, (genus
5021:
Muñoz, Joaquín; Gómez, Africa; Green, Andy J.; Figuerola, Jordi; Amat, Francisco; Rico, Ciro; Moreau, Corrie S. (4 August 2010).
5380:
4668:
Fournier, Denis; Estoup, Arnaud; Orivel, Jérôme; Foucaud, Julien; Jourdan, Hervé; Le Breton, Julien Le; Keller, Laurent (2005).
6882:"Phylogenetic relationships between parthenogens and their sexual relatives: the possible routes to parthenogenesis in animals"
6516:
Mori, Hironori; Mizobe, Yamato; Inoue, Shin; Uenohara, Akari; Takeda, Mitsuru; Yoshida, Mitsutoshi; Miyoshi, Kazuchika (2008).
3519:
Hales, Dinah F.; Wilson, Alex C.C.; Sloane, Mathew A.; Simon, Jean-Christophe; Legallic, Jean-François; Sunnucks, Paul (2002).
4020:
466:) or the nuclei produced may fuse or one of the polar bodies may fuse with the egg cell at some stage during its maturation.
7304:
7134:"Global Analysis of the Small RNA Transcriptome in Different Ploidies and Genomic Combinations of a Vertebrate Complex – The
6864:
5840:
Schuett, G.W.; Fernandez, P.J.; Chiszar, D.; Smith, H.M. (1998). "Fatherless sons: A new type of parthenogenesis in snakes".
4086:
3577:
3184:
Cosín, Darío J. Díaz, Marta Novo, and Rosa Fernández. "Reproduction of Earthworms: Sexual Selection and Parthenogenesis". In
2992:
2715:
2334:
573:
7076:
534:
before meiosis or by central fusion. ZZ and WW offspring occur either by terminal fusion or by endomitosis in the egg cell.
7625:
6737:
Holsbeek, G.; Jooris, R. (2010). "Potential impact of genome exclusion by alien species in the hybridogenetic water frogs (
4909:"A successful crayfish invader is capable of facultative parthenogenesis: A novel reproductive mode in decapod crustaceans"
2171:
5564:
Watts, P.C.; Buley, K.R.; Sanderson, S.; Boardman, W.; Ciofi, C.; Gibson, R. (2006). "Parthenogenesis in Komodo dragons".
3043:
2064: – Genevan botanist (1720–1793) – conducted experiments that established what is now termed parthenogenesis in aphids
6589:
5385:
4500:
Ben-Ami, F.; Heller, J. (2005). "Spatial and temporal patterns of parthenogenesis and parasitism in the freshwater snail
1805:
of second parental species (B), instead of containing mixed recombined parental genomes. First genome (A) is restored by
1738:
4239:
Vrijenhoek, R.C., R.M. Dawley, C.J. Cole, and J.P. Bogart. 1989. "A list of the known unisexual vertebrates", pp. 19–23
2305:
1678:
In 1995, there was a reported case of partial human parthenogenesis; a boy was found to have some of his cells (such as
713:
cell from a donor organism is inserted into an enucleated egg cell and the cell is then stimulated to undergo continued
5408:
6994:
6254:
2053:- a form of quasi-sexual reproduction in which a male is the sole source of the nuclear genetic material in the embryo
935:
and sperm are produced by the same individual, but is not a type of parthenogenesis. This is seen in three species of
7552:
7495:
7480:
7391:
7333:
4793:
Scholtz, Gerhard; Braband, Anke; Tolley, Laura; Reimann, André; Mittmann, Beate; Lukhaup, Chris; et al. (2003).
4076:
1812:
So hybridogenesis is not completely asexual, but instead hemiclonal: half of genome is passed to the next generation
1610:
7571:
1380:
were previously considered as cases of facultative parthenogenesis, but may be cases of accidental parthenogenesis.
5133:
Chapman, D.D.; Firchau, B.; Shivji, M. S. (2008). "Parthenogenesis in a large-bodied requiem shark, the blacktip".
1704:
7342:"Can artificial parthenogenesis sidestep ethical pitfalls in human therapeutic cloning? An historical perspective"
5859:
4021:"Novel microsatellite DNA markers indicate strict parthenogenesis and few genotypes in the invasive willow sawfly
1948:). First one is the primary hybridisation generating hybrid, second one is most widespread type of hybridogenesis.
720:
Parthenogenesis may be achieved through an artificial process as described below under the discussion of mammals.
7613:
Scientists confirm shark's 'virgin birth' Article by Steve Szkotak AP updated 1:49 a.m. ET, Fri., 10 October 2008
7612:
7030:
2217:
1516:
5902:
952:
systems. They also cause gamete duplication in unfertilized eggs causing them to develop into female offspring.
388:(e.g., bees). When unfertilized eggs develop into both males and females, the phenomenon is called deuterotoky.
6421:
Bischoff, S.R.; Tsai, S.; Hardison, N.; Motsinger-Reif, A.A.; Freking, B.A.; Nonneman, D.; et al. (2009).
5274:
1958:
1196:"). This type of reproduction had been seen before in bony fish, but not in cartilaginous fish such as sharks.
318:
2735:
n. g., n. sp. (Nematoda: Sphaerularioidea: Anandranematidae n. fam.) parasitic in the palm-pollinating weevil
1710:
On 2 August 2007, after an independent investigation, it was revealed that discredited South Korean scientist
1057:), where females reproduce parthenogenetically during the gall-forming phase of their life cycle and in grass
196:, parthenogenesis can mean the development of an embryo from either an individual sperm or an individual egg.
6694:
6474:"Developmental competence of parthenogenetic mouse and human embryos after chemical or electrical activation"
1777:
1247:
1067:
there have been, despite the very limited number of species in the genus, several transitions to asexuality.
282:. In some types of parthenogenesis the offspring having all of the mother's genetic material are called full
5314:
Dudgeon, Christine L.; Coulton, Laura; Bone, Ren; Ovenden, Jennifer R.; Thomas, Severine (16 January 2017).
5296:
4907:
Buřič, Miloš; Hulák, Martin; Kouba, Antonín; Petrusek, Adam; Kozák, Pavel; Etges, William J. (31 May 2011).
4186:
Chapman, Demian D.; Shivji, Mahmood S.; Louis, Ed; Sommer, Julie; Fletcher, Hugh; Prodöhl, Paulo A. (2007).
7683:
5731:
4257:
Hubbs, C.L.; Hubbs, L.C. (1932). "Apparent parthenogenesis in nature, in a form of fish of hybrid origin".
4108:
705:, a process where the new organism is necessarily genetically identical to the cell donor. In cloning, the
572:, a generation sexually conceived by a male and a female produces only females. The reason for this is the
6518:"Effects of Cycloheximide on Parthenogenetic Development of Pig Oocytes Activated by Ultrasound Treatment"
1555:
abortive development. As a consequence, research on human parthenogenesis is focused on the production of
1023:
The workers in five ant species and the queens in some ants are known to reproduce by parthenogenesis. In
7742:
6192:
4302:
Hurtado-Gonzales, O. P.; Lamour, K. H. (2009). "Evidence for inbreeding and apomixis in close crosses of
3965:
2857:
1274:
523:
519:
306:
302:
298:
3018:"On some terms used in the cytogenetics and reproductive biology of scale insects (Homoptera: Coccinea)"
2535:"Parental sex effect of parthenogenesis on progeny production and performance of Chinese Painted Quail (
2148:
694:
are recent additions to the known list of spontaneous parthenogenetic vertebrates. As with all types of
7737:
6795:
Schultz, R. Jack (November–December 1969). "Hybridization, unisexuality, and polyploidy in the teleost
5949:
5623:
4669:
1527:
to produce bi-maternal mice at high frequency and subsequently show that fatherless mice have enhanced
1208:
1033:, the queens and workers can produce new queens by parthenogenesis. The workers are produced sexually.
5671:
Kinney, M.E.; Wack, R.F.; Grahn, R.A.; Lyons, L. (2013). "Parthenogenesis in a Brazilian rainbow boa (
4150:
Schut, E.; Hemmings, N.; Birkhead, T.R. (2008). "Parthenogenesis in a passerine bird, the Zebra finch
6856:
6850:
4546:
4308:
1900:
1882:
1843:
1215:
in Detroit. They hatched 15 weeks after being laid in an aquarium containing only two female sharks.
814:
individuals that reproduce by parthenogenesis. This type of parthenogenesis requires mating, but the
38:(center), which reproduces via parthenogenesis, is shown flanked by two sexual species having males,
34:
3342:
3728:
Lampert, K.P. (2008). "Facultative parthenogenesis in vertebrates: Reproductive error or chance?".
3486:
1703:, it is possible to generate a bank of cell lines whose tissue derivatives, collectively, could be
1431:
has a broader niche than either of its bisexual ancestors and its expansion throughout the Central
1117:
967:
515:
7398:
Hore, T; Rapkins, R; Graves, J (2007). "Construction and evolution of imprinted loci in mammals".
6843:
4547:
Miranda, Nelson A. F.; Perissinotto, Renzo; Appleton, Christopher C.; Lalueza-Fox, Carles (2011).
3959:
Vorburger, Christoph (2003). "Environmentally related patterns of reproductive modes in the aphid
3129:
Zakharov, I. A. (April 2005). "Intratetrad mating and its genetic and evolutionary consequences".
3017:
1651:
Reports of human parthenogenesis have famously existed since ancient times, featuring prominently
502:
This can result in parthenogenetic offspring being unique from each other and from their mother.
6427:
6270:
2443:
2056:
1695:
1353:
1327:
996:
7244:
Mantovani, Barbara; Scali, Valerio (1992). "Hybridogenesis and androgenesis in the stick-insect
6678:"Stem cell fraudster made 'virgin birth' breakthrough: Silver lining for Korean science scandal"
4335:
Read, V. M. St. J. (July 1988). "The Onychophora of Trinidad, Tobago, and the Lesser Antilles".
522:, parthenogenetic offspring will have two X chromosomes and are female. In species that use the
7698:
6677:
6150:
Tarkhnishvili, D.; Gavashelishvili, A.; Avaliani, A.; Murtskhvaladze, M.; Mumladze, L. (2010).
5926:
4727:"Evolution of asexuality via different mechanisms in grass thrips (Thysanoptera: Aptinothrips)"
3481:
3337:
2351:
2143:
1505:
435:
40:
7515:
6250:
5381:"Charlotte the stingray due to give birth within weeks despite no male ray company for years"
2117:
1894:
1875:
1855:
1799:
1652:
979:
839:
753:
287:
7833:
2917:
2533:
Ramachandran, R.; Nascimento dos Santos, M.; Parker, H.M.; McDaniel, C.D. (September 2018).
537:
In polyploid obligate parthenogens, like the whiptail lizard, all the offspring are female.
7656:
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7149:
6940:
6750:
6328:
6041:
5982:
5573:
5327:
5176:
5040:
4922:
4865:
4808:
4744:"Profiling sex-biased gene expression during parthenogenetic reproduction in Daphnia pulex"
4684:
4560:
4388:
4268:
3974:
3907:
Booth, W.; Smith, C.F.; Eskridge, P.H.; Hoss, S.K.; Mendelson, J.R.; Schuett, G.W. (2012).
3806:
3692:
3409:
2866:
2656:
2386:
1970:
1909:
1863:
1813:
1626:
1556:
695:
161:
7523:
Simon, J; Rispe, Claude; Sunnucks, Paul (2002). "Ecology and evolution of sex in aphids".
6283:
3188:, edited by Ayten Karaca, 24:69–86. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2011.
3052:"Asexual but Not Clonal: Evolutionary Processes in Automictic Populations | Genetics"
2975:
Bernstein, H; Hopf, FA; Michod, RE (1987). "The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex".
2375:"Molecular evidence for the first records of facultative parthenogenesis in elapid snakes"
1952:
Other examples where hybridogenesis is at least one of modes of reproduction include i.e.
1523:. Using gene targeting, they were able to manipulate two imprinted loci H19/IGF2 and DLK1/
1218:
In 2011, recurring shark parthenogenesis over several years was demonstrated in a captive
449:
is a term that covers several reproductive mechanisms, some of which are parthenogenetic.
8:
7648:
5969:
Lutes, Aracely A.; Baumann, Diana P.; Neaves, William B.; Baumann, Peter (14 June 2011).
5897:
5269:
3858:
2922:
2555:
2534:
2480:
1964:
1849:
1817:
1588:
1444:
1392:
1307:
1212:
1111:
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alternates between sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction. Among the better-known large
629:
560:
46:
7587:
7440:
7153:
7044:
7025:
6944:
6754:
6045:
5986:
5766:
Dubach, J.; Sajewicz, A.; Pawley, R. (1997). "Parthenogenesis in the Arafura filesnake (
5577:
5507:
5466:
5437:
5331:
5210:
5180:
5044:
4926:
4869:
4812:
4688:
4564:
4392:
4272:
3978:
3810:
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3460:
Booth, Warren; Larry Million; R. Graham Reynolds; Gordon M. Burghardt; Edward L. Vargo;
3413:
3397:
2870:
2851:
2660:
2447:
2390:
1109:) can reproduce both sexually and by parthenogenesis. The Louisiana red swamp crayfish (
780:, females reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis (obligate parthenogenesis), while in
373:
double-strand breaks and other DNA damages that may be induced by stressful conditions.
305:
sex-determination system have two X chromosomes and are female. In species that use the
7460:
7366:
7341:
7269:
7226:
7172:
7133:
7107:
7057:
6824:
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6774:
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6353:
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5356:
5315:
5063:
5022:
4998:
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4908:
4889:
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4770:
4743:
4708:
4583:
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4411:
4376:
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4187:
4125:
4057:
3998:
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3755:
3647:
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3162:
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3076:
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2898:
2772:
2679:
2644:
2617:
2590:
2568:
2510:
2475:
2415:
2374:
2276:
2252:
2099: – Production of seedless fruit without fertilisation – plants with seedless fruit
2042:
1888:
1683:
1543:
1479:
1334:
1148:
1105:
1025:
847:
637:
habitat but parthenogenetic where it has been introduced into the Southern Hemisphere.
471:
7536:
6152:"Unisexual rock lizard might be outcompeting its bisexual progenitors in the Caucasus"
6064:
6029:
2984:
1809:
of these gametes with gametes from the first species (AA, sexual host, usually male).
7678:
7595:
7566:
7548:
7491:
7476:
7452:
7415:
7387:
7371:
7329:
7300:
7277:
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6901:
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6659:
6624:
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6495:
6454:
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6345:
6287:
6219:
6168:
6151:
6124:
6069:
6010:
5806:
5692:
5589:
5512:
5494:
5409:"After saying Charlotte, a lone stingray, was pregnant, aquarium now says she's sick"
5361:
5343:
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5146:
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5068:
5003:
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4826:
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4517:
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4082:
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3990:
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3710:
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3544:
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3501:
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3292:
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3146:
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3032:
2998:
2988:
2957:
2939:
2902:
2890:
2882:
2809:
2764:
2756:
2731:
Poinar, George O Jr; Trevor A Jackson; Nigel L Bell; Mohd B-asri Wahid (July 2002). "
2711:
2704:
2684:
2622:
2560:
2515:
2497:
2420:
2402:
2330:
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2236:
2090:
1991:
1869:
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1490:
988:
555:
495:
454:
366:
7230:
7111:
7061:
6828:
6778:
6136:
4893:
4838:
4533:
4455:
4061:
4002:
3651:
3610:
3437:
3398:"Conditional Use of Sex and Parthenogenesis for Worker and Queen Production in Ants"
3262:
3242:
3166:
2572:
2256:
1427:, which have six parthenogenetic forms of hybrid origin hybrid parthenogenetic form
1051:
Other examples of insect parthenogenesis can be found in gall-forming aphids (e.g.,
541:
diploid, while males (drones) are always haploid, and produced parthenogenetically.
396:
Parthenogenesis can occur without meiosis through mitotic oogenesis. This is called
7863:
7532:
7511:
7464:
7444:
7407:
7361:
7353:
7261:
7208:
7167:
7157:
7091:
7039:
6966:
6948:
6896:
6808:
6758:
6651:
6616:
6529:
6485:
6444:
6436:
6384:
6357:
6337:
6312:
6279:
6209:
6201:
6163:
6116:
6059:
6049:
6000:
5990:
5802:
5740:
5684:
5601:
5581:
5502:
5486:
5478:
5351:
5335:
5184:
5142:
5103:
5058:
5048:
4993:
4985:
4940:
4930:
4873:
4816:
4799:
4765:
4755:
4712:
4692:
4645:
4578:
4568:
4513:
4482:
4443:
4406:
4396:
4344:
4317:
4276:
4209:
4201:
4165:
4117:
4041:
3982:
3928:
3920:
3875:
3867:
3824:
3814:
3759:
3739:
3700:
3639:
3598:
3534:
3491:
3466:"Consecutive Virgin Births in the New World Boid Snake, the Colombian Rainbow Boa,
3417:
3375:
3347:
3282:
3274:
3214:
3138:
3111:
3071:
3063:
2980:
2947:
2931:
2874:
2801:
2776:
2748:
2730:
2674:
2664:
2612:
2604:
2550:
2505:
2489:
2410:
2394:
2226:
2187:
1997:
1783:
1679:
1489:
In 2021, the San Diego Zoo reported that they had two unfertilized eggs from their
1188:
1184:
835:
687:
677:
620:
616:
64:
6440:
6306:
6149:
6030:"Behavioral facilitation of reproduction in sexual and unisexual whiptail lizards"
1691:
404:
can undergo this process. The offspring produced by apomictic parthenogenesis are
384:(e.g., aphids) while the production of males by parthenogenesis is referred to as
7602:
7162:
5053:
4935:
4573:
4401:
4192:
3819:
3683:
2595:
2213:"Evolution of life cycles and reproductive traits: Insights from the brown algae"
2122:
2014:
1452:
1432:
1310:, but parthenogenesis has been observed to occur naturally in certain species of
1053:
855:
807:
634:
581:
577:
531:
4280:
4247:. R.M. Dawley and J.P. Bogart (eds.) Bulletin 466, New York State Museum, Albany
3278:
3189:
3067:
2067:
1916:
1552:
7583:
National Geographic News: Virgin Birth Expected at Christmas – By Komodo Dragon
6490:
6473:
6268:
Sarvella, P. (1974). "Testes structure in normal and parthenogenetic turkeys".
4185:
4156:
2532:
2061:
1716:
1520:
1231:
1200:
1169:
1011:
702:
691:
619:. Relying solely on parthenogenetic reproduction has several advantages for an
440:
351:), or by a lack of males or by conditions that favour rapid population growth (
236:
7576:
7411:
7095:
6762:
6575:
de Carli, Gabriel Jose, and Tiago Campos Pereira. "On human parthenogenesis".
6120:
4906:
4877:
4742:
Eads, Brian D; Colbourne, John K; Bohuski, Elizabeth; Andrews, Justen (2007).
4045:
3705:
3539:
3520:
3260:
3142:
2805:
2752:
2207:
514:
When meiosis is involved, the sex of the offspring will depend on the type of
7852:
7712:
7103:
7053:
6962:
6770:
5711:
5498:
5347:
4852:
Martin, Peer; Kohlmann, Klaus; Scholtz, Gerhard (2007). "The parthenogenetic
4486:
3359:
3261:
Lokki, Juhani; Esko Suomalainen; Anssi Saura; Pekka Lankinen (1 March 1975).
3226:
3150:
3036:
2943:
2935:
2886:
2813:
2790:
White, Michael J.D. (1984). "Chromosomal mechanisms in animal reproduction".
2760:
2501:
2493:
2406:
2240:
2208:
2096:
1806:
1791:
1711:
1660:
1369:
1342:
1323:
1311:
1283:
1080:
1037:
949:
932:
818:
does not contribute to the genetics of the offspring (the parthenogenesis is
683:
596:
328:
173:
28:
7357:
7197:"Mitochondrial gene introgression between spined loaches via hybridogenesis"
6389:
6372:
6054:
5995:
5023:"Evolutionary origin and phylogeography of the diploid obligate parthenogen
4760:
3871:
3496:
3465:
3421:
3218:
2739:
Faust, with a phylogenetic synopsis of the Sphaerularioidea Lubbock, 1861".
2669:
1261:, where researchers identified the first documented case of a self-pregnant
1164:
Parthenogenesis in sharks has been confirmed in at least three species, the
761:
were shown to reproduce parthenogenetically. This species is the only known
7777:
7693:
7456:
7419:
7375:
7281:
7222:
7181:
7002:
6980:
6663:
6628:
6543:
6499:
6458:
6398:
6349:
6128:
6014:
5696:
5593:
5516:
5482:
5365:
5196:
5162:
5072:
5007:
4954:
4885:
4830:
4779:
4704:
4592:
4525:
4420:
4288:
4223:
4205:
4106:(Teiidae), with comments on the evolution of parthenogenesis in reptiles".
4053:
3994:
3942:
3924:
3889:
3838:
3751:
3714:
3548:
3505:
3429:
3367:
3351:
3158:
3085:
2961:
2894:
2768:
2688:
2626:
2608:
2564:
2519:
2424:
2248:
2084:
2050:
1828:
1765:
1464:
1373:
1122:
1063:
975:
971:
948:
have been noted to induce automictic thelytoky in many insect species with
898:
879:
819:
730:
706:
204:
20:
7607:
6953:
6655:
6620:
6472:
Versieren, K; Heindryckx, B; Lierman, S; Gerris, J; De Sutter, P. (2010).
6291:
6073:
5108:
3296:
3234:
3002:
415:
is more complicated. In some cases, the offspring are haploid (e.g., male
7792:
7772:
7757:
6423:"Characterization of conserved and nonconserved imprinted genes in swine"
6223:
6205:
5971:"Laboratory synthesis of an independently reproducing vertebrate species"
5646:
5553:. Vol. 2. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 79–120.
5242:
4650:
4629:
1937:
1826:
This form of reproduction is seen in some live-bearing fish of the genus
1734:
1460:
1377:
1219:
1173:
1139:
1100:
1092:
1088:
925:
905:
875:
800:
762:
672:
668:
459:
401:
385:
356:
232:
181:
7448:
5869:
5490:
4696:
2398:
1435:
caused decline of the ranges of both its maternal and paternal species.
380:
The production of female offspring by parthenogenesis is referred to as
7809:
7787:
7617:
7273:
7213:
7196:
6820:
5864:
5752:
4989:
4447:
4129:
3643:
3461:
1929:
1834:
1754:
1365:
1279:
1258:
1204:& Marine Science Center contained no genetic material from a male.
1180:
1165:
1076:
1030:
883:
831:
781:
774:
483:
348:
340:
271:
248:
240:
216:
212:
7026:"Evolutionary genetics and ecology of sperm-dependent parthenogenesis"
6534:
6517:
5688:
5339:
4018:
3743:
2878:
2852:"Mixed-sex offspring produced via cryptic parthenogenesis in a lizard"
2440:
A guide to the recognition of parthenogenesis in incubated turkey eggs
2231:
2212:
1707:
with a significant number of individuals within the human population.
180:, parthenogenesis means development of an embryo from an unfertilized
5921:
5585:
5316:"Switch from sexual to parthenogenetic reproduction in a zebra shark"
3602:
2645:"Viable offspring derived from single unfertilized mammalian oocytes"
2036:
1921:
1759:
1700:
1528:
1482:, however male turkeys produced from parthenogenesis exhibit smaller
1456:
1423:
1410:
1401:
1348:
1319:
1262:
1134:
1016:
984:
959:
944:
909:
871:
811:
600:
381:
208:
7265:
7077:"A genetic mechanism of species replacement in European waterfrogs?"
6635:
6341:
5744:
4821:
4794:
4630:"Genetic Characteristics of Bisexual and Female-Only Populations of
4121:
3572:, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 1–635 (see p. 295).
2589:
Booth, W.; Johnson, D.H.; Moore, S.; Schal, C.; Vargo, E.L. (2010).
1639:
thus permitting the MII-arrested oocyte to proceed through meiosis.
1542:
often results in abnormal development. This is because mammals have
7668:
7590:
6812:
6699:
6605:
5954:
5467:"Discovery of facultative parthenogenesis in a new world crocodile"
5442:
5215:
5031:
4913:
4618:(Vincent H. Resh and R. T. Carde, Eds.) Academic Press. pp. 851–856
3963:
and the predominance of two 'superclones' in Victoria, Australia".
3676:"Parthenogenesis: Birth of a new lineage or reproductive accident?"
2075:
1672:
1548:
1295:
1096:
1085:
1075:
Crustacean reproduction varies both across and within species. The
1006:
917:
913:
777:
758:
735:
664:
551:
352:
339:
Some species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis (such as the
220:
189:
6923:
Vrijenhoek, J.M.; Avise, J.C.; Vrijenhoek, R.C. (1 January 1992).
6420:
4102:
Price, A.H. (1992). "Comparative behavior in lizards of the genus
3570:
The Masterpiece of Nature: The Evolution and Genetics of Sexuality
1470:
Parthenogenesis in turkeys appears to result from a conversion of
7804:
7732:
7727:
7673:
7502:
Schlupp, Ingo (2005). "The Evolutionary Ecology of Gynogenesis".
6641:
4670:"Clonal reproduction by males and females in the little fire ant"
3102:
Mogie, Michael (1986). "Automixis: its distribution and status".
2591:"Evidence for viable, non-clonal but fatherless boa constrictors"
1979:
1475:
1471:
1448:
1001:
955:
921:
795:
739:
714:
710:
667:, and some other invertebrates, as well as in many plants. Among
660:
655:
646:
412:
361:
283:
275:
267:
263:
252:
6471:
4614:
Kirkendall, L. R. & Normark, B. (2003) "Parthenogenesis" in
4375:
Stelzer, C.-P.; Schmidt, J.; Wiedlroither, A.; Riss, S. (2010).
3791:
Stelzer, C.-P.; Schmidt, J.; Wiedlroither, A.; Riss, S. (2010).
1014:
are known to be parthenogenetic, sometimes due to infections by
7762:
7426:
7132:
Inácio, A; Pinho, J; Pereira, PM; Comai, L; Coelho, MM (2012).
5788:
5616:"Self-impregnated snake in Missouri has another 'virgin birth'"
4361:"Bdelloids: No sex for over 40 million years". TheFreeLibrary.
2203:
2201:
2018:
1802:
1795:
1787:
1663:, a geneticist specializing in the reproductive biology of the
1539:
1509:
1483:
1361:
1299:
1058:
804:
592:
588:
569:
527:
279:
177:
165:
4377:"Loss of Sexual Reproduction and Dwarfing in a Small Metazoan"
4374:
3793:"Loss of sexual reproduction and dwarfing in a small metazoan"
3790:
2848:
2826:
931:
In addition to these forms is hermaphroditism, where both the
834:
have been studied, especially with respect to their status as
323:
5086:
Korenko, Stanislav; Šmerda, Jakub & Pekár, Stano (2009).
1749:
1664:
1535:
1315:
1303:
815:
650:
624:
344:
224:
200:
193:
185:
6571:
6569:
5839:
5819:
5158:
5156:
4856:(marbled crayfish) produces genetically uniform offspring".
4469:
Wallace, C. (1992). "arthenogenesis, sex and chromosomes in
3909:"Facultative parthenogenesis discovered in wild vertebrates"
2352:"Scientists discover unknown lizard species at lunch buffet"
2198:
115:
76:
73:
5563:
4792:
4741:
4667:
4627:
4145:
4143:
4141:
4139:
3797:
3323:
2844:
2842:
2272:"Self-love is important, but we mammals are stuck with sex"
2079:
2022:
1524:
458:
cycle. This may also happen by the fusion of the first two
416:
256:
244:
155:
141:
124:
94:
85:
6880:
Simon, J.-C.; Delmotte, F.; Rispe, C.; Crease, T. (2003).
6101:
5975:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA
3854:"Phenotypic of an allele causing obligate parthenogenesis"
2093: – Conceptions and births by miraculous circumstances
1715:
those extracted stem cells, similar to those found in the
91:
7547:(Experientia Supplementum, Vol. 55). Boston: Birkhauser.
6922:
6566:
6325:
5968:
5416:
5313:
5153:
3632:
Zeitschrift für Zellforschung und Mikroskopische Anatomie
3464:; Athanasia C. Tzika; Gordon W. Schuett (December 2011).
2469:
2467:
2465:
2373:
Allen, L.; Sanders, K.L.; Thomson, V.A. (February 2018).
1443:
Parthenogenesis in birds is known mainly from studies of
1187:, was found to have produced a pup, born live in 2001 at
1121:
is a species or series of populations of parthenogenetic
370:
297:
Parthenogenetic offspring in species that use either the
291:
228:
169:
118:
106:
100:
79:
6879:
5020:
4970:"Discovery of four natural clones in a crayfish species
4968:
Yue GH, Wang GL, Zhu BQ, Wang CM, Zhu ZY, Lo LC (2008).
4136:
2979:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–370.
2915:
2839:
2473:
7382:
Futuyma, Douglas J. & Slatkin, Montgomery. (1983).
7131:
6515:
6246:
5725:
Magnusson, W.E. (1979). "Production of an embryo by an
2072:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
649:
species. Parthenogenesis is seen to occur naturally in
7567:
Reproductive behavior in whiptails at Crews Laboratory
5464:
4493:
4301:
3906:
3518:
2588:
2462:
6091:. Berlin, DE: Springer Publications. pp. 99–131.
5088:"Life-history of the parthenogenetic oönopid spider,
4851:
4149:
4019:
Caron, V.; Norgate, M.; Ede, F.J.; Nyman, T. (2013).
3673:
3395:
2306:"Female Sharks Can Reproduce Alone, Researchers Find"
1547:
abnormalities. It has been suggested that defects in
874:, e.g., aphids and some hymenopterans) or only male (
439:
The effects of central fusion and terminal fusion on
121:
109:
103:
97:
82:
67:
7504:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
6027:
5765:
5670:
5647:"Observations of parthenogenesis in monitor lizards"
5132:
2032:
1508:
reported successfully inducing parthenogenesis in a
1391:
Parthenogenesis has been studied extensively in the
70:
7588:"'Virgin births' for giant lizards (Komodo dragon)"
7023:
6933:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
3627:"Der Chromosomenzyklus von Tetraneura ulmi de Geer"
3591:
Journal of the North American Benthological Society
2974:
2918:"Facultative Parthenogenesis in California Condors"
2476:"Facultative parthenogenesis in California condors"
2372:
1583:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
147:
133:
88:
7596:Reuther: Komodo dragon proud mum (and dad) of five
7522:
7075:Vorburger, Christoph; Reyer, Heinz-Ulrich (2003).
6311:. New York, NY: The Macmillan Company – via
5085:
3625:
3588:
3015:
2850:
2703:
1551:folding or interdigitation are one cause of swine
1463:, although the dividing cells exhibited irregular
1290:, rarely reproduces offspring via parthenogenesis.
518:and the type of apomixis. In species that use the
7486:Michod, Richard E. & Levin, Bruce R. (1988).
7397:
7324:Dawley, Robert M. & Bogart, James P. (1989).
4499:
3396:Pearcy, M.; Aron, S; Doums, C; Keller, L (2004).
2820:
2169:
199:Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some plants,
7850:
6416:
6414:
6412:
6410:
6408:
6086:
5544:
5542:
4250:
4235:
4233:
2638:
2636:
1794:exclude one of parental genomes (A) and produce
1739:Parthenogenesis in amphibians § Gynogenesis
294:takes place during meiosis, creating variation.
6034:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5438:"Crocodile found to have made herself pregnant"
4663:
4661:
4540:
2008:
1091:, some crayfish reproduce by parthenogenesis. "
7326:Evolution and Ecology of Unisexual Vertebrates
7243:
7074:
7017:
6736:
6732:
6730:
6728:
6726:
6724:
6722:
6720:
6718:
5079:
4967:
4245:Evolution and Ecology of Unisexual Vertebrates
4181:
4179:
3786:
3784:
3200:
3198:
1133:At least two species of spiders in the family
7633:
6925:"An Ancient clonal lineage in the fish genus
6835:
6790:
6788:
6405:
6364:
6319:
6261:
6028:Crews, D.; Grassman, M.; Lindzey, J. (1986).
5548:
5539:
5014:
4230:
3669:
3667:
3665:
3663:
3661:
3391:
3389:
3387:
3385:
3190:https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-14636-7_5
2633:
1257:In June 2023, discovery was made at a zoo in
7237:
7194:
7068:
6916:
6849:. In Knobil, Ernst; Neill, Jimmy D. (eds.).
6370:
6181:
6179:
5297:"First virgin birth of zebra shark in Dubai"
4978:International Journal of Biological Sciences
4658:
4014:
4012:
3954:
3952:
3845:
3455:
3453:
3451:
3449:
3447:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3122:
3049:
3009:
2325:Halliday, Tim R. (1986). Kraig Adler (ed.).
1782:Hybridogenesis is a mode of reproduction of
1519:used parthenogenesis successfully to create
701:Parthenogenesis is distinct from artificial
188:, parthenogenesis is a component process of
50:(right), which naturally hybridized to form
6715:
5528:
5526:
5128:
5126:
4610:
4608:
4606:
4604:
4602:
4176:
3781:
3772:
3195:
2642:
2263:
550:exhibiting facultative parthenogenesis are
408:of their mother. Examples include aphids.
160:, 'creation') is a natural form of
7640:
7626:
7294:
7024:Beukeboom, L.W.; Vrijenhoek, R.C. (1998).
6841:
6785:
4256:
3674:van der Kooi, C.J.; Schwander, T. (2015).
3658:
3382:
2320:
2318:
2182:. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press – via
16:Asexual reproduction without fertilization
7545:The Evolution of Sex and Its Consequences
7475:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7365:
7212:
7188:
7171:
7161:
7043:
6970:
6952:
6900:
6889:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
6533:
6489:
6448:
6388:
6213:
6176:
6167:
6156:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
6063:
6053:
6004:
5994:
5909:
5890:
5860:"Virgin births discovered in wild snakes"
5795:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
5724:
5718:
5644:
5638:
5557:
5506:
5355:
5107:
5062:
5052:
4997:
4944:
4934:
4900:
4820:
4795:"Parthenogenesis in an outsider crayfish"
4769:
4759:
4725:CJ van der Kooi & T Schwander (2014)
4649:
4582:
4572:
4462:
4410:
4400:
4337:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
4213:
4095:
4009:
3958:
3949:
3932:
3900:
3879:
3828:
3818:
3775:Cytology and Evolution in Parthenogenesis
3704:
3538:
3512:
3495:
3485:
3444:
3341:
3310:
3286:
3249:
3173:
3104:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
3075:
3016:Gavrilov, I.A.; Kuznetsova, V.G. (2007).
2951:
2783:
2678:
2668:
2616:
2554:
2509:
2442:(Report). Department of Animal Sciences.
2414:
2230:
1786:. Hybridogenetic hybrids (for example AB
1611:Learn how and when to remove this message
1595:, without removing the technical details.
1451:, although it has also been noted in the
1000:, where workers are capable of producing
32:The asexual, all-female whiptail species
7647:
7577:Parthenogenesis in Incubated Turkey Eggs
7516:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152629
7490:. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates.
7386:. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates.
7339:
7125:
6873:
6855:. Vol. 3. Academic Press. pp.
6511:
6509:
6267:
6185:
5833:
5782:
5709:
5523:
5406:
5123:
4599:
4328:
3851:
3623:
3128:
3097:
3095:
2643:Wei Y, Yang CR, Zhao ZA (7 March 2022).
2584:
2582:
2324:
1915:
1886:(Italian edible frog) – unknown origin:
1625:
1278:
954:
434:
322:
262:Normal egg cells form in the process of
27:
7501:
6987:
6794:
6522:Journal of Reproduction and Development
5813:
4468:
4433:
3727:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3204:
2438:Savage, Thomas F. (11 February 2008) .
2315:
2270:Preston, Elizabeth (13 February 2024).
2269:
2078:and a pioneer of parthenogenesis among
1816:, unrecombined, intact (B), other half
505:
419:). In other cases, collectively called
391:
7851:
7195:Saitoh, K; Kim, I-S; Lee, E-H (2004).
6799:(Poeciliidae) and other vertebrates".
6304:
6236:
5947:
5759:
5664:
5378:
3852:Scheuerl, Thomas; et al. (2011).
2437:
2349:
1838:spp. ("green frogs" or "waterfrogs"):
1768:is known to reproduce by gynogenesis.
1631:Induction of parthenogenesis in swine.
474:in their mechanism and consequences.
369:, a process associated with repair of
164:in which growth and development of an
7621:
7608:Female sharks capable of virgin birth
6506:
6284:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a108530
5891:Highfield, Roger (21 December 2006).
5265:"Shark gives virgin birth in Detroit"
5231:
4101:
4074:
3773:Suomalainen, E.; et al. (1987).
3101:
3092:
2789:
2701:
2579:
2284:from the original on 13 February 2024
1968:× hypothetical ancestor related with
1593:make it understandable to non-experts
1326:, and snakes. Some of these like the
966:Among species with the haplo-diploid
640:
312:
7800:Males, Females & Hermaphrodites:
7297:Virgin Mother Goddesses of Antiquity
6844:"Parthenogenesis and Natural Clones"
6373:"Longevity in mice without a father"
5379:Hewson, Georgie (14 February 2024).
4334:
4188:"Virgin birth in a hammerhead shark"
3555:
2829:Sessio Conjunta DEntomologia ICHNSCL
2556:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.05.027
2170:Liddell; Scott; Jones, eds. (1940).
2147:. English definition. Archived from
1723:
1567:
757:have been found, and specimens from
7045:10.1046/j.1420-9101.1998.11060755.x
6590:"The boy whose blood has no father"
5868:. 12 September 2012. Archived from
5710:Shepherd, Kyle (18 December 2014).
5386:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
5372:
5239:"'Virgin birth' for aquarium shark"
2070: – Polish apiarist (1811–1906)
830:Several species of parthenogenetic
13:
7317:
6695:"No sex for all-girl fish species"
5211:"Captive shark had 'virgin birth'"
4349:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1988.tb01362.x
4033:Bulletin of Entomological Research
3116:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1986.tb01761.x
2350:Walker, Brian (11 November 2010).
793:At least two species in the genus
765:to reproduce via parthenogenesis.
645:Parthenogenesis does not apply to
14:
7875:
7560:
7525:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
7328:. Albany: New York State Museum.
6559:, 28 November 1955; Editorial in
5950:"Snake has unique 'virgin birth'"
5925:. 25 January 2007. Archived from
2977:Molecular Genetics of Development
1771:
882:). Both true parthenogenesis and
728:Apomixis can apparently occur in
7299:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
7288:
6902:10.1046/j.1095-8312.2003.00175.x
6687:
6670:
6599:
6582:
6550:
6465:
6298:
6230:
6169:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01498.x
6143:
5948:Walker, Matt (3 November 2010).
5807:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01954.x
5273:. September 2002. Archived from
5189:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.03110.x
5147:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2008.02018.x
4518:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2004.00791.x
4322:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2009.02059.x
4170:10.1111/j.1474-919x.2007.00755.x
3987:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01998.x
2035:
1572:
633:, which is sexual in its native
530:). ZW offspring are produced by
63:
7859:Asexual reproduction in animals
7295:Rigoglioso, Marguerite (2010).
7031:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
6995:"Hybridogenesis in water frogs"
6371:Kawahara, M.; Kono, T. (2009).
6095:
6080:
6021:
5962:
5941:
5884:
5852:
5703:
5608:
5458:
5430:
5400:
5307:
5289:
5257:
5203:
4961:
4845:
4786:
4735:
4719:
4621:
4506:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
4427:
4368:
4355:
4295:
4068:
3766:
3721:
3617:
3582:
2968:
2909:
2724:
2695:
2526:
2431:
2218:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2190:, Medford & Somerville, MA.
1517:Tokyo University of Agriculture
1388:offspring with WW chromosomes.
1193:
892:sperm-dependent parthenogenesis
746:
627:species and the willow sawfly,
6929:(Atheriniformes: Poeciliidae)"
6842:Vrijenhoek, Robert C. (1998).
5893:"No sex please, we're lizards"
5823:Herpetological Natural History
5772:Herpetological Natural History
5407:Chappell, Bill (4 June 2024).
5096:European Journal of Entomology
2366:
2343:
2329:. Torstar Books. p. 101.
2299:
2163:
2130:
2123:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
2110:
1959:Tropidophoxinellus alburnoides
1728:
1070:
1036:In Central and South American
544:
319:Origin and function of meiosis
1:
7785:Females & Hermaphrodites:
7572:Types of asexual reproduction
7537:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02331-X
7471:Maynard Smith, John. (1978).
6441:10.1095/biolreprod.109.078139
2985:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7
2103:
1778:Hybridogenesis in water frogs
1515:In April 2004, scientists at
1252:
1248:Parthenogenesis in amphibians
1241:
430:
7743:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
7579:from Oregon State University
7543:Stearns, Stephan C. (1988).
7163:10.1371/journal.pone.0041158
6852:Encyclopedia of Reproduction
6239:"Parthenogenesis in turkeys"
5551:Advances in Zoology Research
5054:10.1371/journal.pone.0011932
4936:10.1371/journal.pone.0020281
4574:10.1371/journal.pone.0024337
4475:Journal of Molluscan Studies
4402:10.1371/journal.pone.0012854
4075:Smith, John Maynard (1978).
3820:10.1371/journal.pone.0012854
3777:. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
2706:Concise encyclopedia biology
2009:Parthenogenesis in mythology
1467:and the eggs did not hatch.
1459:was demonstrated in captive
1099:that were discovered in the
1061:. In the grass thrips genus
974:(ants, bees, and wasps) and
788:
723:
156:
142:
7:
7770:Males & Hermaphrodites:
6193:Journal of Medical Genetics
5729:isolated for seven years".
5673:Epicrates cenchria cenchria
4281:10.1126/science.76.1983.628
4081:. CUP Archive. p. 42.
3131:Russian Journal of Genetics
3068:10.1534/genetics.116.196873
2028:
1790:), usually females, during
1534:Induced parthenogenesis in
1275:Parthenogenesis in squamata
1268:
1209:white-spotted bamboo sharks
1199:In the same year, a female
838:. Such species include the
768:
606:
524:ZW sex-determination system
520:XY sex-determination system
307:ZW sex-determination system
10:
7880:
7738:Sequential hermaphroditism
7001:. Note 579. Archived from
6491:10.1016/j.rbmo.2010.07.001
5624:United Press International
5027:(Branchiopoda: Anostraca)"
4365:. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
3624:Schwartz, Hermann (1932).
3050:Engelstädter, Jan (2017).
2379:Royal Society Open Science
2021:was born from the head of
1832:as well as in some of the
1775:
1732:
1563:
1496:
1272:
1245:
1194:automictic parthenogenesis
1176:, and reported in others.
1128:
865:
675:was described in the fish
421:automictic parthenogenesis
411:Parthenogenesis involving
316:
207:animal species (including
148:
134:
18:
7829:
7822:
7720:
7711:
7664:
7655:
7412:10.1016/j.tig.2007.07.003
7346:Journal of Medical Ethics
7252:(Insecta, Phasmatodea)".
6763:10.1007/s10530-009-9427-2
6241:. The Tremendous Turkey.
5917:"Virgin birth of dragons"
4878:10.1007/s00114-007-0260-0
4634:(Hymenoptera: Figitidae)"
4046:10.1017/S0007485312000429
3706:10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.055
3540:10.1017/S0016672302005657
3279:10.1093/genetics/79.3.513
3143:10.1007/s11177-005-0103-z
2806:10.1080/11250008409439455
2733:Elaeolenchus parthenonema
2327:Reptiles & Amphibians
2003:Bacillus grandii benazzii
1646:
1346:, Caucasian rock lizards
1159:
825:
398:apomictic parthenogenesis
35:Aspidoscelis neomexicanus
6305:Pincus, Gregory (2018).
5025:Artemia parthenogenetica
4616:Encyclopaedia of Insects
3326:Python molars bivittatus
3025:Comparative Cytogenetics
1920:Example crosses between
1438:
1335:Indo-Pacific house gecko
1118:Artemia parthenogenetica
968:sex-determination system
942:Parasitic bacteria like
844:Potamopyrgus antipodarum
558:and the tropical lizard
516:sex determination system
19:Not to be confused with
7358:10.1136/jme.2004.010199
7096:10.1023/A:1023346824722
6801:The American Naturalist
6428:Biology of Reproduction
6271:The Journal of Heredity
6243:oardc.ohio-state.edu/4h
6121:10.1023/A:1018392603062
6055:10.1073/pnas.83.24.9547
5996:10.1073/pnas.1102811108
5169:Journal of Fish Biology
5135:Journal of Fish Biology
4761:10.1186/1471-2164-8-464
3422:10.1126/science.1105453
3219:10.1002/jmor.1051330203
2753:10.1023/A:1015741820235
2741:Systematic Parasitology
2737:Elaeidobius kamerunicus
2670:10.1073/pnas.2115248119
2444:Oregon State University
2180:A Greek-English Lexicon
2057:Telescoping generations
1657:various other religions
1486:and reduced fertility.
1340:, the hybrid whiptails
1331:Lepidodactylus lugubris
1225:
1201:Atlantic blacktip shark
997:Apis mellifera capensis
168:occur directly from an
7699:Vegetative propagation
7148:(7: e41158): 359–368.
6644:Cloning and Stem Cells
6609:Cloning and Stem Cells
5712:"A virgin snake birth"
5645:Wiechmann, R. (2012).
5483:10.1098/rsbl.2023.0129
4632:Odontosema anastrephae
4502:Melanoides tuberculata
4487:10.1093/mollus/58.2.93
4206:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0189
3925:10.1098/rsbl.2012.0666
3352:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800210
2936:10.1093/jhered/esab052
2702:Scott, Thomas (1996).
2609:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0793
2494:10.1093/jhered/esab052
2144:OxfordDictionaries.com
1949:
1867:(Graf's hybrid frog):
1635:
1506:Gregory Goodwin Pincus
1417:reproductive success.
1291:
1095:" are parthenogenetic
1042:Wasmannia auropunctata
963:
852:Melanoides tuberculata
574:non-random segregation
443:
336:
55:
7084:Conservation Genetics
6954:10.1073/pnas.89.1.348
6739:Pelophylax esculentus
6656:10.1089/clo.2007.0063
6621:10.1089/clo.2007.0033
6390:10.1093/humrep/dep400
6251:Ohio State University
6237:Nestor, Karl (2009).
6186:Mittwoch, U. (1978).
5727:Acrochordus javanicus
5109:10.14411/eje.2009.028
5092:(Araneae: Oonopidae)"
3872:10.1093/jhered/esr036
3497:10.1093/jhered/esr080
3207:Journal of Morphology
3186:Biology of Earthworms
2793:Bolletino di Zoologia
2710:. Walter de Gruyter.
2312:, 23 May 2007; p. A02
1936:) and their hybrid –
1919:
1629:
1358:Indotyphlops braminus
1338:Hemidactylus garnotii
1294:Most reptiles of the
1282:
958:
840:New Zealand mud snail
754:Epiperipatus imthurni
464:restitutional meiosis
438:
326:
317:Further information:
146:, 'virgin' +
31:
7755:Males & Females:
7649:Reproductive systems
7488:The Evolution of Sex
7473:The Evolution of Sex
7340:Fangerau, H (2005).
7136:Squalius alburnoides
6743:Biological Invasions
6329:Nature Biotechnology
6206:10.1136/jmg.15.3.165
5872:on 13 September 2012
5791:Thamnophis marcianus
5768:Acrochordus arafurae
5536:. Nauka: Leningrad .
5277:on 29 September 2002
5165:Stegostoma fasciatum
4651:10.1653/024.093.0318
4638:Florida Entomologist
4304:Phytophthora capsici
4078:The Evolution of Sex
2151:on 12 September 2012
1971:Anaecypris hispanica
1669:Lebistes reticulatus
1653:in Christianity
1557:embryonic stem cells
1445:domesticated turkeys
803:sub-division of the
696:asexual reproduction
506:Sex of the offspring
392:Types and mechanisms
270:, with half as many
162:asexual reproduction
52:A. neomexicanus
7449:10.1038/nature02402
7441:2004Natur.428..860K
7154:2012PLoSO...741158I
6945:1992PNAS...89..348Q
6755:2010BiInv..12....1H
6308:The Eggs of Mammals
6046:1986PNAS...83.9547C
5987:2011PNAS..108.9910L
5905:on 11 October 2007.
5898:The Daily Telegraph
5626:. 21 September 2015
5578:2006Natur.444.1021W
5572:(7122): 1021–1022.
5332:2017NatSR...740537D
5303:. 12 December 2011.
5270:National Geographic
5181:2011JFBio..79.1376R
5045:2010PLoSO...511932M
4972:Procambarus clarkii
4927:2011PLoSO...620281B
4870:2007NW.....94..843M
4858:Naturwissenschaften
4813:2003Natur.421..806S
4697:10.1038/nature03705
4689:2005Natur.435.1230F
4683:(7046): 1230–1234.
4565:2011PLoSO...624337M
4393:2010PLoSO...512854S
4273:1932Sci....76..628H
4152:Taeniopygia guttata
4023:Nematus oligospilus
3979:2003MolEc..12.3493V
3859:Journal of Heredity
3811:2010PLoSO...512854S
3697:2015CBio...25.R659V
3474:Journal of Heredity
3414:2004Sci...306.1780P
3408:(5702): 1780–1783.
2923:Journal of Heredity
2871:2020MolEc..29.4118K
2661:2022PNAS..11915248W
2655:(12): e2115248119.
2481:Journal of Heredity
2399:10.1098/rsos.171901
2391:2018RSOS....571901A
2310:The Washington Post
1965:Squalius pyrenaicus
1926:Pelophylax lessonae
1393:New Mexico whiptail
1354:brahminy blindsnake
1288:Varanus komodoensis
1213:Belle Isle Aquarium
1112:Procambarus clarkii
799:, flatworms in the
630:Nematus oligospilus
580:'X' and 'O' during
561:Lepidophyma smithii
333:Varanus komodoensis
227:, some mites, some
172:, without need for
7601:9 May 2021 at the
7400:Trends in Genetics
7214:10.2108/zsj.21.795
7201:Zoological Science
6579:106 (2017): 57–60.
6577:Medical Hypotheses
6377:Human Reproduction
5320:Scientific Reports
5090:Triaeris stenaspis
4990:10.7150/ijbs.4.279
4448:10.1007/BF00331894
3731:Sexual Development
3644:10.1007/BF00585855
2537:Coturnix chinensis
2277:The New York Times
2142:Oxford Dictionary
2126:. Merriam-Webster.
2043:Crustaceans portal
1950:
1820:, recombined (A).
1636:
1560:control regions".
1521:a fatherless mouse
1480:selective breeding
1308:reproduce sexually
1292:
1235:(Urobatis halleri)
1183:, a type of small
1149:Triaeris stenaspis
1137:(goblin spiders),
1106:Orconectes limosus
1026:Cataglyphis cursor
964:
848:red-rimmed melania
641:Natural occurrence
556:California condors
472:self-fertilization
444:
427:of their mother.
367:sister chromosomes
337:
313:Life history types
56:
7846:
7845:
7842:
7841:
7818:
7817:
7707:
7706:
7435:(6985): 860–864.
7306:978-0-230-61886-2
6866:978-0-12-227020-8
6676:Williams, Chris.
6535:10.1262/jrd.20064
6188:"Parthenogenesis"
6040:(24): 9547–9550.
5981:(24): 9910–9915.
5929:on 1 October 2007
5689:10.1002/zoo.21050
5340:10.1038/srep40537
5245:. 10 October 2008
4267:(1983): 628–630.
4088:978-0-521-21887-0
3973:(12): 3493–3504.
3966:Molecular Ecology
3744:10.1159/000195678
3691:(15): R659–R661.
3578:978-0-520-04583-5
3568:Bell, G. (1982).
3526:Genetics Research
2994:978-0-12-017624-3
2879:10.1111/mec.15617
2865:(21): 4118–4127.
2858:Molecular Ecology
2717:978-3-11-010661-9
2336:978-0-920269-81-7
2232:10.1111/jeb.13880
2138:"parthenogenesis"
2118:"parthenogenesis"
2091:Miraculous births
1901:P. kl. esculentus
1883:P. kl. hispanicus
1844:P. kl. esculentus
1724:Similar phenomena
1680:white blood cells
1659:. More recently,
1621:
1620:
1613:
1491:California condor
1211:were born at the
1154:T. stenaspis
962:on a plum blossom
860:Tarebia granifera
496:sister chromatids
341:bdelloid rotifers
132:; from the Greek
41:A. inornatus
7871:
7827:
7826:
7718:
7717:
7662:
7661:
7642:
7635:
7628:
7619:
7618:
7540:
7519:
7468:
7423:
7379:
7369:
7311:
7310:
7292:
7286:
7285:
7250:Grandii benazzii
7246:Bacillus rossius
7241:
7235:
7234:
7216:
7192:
7186:
7185:
7175:
7165:
7129:
7123:
7122:
7120:
7118:
7081:
7072:
7066:
7065:
7047:
7021:
7015:
7014:
7012:
7010:
6991:
6985:
6984:
6974:
6956:
6920:
6914:
6913:
6911:
6909:
6904:
6886:
6877:
6871:
6870:
6848:
6839:
6833:
6832:
6807:(934): 605–619.
6792:
6783:
6782:
6734:
6713:
6712:
6710:
6708:
6691:
6685:
6684:, 3 August 2007.
6674:
6668:
6667:
6639:
6633:
6632:
6603:
6597:
6586:
6580:
6573:
6564:
6554:
6548:
6547:
6537:
6513:
6504:
6503:
6493:
6469:
6463:
6462:
6452:
6418:
6403:
6402:
6392:
6368:
6362:
6361:
6336:(9): 1045–1050.
6323:
6317:
6316:
6313:Internet Archive
6302:
6296:
6295:
6265:
6259:
6258:
6257:on 14 July 2010.
6253:. Archived from
6234:
6228:
6227:
6217:
6183:
6174:
6173:
6171:
6147:
6141:
6140:
6099:
6093:
6092:
6084:
6078:
6077:
6067:
6057:
6025:
6019:
6018:
6008:
5998:
5966:
5960:
5959:
5945:
5939:
5938:
5936:
5934:
5913:
5907:
5906:
5901:. Archived from
5888:
5882:
5881:
5879:
5877:
5856:
5850:
5849:
5837:
5831:
5830:
5817:
5811:
5810:
5786:
5780:
5779:
5763:
5757:
5756:
5722:
5716:
5715:
5714:(Press release).
5707:
5701:
5700:
5668:
5662:
5661:
5651:
5642:
5636:
5635:
5633:
5631:
5612:
5606:
5605:
5586:10.1038/4441021a
5561:
5555:
5554:
5546:
5537:
5530:
5521:
5520:
5510:
5462:
5456:
5455:
5453:
5451:
5434:
5428:
5427:
5425:
5423:
5404:
5398:
5397:
5395:
5393:
5376:
5370:
5369:
5359:
5311:
5305:
5304:
5293:
5287:
5286:
5284:
5282:
5261:
5255:
5254:
5252:
5250:
5235:
5229:
5228:
5226:
5224:
5207:
5201:
5200:
5175:(5): 1376–1382.
5160:
5151:
5150:
5141:(6): 1473–1477.
5130:
5121:
5120:
5118:
5116:
5111:
5083:
5077:
5076:
5066:
5056:
5018:
5012:
5011:
5001:
4965:
4959:
4958:
4948:
4938:
4904:
4898:
4897:
4849:
4843:
4842:
4824:
4790:
4784:
4783:
4773:
4763:
4739:
4733:
4723:
4717:
4716:
4674:
4665:
4656:
4655:
4653:
4625:
4619:
4612:
4597:
4596:
4586:
4576:
4544:
4538:
4537:
4497:
4491:
4490:
4466:
4460:
4459:
4431:
4425:
4424:
4414:
4404:
4372:
4366:
4359:
4353:
4352:
4332:
4326:
4325:
4299:
4293:
4292:
4254:
4248:
4237:
4228:
4227:
4217:
4183:
4174:
4173:
4147:
4134:
4133:
4099:
4093:
4092:
4072:
4066:
4065:
4029:
4016:
4007:
4006:
3956:
3947:
3946:
3936:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3893:
3883:
3849:
3843:
3842:
3832:
3822:
3788:
3779:
3778:
3770:
3764:
3763:
3725:
3719:
3718:
3708:
3680:
3671:
3656:
3655:
3629:
3621:
3615:
3614:
3603:10.1899/10-015.1
3597:(4): 1258–1266.
3586:
3580:
3566:
3553:
3552:
3542:
3516:
3510:
3509:
3499:
3489:
3468:Epicrates maurus
3457:
3442:
3441:
3393:
3380:
3379:
3345:
3321:
3308:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3290:
3258:
3247:
3246:
3202:
3193:
3182:
3171:
3170:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3099:
3090:
3089:
3079:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3022:
3013:
3007:
3006:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2955:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2854:
2846:
2837:
2836:
2824:
2818:
2817:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2709:
2699:
2693:
2692:
2682:
2672:
2640:
2631:
2630:
2620:
2586:
2577:
2576:
2558:
2530:
2524:
2523:
2513:
2471:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2446:. Archived from
2435:
2429:
2428:
2418:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2322:
2313:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2291:
2289:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2234:
2205:
2196:
2191:
2175:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2114:
2073:
2045:
2040:
2039:
1616:
1609:
1605:
1602:
1596:
1576:
1575:
1568:
1189:Henry Doorly Zoo
1185:hammerhead shark
836:invasive species
678:Poecilia formosa
621:invasive species
578:sex chromosomess
159:
153:
152:
151:
145:
139:
138:
137:
131:
130:
127:
126:
123:
120:
117:
112:
111:
108:
105:
102:
99:
96:
93:
90:
87:
84:
81:
78:
75:
72:
69:
7879:
7878:
7874:
7873:
7872:
7870:
7869:
7868:
7849:
7848:
7847:
7838:
7814:
7725:Hermaphrodites:
7703:
7689:Parthenogenesis
7651:
7646:
7603:Wayback Machine
7563:
7558:
7352:(12): 733–735.
7320:
7318:Further reading
7315:
7314:
7307:
7293:
7289:
7266:10.2307/2409646
7242:
7238:
7193:
7189:
7130:
7126:
7116:
7114:
7079:
7073:
7069:
7022:
7018:
7008:
7006:
7005:on 14 July 2014
6993:
6992:
6988:
6921:
6917:
6907:
6905:
6884:
6878:
6874:
6867:
6846:
6840:
6836:
6793:
6786:
6735:
6716:
6706:
6704:
6703:. 23 April 2008
6693:
6692:
6688:
6675:
6671:
6640:
6636:
6604:
6600:
6587:
6583:
6574:
6567:
6563:, 2: 967 (1955)
6555:
6551:
6514:
6507:
6470:
6466:
6419:
6406:
6369:
6365:
6342:10.1038/nbt1331
6324:
6320:
6303:
6299:
6266:
6262:
6235:
6231:
6184:
6177:
6148:
6144:
6100:
6096:
6085:
6081:
6026:
6022:
5967:
5963:
5946:
5942:
5932:
5930:
5915:
5914:
5910:
5889:
5885:
5875:
5873:
5858:
5857:
5853:
5838:
5834:
5818:
5814:
5787:
5783:
5764:
5760:
5745:10.2307/1443886
5723:
5719:
5708:
5704:
5669:
5665:
5649:
5643:
5639:
5629:
5627:
5614:
5613:
5609:
5562:
5558:
5547:
5540:
5531:
5524:
5471:Biology Letters
5463:
5459:
5449:
5447:
5436:
5435:
5431:
5421:
5419:
5405:
5401:
5391:
5389:
5377:
5373:
5312:
5308:
5295:
5294:
5290:
5280:
5278:
5263:
5262:
5258:
5248:
5246:
5237:
5236:
5232:
5222:
5220:
5209:
5208:
5204:
5161:
5154:
5131:
5124:
5114:
5112:
5084:
5080:
5019:
5015:
4966:
4962:
4905:
4901:
4864:(10): 843–846.
4850:
4846:
4822:10.1038/421806a
4791:
4787:
4740:
4736:
4724:
4720:
4672:
4666:
4659:
4626:
4622:
4613:
4600:
4545:
4541:
4498:
4494:
4467:
4463:
4432:
4428:
4373:
4369:
4360:
4356:
4333:
4329:
4309:Plant Pathology
4300:
4296:
4255:
4251:
4238:
4231:
4193:Biology Letters
4184:
4177:
4148:
4137:
4122:10.2307/1446193
4100:
4096:
4089:
4073:
4069:
4027:
4017:
4010:
3957:
3950:
3913:Biology Letters
3905:
3901:
3896:23 October 2012
3895:
3850:
3846:
3789:
3782:
3771:
3767:
3726:
3722:
3684:Current Biology
3678:
3672:
3659:
3622:
3618:
3587:
3583:
3567:
3556:
3517:
3513:
3458:
3445:
3394:
3383:
3343:10.1.1.578.4368
3322:
3311:
3301:
3299:
3259:
3250:
3203:
3196:
3183:
3174:
3127:
3123:
3100:
3093:
3062:(2): 993–1009.
3048:
3044:
3020:
3014:
3010:
2995:
2973:
2969:
2914:
2910:
2847:
2840:
2835:(1999): 87–107.
2825:
2821:
2788:
2784:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2700:
2696:
2641:
2634:
2596:Biology Letters
2587:
2580:
2531:
2527:
2472:
2463:
2453:
2451:
2450:on 16 July 2012
2436:
2432:
2371:
2367:
2357:
2355:
2348:
2344:
2337:
2323:
2316:
2304:
2300:
2287:
2285:
2268:
2264:
2225:(7): 992–1009.
2206:
2199:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2154:
2152:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2071:
2041:
2034:
2031:
2017:; for example,
2011:
1977:spined loaches
1956:Iberian minnow
1907:and perhaps in
1847:(edible frog):
1780:
1774:
1741:
1731:
1726:
1649:
1617:
1606:
1600:
1597:
1589:help improve it
1586:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1499:
1453:domestic pigeon
1441:
1433:Lesser Caucasus
1277:
1271:
1255:
1250:
1244:
1228:
1162:
1131:
1073:
1054:Pemphigus betae
1012:parasitic wasps
939:scale insects.
868:
856:Quilted melania
828:
808:Platyhelminthes
791:
771:
749:
726:
692:blacktip sharks
643:
609:
582:spermatogenesis
547:
532:endoreplication
508:
492:terminal fusion
433:
394:
321:
315:
237:parasitic wasps
149:
135:
114:
66:
62:
59:Parthenogenesis
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7877:
7867:
7866:
7861:
7844:
7843:
7840:
7839:
7837:
7836:
7830:
7824:
7820:
7819:
7816:
7815:
7813:
7812:
7807:
7802:
7796:
7795:
7790:
7781:
7780:
7775:
7766:
7765:
7760:
7751:
7750:
7745:
7740:
7735:
7730:
7721:
7715:
7709:
7708:
7705:
7704:
7702:
7701:
7696:
7691:
7686:
7681:
7676:
7671:
7665:
7659:
7653:
7652:
7645:
7644:
7637:
7630:
7622:
7616:
7615:
7610:
7605:
7593:
7585:
7580:
7574:
7569:
7562:
7561:External links
7559:
7557:
7556:
7541:
7520:
7499:
7484:
7469:
7424:
7406:(9): 440–448.
7395:
7380:
7337:
7321:
7319:
7316:
7313:
7312:
7305:
7287:
7260:(3): 783–796.
7236:
7207:(7): 795–798.
7187:
7124:
7090:(2): 141–155.
7067:
7038:(6): 755–782.
7016:
6986:
6939:(1): 348–352.
6915:
6872:
6865:
6834:
6813:10.1086/282629
6784:
6714:
6686:
6669:
6634:
6615:(3): 432–449.
6598:
6588:Philip Cohen,
6581:
6565:
6549:
6528:(5): 364–369.
6505:
6484:(6): 769–775.
6464:
6435:(5): 906–920.
6404:
6383:(2): 457–461.
6363:
6318:
6297:
6278:(5): 287–290.
6260:
6229:
6200:(3): 165–181.
6175:
6162:(2): 447–460.
6142:
6115:(2): 125–130.
6094:
6079:
6020:
5961:
5940:
5908:
5883:
5851:
5832:
5812:
5801:(3): 566–572.
5781:
5758:
5739:(4): 744–745.
5717:
5702:
5683:(2): 172–176.
5663:
5637:
5607:
5556:
5538:
5534:Archaeolacerta
5522:
5457:
5429:
5399:
5371:
5306:
5288:
5256:
5230:
5202:
5152:
5122:
5102:(2): 217–223.
5078:
5013:
4984:(5): 279–282.
4960:
4899:
4844:
4785:
4734:
4718:
4657:
4644:(3): 437–443.
4620:
4598:
4539:
4512:(1): 138–146.
4492:
4461:
4426:
4367:
4354:
4343:(3): 225–257.
4327:
4316:(4): 715–722.
4294:
4249:
4229:
4200:(4): 425–427.
4175:
4164:(1): 197–199.
4135:
4116:(2): 323–331.
4094:
4087:
4067:
4008:
3961:Myzus persicae
3948:
3919:(6): 983–985.
3899:
3866:(4): 409–415.
3844:
3780:
3765:
3738:(6): 290–301.
3720:
3657:
3638:(4): 645–687.
3616:
3581:
3554:
3533:(3): 203–209.
3511:
3487:10.1.1.414.384
3480:(6): 759–763.
3443:
3381:
3336:(2): 130–135.
3309:
3273:(3): 513–525.
3248:
3213:(2): 139–165.
3194:
3172:
3137:(4): 402–411.
3121:
3110:(3): 321–329.
3091:
3042:
3031:(2): 169–174.
3008:
2993:
2967:
2930:(7): 569–574.
2908:
2838:
2819:
2782:
2747:(3): 219–225.
2723:
2716:
2694:
2632:
2603:(2): 253–256.
2578:
2543:Theriogenology
2525:
2488:(7): 569–574.
2461:
2430:
2365:
2342:
2335:
2314:
2298:
2262:
2209:Heesch, Svenja
2197:
2162:
2129:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2065:
2062:Charles Bonnet
2059:
2054:
2047:
2046:
2030:
2027:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2005:
1995:stick insects
1988:
1986:C. longicorpus
1975:
1905:
1904:
1879:
1860:
1773:
1772:Hybridogenesis
1770:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1648:
1645:
1619:
1618:
1580:
1578:
1571:
1565:
1562:
1498:
1495:
1440:
1437:
1328:mourning gecko
1324:Komodo dragons
1273:Main article:
1270:
1267:
1254:
1251:
1246:Main article:
1243:
1240:
1232:round stingray
1227:
1224:
1170:blacktip shark
1161:
1158:
1130:
1127:
1072:
1069:
976:thysanopterans
867:
864:
827:
824:
790:
787:
770:
767:
748:
745:
725:
722:
703:animal cloning
642:
639:
608:
605:
597:Komodo dragons
546:
543:
507:
504:
479:central fusion
441:heterozygosity
432:
429:
393:
390:
314:
311:
243:(such as some
47:A. tigris
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7876:
7865:
7862:
7860:
7857:
7856:
7854:
7835:
7832:
7831:
7828:
7825:
7821:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7798:
7797:
7794:
7791:
7789:
7786:
7783:
7782:
7779:
7776:
7774:
7771:
7768:
7767:
7764:
7761:
7759:
7756:
7753:
7752:
7749:
7746:
7744:
7741:
7739:
7736:
7734:
7731:
7729:
7726:
7723:
7722:
7719:
7716:
7714:
7710:
7700:
7697:
7695:
7692:
7690:
7687:
7685:
7684:Fragmentation
7682:
7680:
7677:
7675:
7672:
7670:
7667:
7666:
7663:
7660:
7658:
7654:
7650:
7643:
7638:
7636:
7631:
7629:
7624:
7623:
7620:
7614:
7611:
7609:
7606:
7604:
7600:
7597:
7594:
7592:
7589:
7586:
7584:
7581:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7570:
7568:
7565:
7564:
7554:
7553:0-8176-1807-4
7550:
7546:
7542:
7538:
7534:
7530:
7526:
7521:
7517:
7513:
7509:
7505:
7500:
7497:
7496:0-87893-459-6
7493:
7489:
7485:
7482:
7481:0-521-29302-2
7478:
7474:
7470:
7466:
7462:
7458:
7454:
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7446:
7442:
7438:
7434:
7430:
7425:
7421:
7417:
7413:
7409:
7405:
7401:
7396:
7393:
7392:0-87893-228-3
7389:
7385:
7381:
7377:
7373:
7368:
7363:
7359:
7355:
7351:
7347:
7343:
7338:
7335:
7334:1-55557-179-4
7331:
7327:
7323:
7322:
7308:
7302:
7298:
7291:
7283:
7279:
7275:
7271:
7267:
7263:
7259:
7255:
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7247:
7240:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7220:
7215:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7198:
7191:
7183:
7179:
7174:
7169:
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7159:
7155:
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7147:
7143:
7139:
7137:
7128:
7113:
7109:
7105:
7101:
7097:
7093:
7089:
7085:
7078:
7071:
7063:
7059:
7055:
7051:
7046:
7041:
7037:
7033:
7032:
7027:
7020:
7004:
7000:
6996:
6990:
6982:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6964:
6960:
6955:
6950:
6946:
6942:
6938:
6934:
6930:
6928:
6919:
6903:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6883:
6876:
6868:
6862:
6858:
6854:
6853:
6845:
6838:
6830:
6826:
6822:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6791:
6789:
6780:
6776:
6772:
6768:
6764:
6760:
6756:
6752:
6748:
6744:
6740:
6733:
6731:
6729:
6727:
6725:
6723:
6721:
6719:
6702:
6701:
6696:
6690:
6683:
6679:
6673:
6665:
6661:
6657:
6653:
6649:
6645:
6638:
6630:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6602:
6595:
6594:New Scientist
6591:
6585:
6578:
6572:
6570:
6562:
6558:
6553:
6545:
6541:
6536:
6531:
6527:
6523:
6519:
6512:
6510:
6501:
6497:
6492:
6487:
6483:
6479:
6478:Reprod Biomed
6475:
6468:
6460:
6456:
6451:
6446:
6442:
6438:
6434:
6430:
6429:
6424:
6417:
6415:
6413:
6411:
6409:
6400:
6396:
6391:
6386:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6367:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6330:
6322:
6314:
6310:
6309:
6301:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6281:
6277:
6273:
6272:
6264:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6244:
6240:
6233:
6225:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6194:
6189:
6182:
6180:
6170:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6153:
6146:
6138:
6134:
6130:
6126:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6105:Lacerta dahli
6098:
6090:
6083:
6075:
6071:
6066:
6061:
6056:
6051:
6047:
6043:
6039:
6035:
6031:
6024:
6016:
6012:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5992:
5988:
5984:
5980:
5976:
5972:
5965:
5957:
5956:
5951:
5944:
5928:
5924:
5923:
5918:
5912:
5904:
5900:
5899:
5894:
5887:
5871:
5867:
5866:
5861:
5855:
5847:
5843:
5836:
5828:
5824:
5816:
5808:
5804:
5800:
5796:
5792:
5785:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5762:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5742:
5738:
5734:
5733:
5728:
5721:
5713:
5706:
5698:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5667:
5659:
5655:
5648:
5641:
5625:
5621:
5617:
5611:
5603:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5571:
5567:
5560:
5552:
5545:
5543:
5535:
5529:
5527:
5518:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5461:
5446:. 7 June 2023
5445:
5444:
5439:
5433:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5403:
5388:
5387:
5382:
5375:
5367:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5349:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5329:
5325:
5321:
5317:
5310:
5302:
5301:Sharkyear.com
5298:
5292:
5276:
5272:
5271:
5266:
5260:
5244:
5240:
5234:
5219:. 23 May 2007
5218:
5217:
5212:
5206:
5198:
5194:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5159:
5157:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5129:
5127:
5110:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5091:
5082:
5074:
5070:
5065:
5060:
5055:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5039:(8): e11932.
5038:
5034:
5033:
5028:
5026:
5017:
5009:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4975:
4973:
4964:
4956:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4921:(5): e20281.
4920:
4916:
4915:
4910:
4903:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4848:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4807:(6925): 806.
4806:
4802:
4801:
4796:
4789:
4781:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4738:
4731:
4728:
4722:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4671:
4664:
4662:
4652:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4633:
4624:
4617:
4611:
4609:
4607:
4605:
4603:
4594:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4559:(8): e24337.
4558:
4554:
4550:
4543:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4496:
4488:
4484:
4481:(2): 93–107.
4480:
4476:
4472:
4465:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4430:
4422:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4387:(9): e12854.
4386:
4382:
4378:
4371:
4364:
4358:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4331:
4323:
4319:
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4311:
4310:
4305:
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4290:
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4242:
4236:
4234:
4225:
4221:
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4195:
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4159:
4158:
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4146:
4144:
4142:
4140:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4110:
4105:
4104:Cnemidophorus
4098:
4090:
4084:
4080:
4079:
4071:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
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3992:
3988:
3984:
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3944:
3940:
3935:
3930:
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3922:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3903:
3891:
3887:
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3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3860:
3855:
3848:
3840:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3805:(9): e12854.
3804:
3800:
3799:
3794:
3787:
3785:
3776:
3769:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
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3707:
3702:
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3677:
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3662:
3653:
3649:
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3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
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3503:
3498:
3493:
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3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
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3407:
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3399:
3392:
3390:
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3357:
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3327:
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3298:
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3284:
3280:
3276:
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3257:
3255:
3253:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
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3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3201:
3199:
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3181:
3179:
3177:
3168:
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3136:
3132:
3125:
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3098:
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3019:
3012:
3004:
3000:
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2971:
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2959:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2924:
2919:
2912:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2853:
2845:
2843:
2834:
2830:
2823:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2800:(1–2): 1–23.
2799:
2795:
2794:
2786:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2727:
2719:
2713:
2708:
2707:
2698:
2690:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2639:
2637:
2628:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2585:
2583:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2538:
2529:
2521:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2482:
2477:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2434:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2385:(2): 171901.
2384:
2380:
2376:
2369:
2353:
2346:
2338:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2319:
2311:
2307:
2302:
2295:
2283:
2279:
2278:
2273:
2266:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2204:
2202:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2166:
2150:
2146:
2145:
2139:
2133:
2125:
2124:
2119:
2113:
2109:
2098:
2097:Parthenocarpy
2095:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2044:
2038:
2033:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2004:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1981:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1967:
1966:
1961:
1960:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1934:P. ridibundus
1931:
1927:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1912:
1911:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1896:
1895:P. ridibundus
1891:
1890:
1885:
1884:
1880:
1878:
1877:
1876:P. ridibundus
1872:
1871:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1858:
1857:
1856:P. ridibundus
1852:
1851:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1830:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1808:
1807:fertilization
1804:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1792:gametogenesis
1789:
1785:
1779:
1769:
1767:
1762:
1761:
1757:of the genus
1756:
1751:
1747:
1740:
1736:
1721:
1718:
1713:
1712:Hwang Woo-Suk
1708:
1706:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1661:Helen Spurway
1658:
1654:
1644:
1640:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1615:
1612:
1604:
1601:December 2021
1594:
1590:
1584:
1581:This article
1579:
1570:
1569:
1561:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1494:
1492:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1461:zebra finches
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1425:
1418:
1416:
1412:
1406:
1403:
1398:
1395:in the genus
1394:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1344:
1343:Cnemidophorus
1339:
1336:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1289:
1285:
1284:Komodo dragon
1281:
1276:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1249:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1223:
1221:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1207:In 2002, two
1205:
1202:
1197:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1145:
1144:
1141:
1136:
1126:
1124:
1123:brine shrimps
1120:
1119:
1114:
1113:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1087:
1083:
1082:
1081:Daphnia pulex
1078:
1068:
1066:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1049:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1038:electric ants
1034:
1032:
1031:formicine ant
1029:, a European
1028:
1027:
1021:
1019:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1008:
1003:
999:
998:
992:
990:
986:
981:
980:haploid males
977:
973:
972:hymenopterans
969:
961:
957:
953:
951:
947:
946:
940:
938:
934:
929:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
902:
900:
895:
893:
889:
885:
881:
880:hymenopterans
878:, e.g., most
877:
873:
863:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
823:
821:
817:
813:
809:
806:
802:
798:
797:
786:
783:
779:
776:
766:
764:
760:
756:
755:
744:
741:
737:
733:
732:
721:
718:
716:
712:
708:
704:
699:
697:
693:
689:
685:
684:Komodo dragon
680:
679:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
657:
652:
648:
638:
636:
632:
631:
626:
622:
618:
613:
604:
602:
598:
594:
590:
585:
583:
579:
575:
571:
566:
563:
562:
557:
553:
542:
538:
535:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
512:
503:
500:
497:
493:
488:
485:
480:
475:
473:
467:
465:
461:
457:
456:
450:
448:
442:
437:
428:
426:
422:
418:
414:
409:
407:
403:
399:
389:
387:
383:
378:
374:
372:
368:
364:
363:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
334:
330:
329:Komodo dragon
325:
320:
310:
308:
304:
300:
295:
293:
289:
288:crossing over
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
260:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
239:), and a few
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
197:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
174:fertilization
171:
167:
163:
158:
144:
129:
60:
53:
49:
48:
43:
42:
37:
36:
30:
26:
22:
7799:
7784:
7778:Andromonoecy
7769:
7754:
7724:
7694:Sporogenesis
7688:
7544:
7528:
7524:
7507:
7503:
7487:
7472:
7432:
7428:
7403:
7399:
7383:
7349:
7345:
7325:
7296:
7290:
7257:
7253:
7249:
7245:
7239:
7204:
7200:
7190:
7145:
7141:
7135:
7127:
7115:. Retrieved
7087:
7083:
7070:
7035:
7029:
7019:
7007:. Retrieved
7003:the original
6998:
6989:
6936:
6932:
6927:Poeciliopsis
6926:
6918:
6906:. Retrieved
6892:
6888:
6875:
6851:
6837:
6804:
6800:
6797:Poeciliopsis
6796:
6746:
6742:
6738:
6705:. Retrieved
6698:
6689:
6682:The Register
6681:
6672:
6650:(1): 11–24.
6647:
6643:
6637:
6612:
6608:
6601:
6593:
6584:
6576:
6560:
6556:
6552:
6525:
6521:
6481:
6477:
6467:
6432:
6426:
6380:
6376:
6366:
6333:
6327:
6321:
6307:
6300:
6275:
6269:
6263:
6255:the original
6242:
6232:
6197:
6191:
6159:
6155:
6145:
6112:
6108:
6104:
6097:
6088:
6082:
6037:
6033:
6023:
5978:
5974:
5964:
5953:
5943:
5931:. Retrieved
5927:the original
5920:
5911:
5903:the original
5896:
5886:
5876:12 September
5874:. Retrieved
5870:the original
5863:
5854:
5845:
5841:
5835:
5826:
5822:
5815:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5784:
5775:
5771:
5767:
5761:
5736:
5730:
5726:
5720:
5705:
5680:
5676:
5672:
5666:
5657:
5653:
5640:
5628:. Retrieved
5619:
5610:
5569:
5565:
5559:
5550:
5533:
5491:10919/117182
5474:
5470:
5460:
5448:. Retrieved
5441:
5432:
5420:. Retrieved
5412:
5402:
5390:. Retrieved
5384:
5374:
5323:
5319:
5309:
5300:
5291:
5279:. Retrieved
5275:the original
5268:
5259:
5247:. Retrieved
5233:
5221:. Retrieved
5214:
5205:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5138:
5134:
5113:. Retrieved
5099:
5095:
5089:
5081:
5036:
5030:
5024:
5016:
4981:
4977:
4971:
4963:
4918:
4912:
4902:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4847:
4804:
4798:
4788:
4751:
4748:BMC Genomics
4747:
4737:
4732:86:1883–1893
4729:
4721:
4680:
4676:
4641:
4637:
4631:
4623:
4615:
4556:
4552:
4542:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4495:
4478:
4474:
4471:Potamopyrgus
4470:
4464:
4439:
4435:
4429:
4384:
4380:
4370:
4362:
4357:
4340:
4336:
4330:
4313:
4307:
4303:
4297:
4264:
4258:
4252:
4244:
4240:
4197:
4191:
4161:
4155:
4151:
4113:
4107:
4103:
4097:
4077:
4070:
4040:(1): 74–88.
4037:
4031:
4022:
3970:
3964:
3960:
3916:
3912:
3902:
3863:
3857:
3847:
3802:
3796:
3774:
3768:
3735:
3729:
3723:
3688:
3682:
3635:
3631:
3619:
3594:
3590:
3584:
3569:
3530:
3524:
3514:
3477:
3473:
3467:
3405:
3401:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3300:. Retrieved
3270:
3266:
3210:
3206:
3185:
3134:
3130:
3124:
3107:
3103:
3059:
3055:
3045:
3028:
3024:
3011:
2976:
2970:
2927:
2921:
2911:
2862:
2856:
2832:
2828:
2822:
2797:
2791:
2785:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2726:
2705:
2697:
2652:
2648:
2600:
2594:
2546:
2542:
2536:
2528:
2485:
2479:
2452:. Retrieved
2448:the original
2433:
2382:
2378:
2368:
2356:. Retrieved
2345:
2326:
2309:
2301:
2293:
2286:. Retrieved
2275:
2265:
2222:
2216:
2192:
2183:
2179:
2165:
2153:. Retrieved
2149:the original
2141:
2132:
2121:
2112:
2085:Jacques Loeb
2068:Jan Dzierżon
2051:Androgenesis
2012:
2002:
1996:
1990:
1985:
1978:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1941:
1933:
1925:
1910:P. demarchii
1908:
1906:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1874:
1868:
1864:P. kl. grafi
1862:
1854:
1848:
1842:
1833:
1829:Poeciliopsis
1827:
1825:
1822:
1811:
1800:unrecombined
1781:
1766:amazon molly
1758:
1745:
1742:
1709:
1688:
1677:
1668:
1650:
1641:
1637:
1630:
1622:
1607:
1598:
1582:
1533:
1514:
1503:
1500:
1488:
1469:
1442:
1428:
1422:
1419:
1414:
1407:
1397:Aspidoscelis
1396:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:rattlesnakes
1374:gartersnakes
1357:
1347:
1341:
1337:
1330:
1320:rock lizards
1293:
1287:
1256:
1234:
1229:
1217:
1206:
1198:
1178:
1163:
1153:
1147:
1138:
1132:
1116:
1110:
1104:
1079:
1074:
1064:Aptinothrips
1062:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1035:
1024:
1022:
1015:
1005:
995:
993:
965:
950:haplodiploid
943:
941:
936:
930:
903:
899:Strepsiptera
896:
891:
887:
869:
859:
851:
843:
829:
820:pseudogamous
794:
792:
772:
752:
751:No males of
750:
747:Velvet worms
731:Phytophthora
729:
727:
719:
700:
676:
654:
644:
628:
614:
610:
586:
567:
559:
548:
539:
536:
513:
509:
501:
491:
489:
478:
476:
468:
463:
453:
451:
446:
445:
424:
420:
410:
405:
397:
395:
379:
375:
360:
338:
332:
296:
261:
205:invertebrate
198:
58:
57:
51:
45:
39:
33:
25:
21:Pathogenesis
7793:Gynomonoecy
7773:Androdioecy
7758:Gonochorism
7510:: 399–417.
7384:Coevolution
6895:: 151–163.
6749:(1): 1–13.
6741:complex)".
6596:, 7.10.1995
6249:/ Poultry.
5848:(3): 20–25.
5778:(1): 11–18.
5677:Zoo Biology
5660:(1): 11–21.
5392:17 February
5243:Metro.co.uk
5223:23 December
4854:Marmorkrebs
4797:. Ecology.
4363:ScienceNews
3302:20 December
2358:11 November
2288:16 February
1982:hankugensis
1938:edible frog
1850:P. lessonae
1755:salamanders
1735:Gynogenesis
1729:Gynogenesis
1705:MHC-matched
1400:leading to
1220:zebra shark
1174:zebra shark
1140:Heteroonops
1093:Marmorkrebs
1089:crustaceans
1071:Crustaceans
926:Hymenoptera
924:, and some
906:Phasmatodea
888:gynogenesis
876:arrhenotoky
854:), and the
801:Turbellaria
763:velvet worm
673:vertebrates
669:vertebrates
545:Facultative
460:blastomeres
455:endomitotic
431:Automictic
425:half clones
406:full clones
402:gametophyte
386:arrhenotoky
357:cladocerans
272:chromosomes
241:vertebrates
233:Phasmatodea
217:water fleas
213:tardigrades
44:(left) and
7853:Categories
7834:Heterogamy
7810:Trimonoecy
7788:Gynodioecy
6999:tolweb.org
6561:The Lancet
5933:3 February
5865:BBC Nature
5829:(1): 1–10.
5249:10 October
4436:Chromosoma
3462:Coby Schal
2549:: 96–102.
2155:20 January
2104:References
2015:Greek myth
1998:B. rossius
1946:esculentus
1930:marsh frog
1889:P. bergeri
1835:Pelophylax
1776:See also:
1733:See also:
1692:homozygous
1553:parthenote
1429:D. "dahli"
1370:filesnakes
1352:, and the
1259:Costa Rica
1253:Crocodiles
1242:Amphibians
1181:bonnethead
1172:, and the
1166:bonnethead
1143:spinimanus
1077:water flea
985:honey bees
978:(thrips),
970:, such as
914:Aleurodids
884:pseudogamy
832:gastropods
810:, include
782:monogonont
688:hammerhead
617:introduced
484:anaphase I
349:gall wasps
249:amphibians
7531:: 34–39.
7254:Evolution
7104:1566-0621
7054:1420-9101
6963:0027-8424
6771:1387-3547
5922:The Hindu
5630:3 October
5499:1744-957X
5348:2045-2322
5326:: 40537.
4730:Evolution
3482:CiteSeerX
3360:0018-067X
3338:CiteSeerX
3227:1097-4687
3151:1022-7954
3037:1993-078X
2944:0022-1503
2903:221474843
2887:0962-1083
2814:0373-4137
2761:0165-5752
2502:1465-7333
2407:2054-5703
2241:1010-061X
2074:– Polish
1922:pool frog
1870:P. perezi
1760:Ambystoma
1701:haplotype
1549:placental
1544:imprinted
1529:longevity
1504:In 1936,
1474:cells to
1457:passerine
1424:Darevskia
1411:fecundity
1402:polyploid
1349:Darevskia
1312:whiptails
1296:squamatan
1263:crocodile
1230:A female
1135:Oonopidae
1101:pet trade
1017:Wolbachia
960:Honey bee
945:Wolbachia
910:Hemiptera
872:thelytoky
812:polyploid
789:Flatworms
724:Oomycetes
665:nematodes
647:isogamous
635:Holarctic
601:automixis
447:Automixis
382:thelytoky
221:scorpions
209:nematodes
143:parthénos
7669:Apomixis
7599:Archived
7591:BBC News
7457:15103378
7420:17683825
7376:16319240
7282:28568678
7231:40846660
7223:15277723
7182:22815952
7142:PLOS ONE
7112:20453910
7062:85833296
7009:13 March
6981:11607248
6829:84812427
6779:23535815
6700:BBC News
6664:18092905
6629:17594198
6544:18635923
6500:21051286
6459:19571260
6399:19952375
6350:17704765
6137:11145792
6129:16220367
6109:Genetica
6089:Lost Sex
6015:21543715
5955:BBC News
5697:23086743
5594:17183308
5517:37282490
5508:10244963
5443:BBC News
5366:28091617
5281:17 April
5216:BBC News
5197:22026614
5115:30 April
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