Parasitism - Knowledge

1131: 1842: 4195: 1151: 3974:. Even though parasite-host interactions were plainly ecological and important in evolution, the history of parasitology caused what the evolutionary ecologist Robert Poulin called a "takeover of parasitism by parasitologists", leading ecologists to ignore the area. This was in his opinion "unfortunate", as parasites are "omnipresent agents of natural selection" and significant forces in evolution and ecology. In his view, the long-standing split between the sciences limited the exchange of ideas, with separate conferences and separate journals. The technical languages of ecology and parasitology sometimes involved different meanings for the same words. There were philosophical differences, too: Poulin notes that, influenced by medicine, "many parasitologists accepted that evolution led to a decrease in parasite virulence, whereas modern evolutionary theory would have predicted a greater range of outcomes". 1174: 454: 3908:(SA) signalling pathways. The different biochemical pathways are activated by different attacks, and the two pathways can interact positively or negatively. In general, plants can either initiate a specific or a non-specific response. Specific responses involve recognition of a parasite by the plant's cellular receptors, leading to a strong but localised response: defensive chemicals are produced around the area where the parasite was detected, blocking its spread, and avoiding wasting defensive production where it is not needed. Non-specific defensive responses are systemic, meaning that the responses are not confined to an area of the plant, but spread throughout the plant, making them costly in energy. These are effective against a wide range of parasites. When damaged, such as by 4527: 3445: 1782: 1802: 4609: 72: 4081: 1822: 1763: 1868: 2872: 3860: 9807: 5738: 5615: 1259: 3776: 972: 10972: 3667: 3216: 2956: 11548: 4735: 4031: 2680: 844: 885: 4345: 3555: 3543:. The fact that flamingos share parasites with ducks and geese was initially taken as evidence that these groups were more closely related to each other than either is to storks. However, evolutionary events such as the duplication, or the extinction of parasite species (without similar events on the host phylogeny) often erode similarities between host and parasite phylogenies. In the case of flamingos, they have similar lice to those of 1207: 769: 4049:

diversity of traits brought about by sexual reproduction. Parasites provide an opportunity for the transfer of genetic material between species, facilitating evolutionary change. Many parasites require multiple hosts of different species to complete their life cycles and rely on predator-prey or other stable ecological interactions to get from one host to another. The presence of parasites thus indicates that an ecosystem is healthy.

3941: 10975: 3125: 3359: 3827:, toxic to most microorganisms, is the next line of defence. Some intestinal parasites have a thick, tough outer coating which is digested slowly or not at all, allowing the parasite to pass through the stomach alive, at which point they enter the intestine and begin the next stage of their life. Once inside the body, parasites must overcome the 3379:, as, all else being equal, it is in the evolutionary interest of the parasite that its host thrives. A parasite may evolve to become less harmful for its host or a host may evolve to cope with the unavoidable presence of a parasite—to the point that the parasite's absence causes the host harm. For example, although animals parasitised by 3888:. The tineid moth lays its eggs within the wasps' nests and then these eggs hatch into larvae that can burrow from cell to cell and prey on wasp pupae. Adult wasps attempt to remove and kill moth eggs and larvae by chewing down the edges of cells, coating the cells with an oral secretion that gives the nest a dark brownish appearance. 1716:, wholly dependent on females of their own species for survival, permanently attached below the female's body, and unable to fend for themselves. The female nourishes the male and protects him from predators, while the male gives nothing back except the sperm that the female needs to produce the next generation. 3743:, the shuffling of genes to create varied combinations. Hamilton showed by mathematical modelling that sexual reproduction would be evolutionarily stable in different situations, and that the theory's predictions matched the actual ecology of sexual reproduction. However, there may be a trade-off between 6098:

Predation, herbivory, and parasitism exist along a continuum of severity in terms of the extent to which they negatively affect an organism's fitness. ... In most situations, parasites do not kill their hosts. An exception, however, occurs with parasitoids, which blur the line between parasitism and

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often have parasitoid wasp larvae attached to them which alter their web-building behavior. Instead of producing their normal sticky spiral shaped webs, they made simplified webs when the parasites were attached. This manipulated behavior lasted longer and was more prominent the longer the parasites

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as well as wasps, lay their eggs inside young hosts, usually larvae. These are allowed to go on growing, so the host and parasitoid develop together for an extended period, ending when the parasitoids emerge as adults, leaving the prey dead, eaten from inside. Some koinobionts regulate their host's

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A 2022 study examined the naming of some 3000 parasite species discovered in the previous two decades. Of those named after scientists, over 80% were named for men, whereas about a third of authors of papers on parasites were women. The study found that the percentage of parasite species named for

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A micropredator attacks more than one host, reducing each host's fitness by at least a small amount, and is only in contact with any one host intermittently. This behavior makes micropredators suitable as vectors, as they can pass smaller parasites from one host to another. Most micropredators are

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Parasitism is a major aspect of evolutionary ecology; for example, almost all free-living animals are host to at least one species of parasite. Vertebrates, the best-studied group, are hosts to between 75,000 and 300,000 species of helminths and an uncounted number of parasitic microorganisms. On

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partly or completely destroy their host's ability to reproduce, diverting the energy that would have gone into reproduction into host and parasite growth, sometimes causing gigantism in the host. The host's other systems remain intact, allowing it to survive and to sustain the parasite. Parasitic

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Although parasites are widely considered to be harmful, the eradication of all parasites would not be beneficial. Parasites account for at least half of life's diversity; they perform important ecological roles; and without parasites, organisms might tend to asexual reproduction, diminishing the

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assigned in order to analyse the population movements of the host–parasite groupings. The microorganisms and viruses that can reproduce and complete their life cycle within the host are known as microparasites. Macroparasites are the multicellular organisms that reproduce and complete their life

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in the life-history evolution of their parasites. The outcomes depend on whether the drugs decrease the chance of a helminth larva reaching adulthood. If so, natural selection can be expected to favour the production of eggs at an earlier age. If on the other hand the drugs mainly affects adult

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and egg-grasping appendages. Various species of helminth castrate their hosts (such as insects and snails). This may happen directly, whether mechanically by feeding on their gonads, or by secreting a chemical that destroys reproductive cells; or indirectly, whether by secreting a hormone or by

4062:. It was host to a louse, which lived only on it. Any lice found were "deliberately killed" during the program, to keep the condors in the best possible health. The result was that one species, the condor, was saved and returned to the wild, while another species, the parasite, became extinct. 3327:

As hosts and parasites evolve together, their relationships often change. When a parasite is in a sole relationship with a host, selection drives the relationship to become more benign, even mutualistic, as the parasite can reproduce for longer if its host lives longer. But where parasites are

870:; and many species of nematodes, fungi, protozoans, bacteria, and viruses. Whether endoparasites or ectoparasites, each has a single host-species. Within that species, most individuals are free or almost free of parasites, while a minority carry a large number of parasites; this is known as an 529:

does not. Parasite life cycles involving only one host are called "direct"; those with a definitive host (where the parasite reproduces sexually) and at least one intermediate host are called "indirect". An endoparasite lives inside the host's body; an ectoparasite lives outside, on the host's

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Parasitism is a form of symbiosis, an intimate relationship between two different species. There is a biochemical interaction between host and parasite; i.e. they recognize each other, ultimately at the molecular level, and host tissues are stimulated to react in some way. This explains why

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Trophically-transmitted parasites are transmitted to their definitive host, a predator, when their intermediate host is eaten. These parasites often modify the behaviour of their intermediate hosts, causing them to behave in a way that makes them likely to be eaten, such as by climbing to a

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of a parasite's hosts; the number of hosts they have per life stage; whether the host is prevented from reproducing; and whether the effect depends on intensity (number of parasites per host). From this analysis, the major evolutionary strategies of parasitism emerge, alongside predation.

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A single parasite species usually has an aggregated distribution across host animals, which means that most hosts carry few parasites, while a few hosts carry the vast majority of parasite individuals. This poses considerable problems for students of parasite ecology, as it renders

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Parasites can exploit their hosts to carry out a number of functions that they would otherwise have to carry out for themselves. Parasites which lose those functions then have a selective advantage, as they can divert resources to reproduction. Many insect ectoparasites including

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feed on another parasite, as exemplified by protozoa living in helminth parasites, or facultative or obligate parasitoids whose hosts are either conventional parasites or parasitoids. Levels of parasitism beyond secondary also occur, especially among facultative parasitoids. In

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de Boer, Jetske G.; Robinson, Ailie; Powers, Stephen J.; Burgers, Saskia L. G. E.; Caulfield, John C.; Birkett, Michael A.; Smallegange, Renate C.; van Genderen, Perry J. J.; Bousema, Teun; Sauerwein, Robert W.; Pickett, John A.; Takken, Willem; Logan, James G. (August 2017).

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parasitoids sting their often-large prey on capture, either killing them outright or paralysing them immediately. The immobilised prey is then carried to a nest, sometimes alongside other prey if it is not large enough to support a parasitoid throughout its development. An

1150: 2744:, or both. This provides them with the ability to extract water and nutrients from the host. A parasitic plant is classified depending on where it latches onto the host, either the stem or the root, and the amount of nutrients it requires. Since holoparasites have no 3655:

are drawn to this scent, which may increase transmission to feline hosts. The malaria parasite modifies the skin odour of its human hosts, increasing their attractiveness to mosquitoes and hence improving the chance that the parasite will be transmitted. The spider

248:, from parasitic castration to modification of host behaviour. Parasites increase their own fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for their survival, in particular by feeding on them and by using intermediate (secondary) hosts to assist in their 2915:

and necrotrophs. Biotrophic fungi derive nutrients from living plant cells, and during the course of infection they colonise their plant host in such a way as to keep it alive for a maximally long time. One well-known example of a biotrophic pathogen is

4007:. Even though the parasite was eradicated in all but four countries, the worm began using frogs as an intermediary host before infecting dogs, making control more difficult than it would have been if the relationships had been better understood. 10618:

A satirist seeking to portray client misery naturally focuses on the relationship with the greatest dependency, that in which a client gets his food from his patron, and for this the prefabricated persona of the parasite proved itself extremely

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with the largest numbers of parasitic species are listed in the table. Numbers are conservative minimum estimates. The columns for Endo- and Ecto-parasitism refer to the definitive host, as documented in the Vertebrate and Invertebrate columns.

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Hosts have evolved a variety of defensive measures against their parasites, including physical barriers like the skin of vertebrates, the immune system of mammals, insects actively removing parasites, and defensive chemicals in plants.

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Parasites, in a phrase, are predators that eat prey in units of less than one. Tolerable parasites are those that have evolved to ensure their own survival and reproduction but at the same time with minimum pain and cost to the

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average, a mammal species hosts four species of nematode, two of trematodes, and two of cestodes. Humans have 342 species of helminth parasites, and 70 species of protozoan parasites. Some three-quarters of the links in

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from African and Asian primates were found to be closely congruent in branching order and divergence times, implying that the simian foamy viruses cospeciated with Old World primates for at least 30 million years.

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Much of the thinking on types of parasitism has focused on terrestrial animal parasites of animals, such as helminths. Those in other environments and with other hosts often have analogous strategies. For example, the

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of their intermediate hosts, increasing their chances of being eaten by a predator. As with directly transmitted parasites, the distribution of trophically transmitted parasites among host individuals is aggregated.

1676:), "thief"), parasites steal food gathered by the host. The parasitism is often on close relatives, whether within the same species or between species in the same genus or family. For instance, the many lineages of 494:, the parasitic relationship harms the host, either feeding on it or, as in the case of intestinal parasites, consuming some of its food. Because parasites interact with other species, they can readily act as 534:, for example—enter an opening in the host's body and remain partly embedded there. Some parasites can be generalists, feeding on a wide range of hosts, but many parasites, and the majority of protozoans and 2868:, and their leaves are reduced to small scales, as they do not photosynthesize. Their seeds are very small and numerous, so they appear to rely on being infected by a suitable fungus soon after germinating. 1645:

those of their hosts, while some cowbird eggs have tough shells, making them hard for the hosts to kill by piercing, both mechanisms implying selection by the hosts against parasitic eggs. The adult female

1821: 207:, parasites, with the exception of parasitoids, are typically much smaller than their hosts, do not kill them, and often live in or on their hosts for an extended period. Parasites of animals are highly 1282:, free-living infectious stages, and vectors, suiting their differing hosts, life cycles, and ecological contexts. Examples to illustrate some of the many possible combinations are given in the table. 6667:

Van Oystaeyen, Annette; Araujo Alves, Denise; Caliari Oliveira, Ricardo; Lima do Nascimento, Daniela; Santos do Nascimento, Fábio; Billen, Johan; Wenseleers, Tom (September 2013). "Sneaky queens in

9042:"Evaluation of manipulative effects by an ichneumonid spider-ectoparasitoid larva upon an orb-weaving spider host (Araneidae: Cyclosa argenteoalba) by means of surgical removal and transplantation" 3981:

simultaneously, and would set up loops of energy flow, confusing the analysis. Further, since nearly every animal has (multiple) parasites, parasites would occupy the top levels of every food web.

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parasites rely on a third party, an intermediate host, where the parasite does not reproduce sexually, to carry them from one definitive host to another. These parasites are microorganisms, namely

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were infected with bacteria both of which had toxins able to kill the other strain, neither strain was excluded, and their virulence was less than when the insect was infected by a single strain.

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among their hosts, most hosts having no parasites, and a few hosts harbouring most of the parasite population. This distribution makes sampling difficult and requires careful use of statistics.

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are obligate intracellular parasites, characterised by extremely limited biological function, to the point where, while they are evidently able to infect all other organisms from bacteria and

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can limit bacterial infections. It is likely, though little researched, that most pathogenic microparasites have hyperparasites which may prove widely useful in both agriculture and medicine.

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Randle, C. P.; Cannon, B. C.; Faust, A. L.; et al. (2018). "Host Cues Mediate Growth and Establishment of Oak Mistletoe (Phoradendron leucarpum, Viscaceae), an Aerial Parasitic Plant".

10826:"'Alien' Evolution: Explore Every Stage in the Xenomorph's Gruesome Life Cycle. Celebrate Alien Day with a look at the past, present and future of cinema's most terrifying extraterrestrial" 8970: 930:

in the intermediate host. When the intermediate-host animal is eaten by a predator, the definitive host, the parasite survives the digestion process and matures into an adult; some live as

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by taking carbon from a fungus rather than exchanging it for minerals. They have much reduced roots, as they do not need to absorb water from the soil; their stems are slender with few

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that parasitise animals, are specialists and extremely host-specific. An early basic, functional division of parasites distinguished microparasites and macroparasites. These each had a

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argues that as a "thief, seducer, creator, and mimic, Dracula is the ultimate parasite. The whole point of vampirism is sucking other people's blood—living at other people's expense."

1732:), brother), also known as sibling-parasitism, occurs where the host species is closely related to the parasite, often in the same family or genus. In the citrus blackfly parasitoid, 9149: 1762: 8568:"Invasion of the Gender Benders: by manipulating sex and reproduction in their hosts, many parasites improve their own odds of survival and may shape the evolution of sex itself" 196:, and micropredation. One major axis of classification concerns invasiveness: an endoparasite lives inside the host's body; an ectoparasite lives outside, on the host's surface. 4378:

developed in the 19th century with accurate observations and experiments by many researchers and clinicians; the term was first used in 1870. In 1828, James Annersley described

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The presumption of a shared evolutionary history between parasites and hosts can help elucidate how host taxa are related. For instance, there has been a dispute about whether

1781: 1582:, a eusocial bee whose virgin queens escape killer workers and invade another colony without a queen. An extreme example of interspecific social parasitism is found in the ant 3977:

Their complex relationships make parasites difficult to place in food webs: a trematode with multiple hosts for its various life cycle stages would occupy many positions in a

2934: 10452: 2795:(witchweeds) are estimated to cost billions of dollars a year in crop yield loss, infesting over 50 million hectares of cultivated land within Sub-Saharan Africa alone. 8121: 5759: 4323:, and linked it to "his own loose stools". This was the first protozoan parasite of humans to be seen under a microscope. A few years later, in 1687, the Italian biologists 6492:

Pietsch, Theodore W. (25 August 2005). "Dimorphism, parasitism, and sex revisited: modes of reproduction among deep-sea ceratioid anglerfishes (Teleostei: Lophiiformes)".

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Directly transmitted parasites, not requiring a vector to reach their hosts, include such parasites of terrestrial vertebrates as lice and mites; marine parasites such as

578:, skin odours, visual and heat signatures, and moisture. Parasitic plants can use, for example, light, host physiochemistry, and volatiles to recognize potential hosts. 9166:

Yahalom, Dayana; Atkinson, Stephen D.; Neuhof, Moran; Chang, E. Sally; Philippe, Hervé; Cartwright, Paulyn; Bartholomew, Jerri L.; Huchon, Dorothée (19 February 2020).

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Among the many variations on parasitic strategies are hyperparasitism, social parasitism, brood parasitism, kleptoparasitism, sexual parasitism, and adelphoparasitism.

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among mosquitoes, and repeated failure of vaccines as the parasite mutates. The first and as of 2015 the only licensed vaccine for any parasitic disease of humans is

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Hemibiotrophic pathogens begin their colonising their hosts as biotrophs, and subsequently killing off host cells and feeding as necrotrophs, a phenomenon termed the

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The sensory inputs that a parasite employs to identify and approach a potential host are known as "host cues". Such cues can include, for example, vibration, exhaled

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Given the importance of malaria, with some 220 million people infected annually, many attempts have been made to interrupt its transmission. Various methods of

7668:"Biotrophy-necrotrophy switch in pathogen evoke differential response in resistant and susceptible sesame involving multiple signaling pathways at different phases" 11190: 5319:. Australian Society of Parasitology and Australian Research Council/National Health and Medical Research Council) Research Network for Parasitology. July 2010. 5099:. Australian Society of Parasitology and Australian Research Council/National Health and Medical Research Council) Research Network for Parasitology. July 2010. 9232: 10652:

Playfair is comparing the popular usage to a biologist's view of parasitism, which he calls (heading the same page) "an ancient and respectable view of life".

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is recommended by several authors, but this can give rise to further problems, so quantitative parasitology is based on more advanced biostatistical methods.

10542: 4194: 2948:- obligate intracellular parasitic fungi that largely affect insects, but may also affect vertebrates including humans, causing the intestinal infection 7040: 5008: 821: 6803:

Bourke, Andrew F. G.; Franks, Nigel R. (July 1991). "Alternative adaptations, sympatric speciation and the evolution of parasitic, inquiline ants".

8424: 5342:"The mesoparasitic copepod Pennella balaenopterae and its significance as a visible indicator of health status in dolphins (Delphinidae): a review" 8931: 4650:, in which a person could live off the hospitality of others, in return for "flattery, simple services, and a willingness to endure humiliation". 3413:, that natural selection drives relationships from parasitism to mutualism when resources are limited. This process may have been involved in the 10518: 4828: 4228: 3496:) produced by the two strains involved. When only one bacterium could kill the other, the other strain was excluded by the competition. But when 9967: 5341: 3870:. The spread of the parasitic fungus is limited by defensive chemicals produced by the tree, resulting in circular patches of damaged tissue. 3328:

competing, selection favours the parasite that reproduces fastest, leading to increased virulence. There are thus varied possibilities in

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from one definitive (primary) host to another. Although parasitism is often unambiguous, it is part of a spectrum of interactions between

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In everyday speech, the term 'parasite' is loaded with derogatory meaning. A parasite is a sponger, a lazy profiteer, a drain on society.

1191: 5238: 10993: 10671:. And sold by J. Huggonson, next to Kent's Coffee-house, near Serjeant's-inn, in Chancery-lane; at the bookseller's and pamphletshops. 453: 4058:, became a well-known conservation issue. A major and very costly captive breeding program was run in the United States to rescue the 2644:

Parasitism is widespread in the animal kingdom, and has evolved independently from free-living forms hundreds of times. Many types of

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were used to reinforce the shock effect. The scene was filmed in a single take, and the startled reaction of the actors was genuine.

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is probably a facultative endoparasite (i.e., it is semiparasitic) that opportunistically burrows into and eats sick and dying fish.

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independently made the first discovery of the life cycle of a trematode, the sheep liver fluke, by experiment in 1881–1883. In 1877

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alludes to hyperparasitism in his 1733 poem "On Poetry: A Rhapsody", comparing poets to "vermin" who "teaze and pinch their foes":

3706:, relying instead on their hosts for transport. Trait loss more generally is widespread among parasites. An extreme example is the 9673: 8082: 7455: 5926: 5782: 5172: 3029:

causing disease. Parasitic bacteria are extremely diverse, and infect their hosts by a variety of routes. To give a few examples,

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are endoparasitic. They cause serious diseases in vertebrates including humans—in these examples, malaria, sleeping sickness, and

1576:, a bumblebee which invades the hives of other bees and takes over reproduction while their young are raised by host workers, and 5061: 3612: 935: 8364: 6077: 5045: 2656:

have complete life cycles involving two or more hosts. By far the largest group is the parasitoid wasps in the Hymenoptera. The

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Westwood, James H.; Yoder, John I.; Timko, Michael P.; dePamphilis, Claude W. (2010). "The evolution of parasitism in plants".

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that signal they are being attacked; one effect of this is to attract parasitoid wasps, which in turn attack the caterpillars.

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closely resemble ectoparasites, attacking much larger plants; they serve as vectors of bacteria, fungi and viruses which cause

9893: 3547:. Flamingos and grebes do have a common ancestor, implying cospeciation of birds and lice in these groups. Flamingo lice then 1599:

Intraspecific social parasitism occurs in parasitic nursing, where some individual young take milk from unrelated females. In

10983: 10954: 10926: 10900: 10867: 10780: 10745: 10645: 10611: 10582: 10325: 10242: 9919: 9098: 8742: 8660: 8633: 8550: 7925: 7428: 7347: 7320: 7154: 6473: 6439: 6135: 5874: 5416: 5324: 5104: 4918: 4034: 1621:, the hosts act as parents as they raise the young as their own. Brood parasites include birds in different families such as 10479:

Hoddle, M. S.; Van Driesche, R. G.; Sanderson, J. P. (1998). "Biology and Use of the Whitefly Parasitoid Encarsia Formosa".

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whenever the parasitoid is ready to moult. They may do this by producing hormones that mimic the host's moulting hormones (

7128: 5191:"Definitions of parasitism, considering its potentially opposing effects at different levels of hierarchical organization" 10126: 8913: 7337: 4798: 8678:"Parasite and host assemblages: embracing the reality will improve our knowledge of parasite transmission and virulence" 4526: 1070:

are insects which sooner or later kill their hosts, placing their relationship close to predation. Most parasitoids are

11774: 11032: 10810: 9323:"Construction and Utilization of Multiple Combs in Polistes canadensis in Relation to the Biology of a Predaceous Moth" 2752:, they are always obligate parasites, deriving all their food from their hosts. Some parasitic plants can locate their 1892:

Parasitism has an extremely wide taxonomic range, including animals, plants, fungi, protozoans, bacteria, and viruses.

926:. They have complex life cycles involving hosts of two or more species. In their juvenile stages they infect and often 200: 6758: 1688:

are specialised in pirating food from other seabirds, relentlessly chasing them down until they disgorge their catch.

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on top of the prey and the nest is then sealed. The parasitoid develops rapidly through its larval and pupal stages,

606:; and micropredation. These apply to parasites whose hosts are plants as well as animals. These strategies represent 208: 9239: 3715:, an ectoparasite of fish and the only animal known to have lost the ability to respire aerobically: its cells lack 11769: 4359:

is transmitted by mosquitoes. This 1897 notebook page records his first observations of the parasite in mosquitoes.

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to animals, plants and fungi, it is unclear whether they can themselves be described as living. They can be either

944: 807:, the testes of over two-thirds of their crab hosts degenerate sufficiently for these male crabs to develop female 8365:

Thanit Nonsrirach, Serge Morand, Alexis Ribas, Sita Manitkoon, Komsorn Lauprasert, Julien Claude (9 August 2023).

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Ponomarenko, A.G. (1976) A new insect from the Cretaceous of Transbaikalia, a possible parasite of pterosaurians.

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include a parasite, important in regulating host numbers. Perhaps 40 per cent of described species are parasitic.

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ants. A mechanism for the evolution of social parasitism was first proposed by Carlo Emery in 1909. Now known as "

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classify parasites in a variety of overlapping schemes, based on their interactions with their hosts and on their

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Ioli, A.; Petithory, J. C.; Theodorides, J. (1997). "Francesco Redi and the birth of experimental parasitology".

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Kokla, Anna; Melnyk, Charles W. (1 October 2018). "Developing a thief: Haustoria formation in parasitic plants".

5989: 3524: 1030: 10539: 10145: 3633:, which are more likely to feed on infected killifish than on uninfected fish. Another example is the protozoan 1725: 1086:. They can be divided into two groups, idiobionts and koinobionts, differing in their treatment of their hosts. 117:

characterised parasites as "predators that eat prey in units of less than one". Parasites include single-celled

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Blakeslee, April M. H.; Keogh, Carolyn L.; Fowler, Amy E.; Griffen, Blaine D.; Todd, Peter Alan (1 June 2015).

2922:, causative agent of the corn smut disease. Necrotrophic pathogens on the other hand, kill host cells and feed 317:

developed in the 19th century. In human culture, parasitism has negative connotations. These were exploited to

2944:) are estimated to kill 1.6 million people each year. One example of a potent fungal animal pathogen are 2940:

Pathogenic fungi are well-known causative agents of diseases on animals as well as humans. Fungal infections (

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Plant pathogenic fungi are classified into three categories depending on their mode of nutrition: biotrophs,

1596:", it states that social parasites tend to be closely related to their hosts, often being in the same genus. 617:

A perspective on the evolutionary options can be gained by considering four key questions: the effect on the

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Didier, E. S.; Stovall, M. E.; Green, L. C.; Brindley, P. J.; Sestak, K.; Didier, P. J. (9 December 2004).

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eggs in the fully developed larvae of their own species, producing male offspring, while the marine worm

826: 571:. As female scale insects cannot move, they are obligate parasites, permanently attached to their hosts. 9565:"Cross-talk between jasmonate and salicylate plant defense pathways: effects on several plant parasites" 9365:"Plant defenses against parasitic plants show similarities to those induced by herbivores and pathogens" 5314: 5094: 3047:, which can survive for years outside the body, can enter a host through an abrasion or may be inhaled. 1503: 42: 11754: 11383: 11267: 10859: 8572: 7066: 4761: 4608: 3874:

Insects often adapt their nests to reduce parasitism. For example, one of the key reasons why the wasp

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recorded human and animal parasites including roundworms, threadworms, the Guinea worm and tapeworms.

11893: 10847: 10682: 9114: 8932:"Altered behavior of parasitized killifish increases susceptibility to predation by bird final hosts" 5692: 5388: 4647: 4592: 4113: 4054: 3954: 3335: 1369: 953: 900:-transmitted parasites are transmitted by being eaten by a host. They include trematodes (all except 847: 383: 63: 38: 17: 9806: 9652: 7244:"Quantifying the unquantifiable: why Hymenoptera, not Coleoptera, is the most speciose animal order" 6914:"A novel method of rejection of brood parasitic eggs reduces parasitism intensity in a cowbird host" 6685: 5737: 5614: 4543:

Several groups of parasites, including microbial pathogens and parasitoidal wasps have been used as

3884:, rather than building a single comb like much of the rest of its genus, is to avoid infestation by 11919: 11168: 11108: 9563:

Thaler, Jennifer S.; Karban, Richard; Ullman, Diane E.; Boege, Karina; Bostock, Richard M. (2002).

8589: 5356: 4853:

conspicuous point: this gets the parasites transmitted at the cost of the intermediate host's life.

4439: 11005:

Parasitology Resources on the World Wide Web: A Powerful Tool for Infectious Disease Practitioners

6738:

Emery, Carlo (1909). "Über den Ursprung der dulotischen, parasitischen un myrmekophilen Ameisen".

3807:

detect chemicals produced by the skin to locate their hosts when they enter the water. Vertebrate

1684:

in the same family. Kleptoparasitism is uncommon generally but conspicuous in birds; some such as

1049:, have infective stages in the host's blood which are transported to new hosts by biting insects. 482:, a close and persistent long-term biological interaction between a parasite and its host. Unlike 71: 11873: 11082: 4619: 4461: 4314: 4302: 4182: 4098: 4085: 3971: 3128: 1603:, higher ranking females sometimes take milk from low ranking females without any reciprocation. 1495: 871: 610:; intermediate strategies are possible, but organisms in many different groups have consistently 292: 249: 10761: 7471:

which appeared in Spanish as Chapter 2, pp. 7–27 in: J. A. López-Sáez, P. Catalán and L. Sáez ,

6716: 6431: 6423: 4801:

bursts out of the chest of a dead man, with blood squirting out under high pressure assisted by

4080: 59:

Relationship between species where one organism lives on or in another organism, causing it harm

11202: 11025: 10946: 10388: 9756:"Assessing the Effects of Trematode Infection on Invasive Green Crabs in Eastern North America" 9647: 6680: 6372:

butterflies achieve elevated status in host societies by mimicking the acoustics of queen ants"

6127: 4870:

is a solitary predator, hunting alone. Neither strategy is conventionally considered parasitic.

4499: 4438:

to investigate. Ross confirmed that the prediction was correct in 1897–1898. At the same time,

4324: 4281: 3640: 3611:

in order to increase their transmission between hosts, often in relation to predator and prey (

3569: 3087: 1584: 1306: 393: 261: 10735: 10572: 10317: 10311: 9088: 8650: 6463: 3464:, which were similar in the two families. Cospeciation did occur, but it led to flamingos and 3433:

Competition between parasites can be expected to favour faster reproducing and therefore more

11929: 11518: 11367: 11227: 10635: 9871:"IJEE Soapbox: World free of parasites and vectors: Would it be heaven, or would it be hell?" 8418: 8367:"First discovery of parasite eggs in a vertebrate coprolite of the Late Triassic in Thailand" 7310: 6838:

O'Brien, Timothy G. (1988). "Parasitic nursing behavior in the wedge-capped capuchin monkey (

6316:

Dissanaike, A. S. (1957). "On Protozoa hyperparasitic in Helminth, with some observations on

5864: 5392: 5246: 4823: 4578: 4508: 4384: 4212: 4105: 4074: 3740: 3589: 2841:

can be total; despite extensive research, no method of control has been entirely successful.

1600: 1267: 1262: 976: 948: 599: 518: 10017:

Lafferty, Kevin D.; Allesina, Stefano; Arim, Matias; Briggs, Cherie J.; et al. (2008).

6258:"Odours of Plasmodium falciparum-infected participants influence mosquito–host interactions" 6119: 3984:

Parasites can play a role in the proliferation of non-native species. For example, invasive

11801: 11317: 11292: 11232: 11060: 11041: 10030: 9767: 9639: 9576: 9436: 9376: 9179: 8946: 8881: 8771: 8378: 8269: 8255: 8154: 7872: 7679: 7255: 7198: 7112: 6666: 6623: 6551: 6501: 6269: 5585: 5530: 5483: 4951: 4780: 4729: 4421: 4394: 4293: 4176: 3859: 3658: 3585: 3580:

hosts (those within their same geographical area) more effectively, as has been shown with

3513: 3236: 3092: 3073: 2960: 2908:

derive some or all of their nutritional requirements from plants, other fungi, or animals.

2826: 1651: 1578: 1378: 1279: 1278:

Parasites use a variety of methods to infect animal hosts, including physical contact, the

1272: 779: 763: 611: 526: 448: 181: 10363: 6205:"Networks and the ecology of parasite transmission: A framework for wildlife parasitology" 5126:"Ecological and Evolutionary Stabilities of Biotrophism, Necrotrophism, and Saprotrophism" 8: 11914: 11888: 11742: 11247: 11133: 11077: 7444: 4479: 4400: 4253: 3876: 3784: 3736: 3711: 3532: 3376: 3026: 3020: 2008: 1406: 1319: 931: 889: 785: 591: 491: 464: 257: 10034: 9771: 9643: 9624: 9580: 9440: 9380: 9183: 8950: 8885: 8775: 8443:"The hygiene hypothesis and the increasing prevalence of chronic inflammatory disorders" 8401: 8382: 8366: 8273: 8158: 7918:

Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology (Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews Series)

7876: 7683: 7485:

Nickrent, D. L.; Musselman, L. J. (2004). "Introduction to Parasitic Flowering Plants".

7259: 7202: 7116: 6627: 6555: 6505: 6273: 5891: 5589: 5534: 5487: 5215: 5190: 4955: 3383:

are often clearly harmed, such infections may also reduce the prevalence and effects of

2984: 2871: 11883: 11533: 11331: 11128: 11087: 11072: 11004: 10852: 10711: 10686: 10157: 10102: 10075: 10051: 10018: 9846: 9821: 9790: 9755: 9716: 9691: 9600: 9542: 9397: 9364: 9342: 9295: 9268: 9202: 9167: 9069: 9017: 8988: 8962: 8905: 8839: 8814: 8795: 8702: 8677: 8539: 8514: 8489: 8333: 8292: 8257: 8233: 8206: 8177: 8142: 8113: 8058: 8031: 7969: 7942: 7898: 7836: 7811: 7708: 7623: 7568: 7556: 7448: 7396: 7286: 7243: 7224: 7021: 6938: 6913: 6867: 6816: 6698: 6644: 6611: 6569: 6517: 6396: 6367: 6345: 6290: 6257: 6229: 6204: 6177: 6152: 6053: 6028: 5918: 5840: 5815: 5721: 5696: 5645: 5554: 5499: 5408: 5164: 5125: 4972: 4940:"Biomass transformation webs provide a unified approach to consumer-resource modelling" 4939: 4544: 4521: 4307: 4163: 4143: 3897: 3520: 3347: 3339: 3105: 3031: 2861: 2757: 2736:, which penetrate the host plants, connecting them to the conductive system—either the 1853: 1708: 539: 8256:

Wolff, Ewan D. S.; Salisbury, Steven W.; Horner, John R.; Varrichio, David J. (2009).

6589:"On the Biology of the Inhabitants of Oak Galls of Cynipidae (Hymenoptera) in Britain" 5778: 4341:, marking it as the first disease of humans with a known microscopic causative agent. 3313:. This rare find in Thailand reveals more about the ecology of prehistoric parasites. 1258: 11878: 11523: 11103: 11018: 10950: 10922: 10915: 10896: 10863: 10741: 10716: 10687:"What's in a name? Taxonomic and gender biases in the etymology of new species names" 10641: 10607: 10578: 10496: 10408: 10321: 10292: 10238: 10210: 10149: 10107: 10056: 10042: 9959: 9915: 9851: 9795: 9721: 9665: 9592: 9564: 9503: 9499: 9464: 9459: 9424: 9402: 9322: 9300: 9207: 9141: 9137: 9094: 9073: 9061: 9022: 8897: 8844: 8787: 8738: 8707: 8656: 8629: 8581: 8546: 8519: 8462: 8406: 8297: 8238: 8182: 8105: 8063: 8012: 7974: 7921: 7890: 7841: 7792: 7753: 7713: 7695: 7627: 7615: 7607: 7560: 7525: 7424: 7388: 7380: 7343: 7316: 7291: 7273: 7228: 7216: 7150: 7124: 7017: 6943: 6898: 6859: 6820: 6649: 6588: 6564: 6539: 6469: 6459: 6435: 6401: 6337: 6295: 6234: 6182: 6131: 6120: 6058: 6006: 5910: 5870: 5845: 5726: 5603: 5546: 5463: 5422: 5412: 5320: 5291: 5220: 5168: 5156: 5148: 5100: 4977: 4963: 4914: 4486:

to kill off the parasites in the blood, the eradication of its mosquito vectors with

4483: 4337: 4277: 4240: 4059: 4039: 3945: 3824: 3803:, which is toxic to most microorganisms. On the other hand, larger parasites such as 3795:

of reptiles, birds and mammals keeps invading microorganisms from entering the body.

3672: 3635: 3560: 3523:(SFV) and its primate hosts. The phylogenies of SFV polymerase and the mitochondrial 3438: 3371:

Long-term coevolution sometimes leads to a relatively stable relationship tending to

3255: 3081:, is spread by the fecal–oral route from animals, or by eating insufficiently cooked 2895: 2877: 2857: 2713: 1874: 1734: 1697: 1634: 1515: 1098: 1017: 851: 774: 646: 618: 522: 499: 306: 241: 154: 130: 126: 10161: 9986:"Everything in Moderation: Principles of Parasite Control for Wildlife Conservation" 9870: 9822:"Possible Role of Fish and Frogs as Paratenic Hosts of Dracunculus medinensis, Chad" 9604: 9546: 9346: 8332:

Zhang, Yanjie; Shih, Chungkun; Rasnitsyn, Alexandr; Ren, Dong; Gao, Taiping (2020).

7572: 7400: 7025: 6871: 6702: 6573: 6521: 6457: 6349: 5649: 5503: 510:

has characterised parasites as "predators that eat prey in units of less than one".

506:

is by definition not a symbiosis, as the interaction is brief, but the entomologist

11924: 11747: 11528: 11360: 11287: 11272: 10706: 10698: 10488: 10400: 10202: 10141: 10097: 10087: 10046: 10038: 9997: 9951: 9885: 9841: 9833: 9785: 9775: 9711: 9703: 9657: 9584: 9534: 9495: 9454: 9444: 9392: 9384: 9334: 9290: 9280: 9197: 9187: 9133: 9053: 9012: 9004: 8954: 8909: 8889: 8834: 8826: 8799: 8779: 8730: 8697: 8689: 8509: 8501: 8454: 8396: 8386: 8345: 8287: 8277: 8228: 8218: 8172: 8162: 8117: 8097: 8053: 8043: 8004: 7964: 7954: 7902: 7880: 7831: 7823: 7812:"Transmission and epidemiology of zoonotic protozoal diseases of companion animals" 7784: 7772: 7743: 7703: 7687: 7599: 7552: 7517: 7490: 7372: 7281: 7263: 7206: 7120: 7013: 6976: 6933: 6925: 6894: 6885:

Rothstein, S. I. (1990). "A model system for coevolution: avian brood parasitism".

6851: 6812: 6690: 6639: 6631: 6559: 6509: 6391: 6383: 6329: 6285: 6277: 6224: 6216: 6172: 6164: 6048: 6040: 5998: 5902: 5835: 5827: 5774: 5716: 5708: 5637: 5593: 5558: 5538: 5491: 5404: 5281: 5210: 5202: 5140: 4967: 4959: 4802: 4614: 4531: 4356: 4328: 4070: 3993: 3992:

on the Eastern Atlantic coast. This helps them outcompete native crabs such as the

3775: 3764: 3744: 3176: 3141:, by injecting its DNA through its tail, which attaches to the bacterium's surface. 3137: 2949: 2941: 2789:(broomrapes) are among the most economically destructive of all plants. Species of 2773: 1832: 1744: 1669: 1663: 1618: 1612: 1572: 1494:

Hyperparasites can control their hosts' populations, and are used for this purpose

468: 326: 10492: 10404: 9168:"A cnidarian parasite of salmon (Myxozoa: Henneguya) lacks a mitochondrial genome" 7521: 6694: 5922: 4146:

and tapeworms are mentioned in Egyptian papyrus records from 3000 BC onwards; the

1882:(lower left), is also an adelphoparasite, laying eggs in larvae of its own species 1015:

arthropods such as fleas, lice, ticks, and mosquitoes. For example, the deer tick

11855: 11727: 11706: 10910: 10666: 10599: 10546: 10092: 9780: 8623: 8458: 8391: 8282: 7788: 7543:

Leake, J. R. (1994). "The biology of myco-heterotrophic ('saprophytic') plants".

6963:"A parasite in wolf's clothing: hawk mimicry reduces mobbing of cuckoos by hosts" 6781: 6458:

Slater, Peter J. B.; Rosenblatt, Jay S.; Snowdon, Charles T.; Roper, Timothy J.;

6220: 4806: 4784: 4564: 4495: 4491: 4473: 4409: 4405: 4319: 4233: 4003:

Ecological parasitology can be important to attempts at control, like during the

3985: 3962:

Parasitism and parasite evolution were until the twenty-first century studied by

3404: 3118: 3078: 3058: 3040: 2899: 2865: 2822: 2777: 2721: 2674: 2661: 1879: 1858: 1835:, relentlessly pursuing other seabirds until they disgorge their catches of food. 1713: 1647: 1593: 1562: 1544:

Social parasites take advantage of interspecific interactions between members of

1539: 1507: 1137: 1071: 1062: 971: 831: 568: 358: 297: 215:

at a faster rate than their hosts. Classic examples include interactions between

81: 10478: 9090:

On the Wing: Insects, Pterosaurs, Birds, Bats and the Evolution of Animal Flight

7995:; Rohwer, F. (2005). "Here a virus, there a virus, everywhere the same virus?". 7748: 7731: 7667: 7641: 7587: 7376: 7242:

Forbes, Andrew A.; Bagley, Robin K.; Beer, Marc A.; et al. (12 July 2018).

6002: 5517:

Lawrence, P. O. (1981). "Host vibration—a cue to host location by the parasite,

3763:

encourages the growth of secondary sex characteristics, favouring such males in

1637:. These do not build nests of their own, but leave their eggs in nests of other 11830: 11806: 11789: 11584: 11123: 10986:—class outline with links to full text articles on parasitism and parasitology. 10977:

Parasitic Insects, Mites and Ticks: Genera of Medical and Veterinary Importance

10662: 9955: 9483: 9420: 8866: 8619: 7691: 7603: 7494: 7211: 7186: 7093: 6281: 4751: 4681: 4583: 4413: 4273: 4257: 4238:

wrote the first description of a trematode endoparasite, the sheep liver fluke

4199: 4155: 4135: 4130: 3963: 3905: 3832: 3732: 3215: 3196: 2955: 2761: 2753: 2749: 2216: 1808: 1348: 992: 986: 966: 951:

takes place in a single primary host, can sometimes occur in helminths such as

909: 575: 495: 472: 334: 322: 302: 280: 189: 106: 10206: 10165: 9588: 8815:"Reinterpreting the origins of flamingo lice: cospeciation or host-switching?" 8141:

Dobson, A.; Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M.; Hechinger, R. F.; Jetz, W. (2008).

8008: 7268: 6513: 6366:

Thomas, J. A.; Schönrogge, K.; Bonelli, S.; Barbero, F.; Balletto, E. (2010).

6333: 6027:

Pollitt, Laura C.; MacGregor, Paula; Matthews, Keith; Reece, Sarah E. (2011).

5906: 5831: 5712: 5598: 5573: 5495: 5206: 4286:

Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi

4204:

Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi

3896:

Plants respond to parasite attack with a series of chemical defences, such as

11908: 11840: 11835: 11794: 11784: 11732: 11547: 11497: 11492: 11411: 11282: 10971: 10884: 9065: 8758:

Switzer, William M.; Salemi, Marco; Shanmugam, Vedapuri; et al. (2005).

8611: 7992: 7699: 7611: 7384: 7277: 6824: 6044: 5816:"Infestation of parasitic barnacle Sacculina spp. in commercial marine crabs" 5152: 4818: 4765: 4639: 4382:, protozoal infections of the intestines and the liver, though the pathogen, 4147: 3901: 3828: 3703: 3666: 3648: 3536: 3414: 3400: 3387:

disorders in animal hosts, including humans. In a more extreme example, some

3282: 3270: 3261: 3221: 3204: 3168: 3155: 3132: 2945: 2912: 2785: 1773: 1519: 1483: 1478: 1341: 812: 548: 459: 276: 170: 105:, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the 76: 10737:

Networking: Communicating with Bodies and Machines in the Nineteenth Century

10002: 9985: 9889: 9192: 8734: 8223: 8167: 6981: 6962: 6782:"Über den Ursprung der dulotischen, parasitischen und myrmekophilen Ameisen" 11860: 11737: 11625: 11446: 11436: 11222: 11113: 10940: 10720: 10702: 10500: 10448: 10412: 10296: 10249:

The 19th century might be thought of as the genesis of modern parasitology.

10214: 10153: 10111: 10060: 9963: 9855: 9837: 9799: 9725: 9669: 9661: 9596: 9507: 9449: 9406: 9304: 9211: 9145: 9026: 9008: 8901: 8848: 8830: 8791: 8711: 8693: 8615: 8585: 8523: 8505: 8466: 8410: 8350: 8301: 8242: 8186: 8109: 8067: 8048: 8016: 7978: 7959: 7894: 7845: 7796: 7757: 7717: 7619: 7564: 7529: 7392: 7295: 7220: 6947: 6929: 6912:

De Marsico, M. C.; Gloag, R.; Ursino, C. A.; Reboreda, J. C. (March 2013).

6863: 6855: 6653: 6635: 6405: 6341: 6299: 6238: 6186: 6168: 6062: 6010: 5914: 5849: 5730: 5607: 5550: 5426: 5295: 5224: 5160: 5003: 4981: 4906: 4793: 4788: 4734: 4702: 4574: 4570: 4552: 4375: 4369: 4280:. Redi noted that parasites develop from eggs, contradicting the theory of 4167: 4159: 3949: 3760: 3716: 3691: 3540: 3516:, that the phylogenies of the host and parasite come to mirror each other. 3509: 3493: 3478: 3449: 3384: 3372: 3054: 2965: 2804: 2701: 2689: 2577: 2507: 2472: 2148: 1933: 1769: 1022: 913: 901: 556: 552: 507: 487: 435: 353: 348: 314: 288: 284: 212: 114: 87: 10341: 10309: 9468: 9388: 9041: 6387: 5697:"Evolution of parasitism along convergent lines: from ecology to genomics" 3025:

Many bacteria are parasitic, though they are more generally thought of as

897: 595: 185: 11681: 11666: 11661: 11651: 11646: 11630: 11589: 11579: 11426: 11421: 11416: 11237: 11157: 11118: 10936: 10574:

24 Hours in Ancient Rome: A Day in the Life of the People Who Lived There

9707: 9057: 8485: 7827: 6612:"The role of hyperparasitism in microbial pathogen ecology and evolution" 4769: 4747: 4716:

relatives or friends of the author has risen sharply in the same period.

4627: 4548: 4487: 4435: 4417: 4389: 4352: 4348: 4139: 3912: 3909: 3885: 3548: 3497: 3484: 3469: 3291: 3276: 3227: 2997: 2923: 2853: 2745: 2725: 2679: 2612: 1792: 1748:

has a similar reproductive strategy, although the larvae are planktonic.

1567: 1531: 1247: 1219: 1183: 1121: 1094: 1075: 1045: 1012: 981: 940: 564: 344: 330: 146: 9486:(1996). "Sex against virulence: the coevolution of parasitic diseases". 8783: 8101: 6029:"Malaria and trypanosome transmission: different parasites, same rules?" 4227:(Account of the state, science and practice of the art of shepherding), 3839:, intracellular and cellular, that trigger the adaptive immune system's 3554: 884: 843: 835:

chemically, developing in its gonad and killing its reproductive cells.

11701: 11696: 11686: 11609: 11599: 11487: 11461: 11451: 11338: 11297: 11147: 11010: 10193:

Cox, Francis E. G. (June 2004). "History of human parasitic diseases".

9338: 8966: 5542: 5441:"Parasitism | The Encyclopedia of Ecology and Environmental Management" 4773: 4539:

horticulture, was one of the first biological control agents developed.

4536: 4457: 4430: 4379: 4297: 3997: 3840: 3796: 3707: 3425:

and bacteria, though the sequence of events remains largely undefined.

3100: 3008: 2991: 2928: 2882: 2733: 2607: 2572: 2537: 2502: 2467: 2430: 2391: 2356: 2326: 2043: 1940: 1848: 1828: 1788: 1739: 1703: 1677: 1535: 1423: 1312: 1239: 1231: 1227: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1104: 1067: 1058: 1039: 1026: 922: 917: 607: 603: 514: 483: 374: 229: 216: 193: 110: 10998: 10269:] (in French). Société Française de Parasitologie. pp. 26–29. 7039:

Maggenti, Armand R.; Maggenti, Mary Ann; Gardner, Scott Lyell (2005).

6365: 6157:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

5807: 799:

specifically cause damage to the gonads of their many species of host

11850: 11779: 11722: 11691: 11671: 11656: 11604: 11594: 11574: 11569: 11556: 11466: 11456: 11441: 11431: 11391: 11352: 11325: 11310: 11304: 9425:"Sexual reproduction as an adaptation to resist parasites (a review)" 9285: 8893: 8029: 7773:"Epidemiology of microsporidiosis: sources and modes of transmission" 5814:

Elumalai, V.; Viswanathan, C.; Pravinkumar, M.; Raffi, S. M. (2013).

4677: 4623: 4597: 4587: 4444: 3989: 3967: 3881: 3863: 3804: 3626: 3434: 3418: 3393: 3363: 3342:

applies similar evolutionary thinking to non-parasitic diseases like

3310: 3306: 3172: 3096: 3003: 2917: 2813: 2709: 2653: 2649: 2255: 2181: 2116: 2111: 2080: 2075: 2038: 1588:, an obligate parasite which lives exclusively on the backs of other 1557: 1447: 1397: 1187: 1141: 1089: 1079: 867: 817: 795: 503: 479: 268: 245: 224: 220: 204: 162: 98: 11198: 9522: 9362: 8958: 8759: 7885: 7860: 7666:

Chowdhury, Supriyo; Basu, Arpita; Kundu, Surekha (8 December 2017).

7309:

Morand, Serge; Krasnov, Boris R.; Littlewood, D. Timothy J. (2015).

4398:

in humans in 1835. James McConnell described the human liver fluke,

4344: 4069:, they usually occupy the top position. Parasites can function like 3739:

could have evolved to help to defeat multiple parasites by enabling

1206: 768: 11676: 11564: 9538: 6368:"Corruption of ant acoustical signals by mimetic social parasites: 5813: 5641: 5286: 5270:"Classification of Human Parasites, Vectors, and Similar Organisms" 5269: 5144: 4292:), Redi described and illustrated over 100 parasites including the 4217: 4151: 4066: 3978: 3940: 3812: 3644: 3577: 3453: 3388: 3380: 3299: 3295: 3265: 3243: 3110: 3049: 2800: 2712:

derives some of its nutrients from another living plant, whereas a

2645: 2435: 2321: 2291: 2286: 2250: 2003: 1967: 1626: 1545: 1499: 1488: 1335: 1210: 1179: 1083: 1008: 1000: 996: 905: 863: 790: 535: 525:

depends completely on the host to complete its life cycle, while a

272: 256:, grading via parasitoidism into predation, through evolution into 158: 142: 134: 118: 10989: 9269:"Parasite immunomodulation and polymorphisms of the immune system" 8447:

Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene

8442: 5574:"Multi-cue integration: how female mosquitoes locate a human host" 4206:(Observations on living animals found inside living animals), 1684 3488:, virulence depended on the relative potency of the antimicrobial 1286:

Examples of transmission methods in different ecological contexts

11816: 11502: 11482: 11406: 11242: 11206: 11199: 11152: 11142: 10391:(March 2006). "Sir David Bruce, a pioneer of tropical medicine". 7985: 5462:

Caira, J. N.; Benz, G. W.; Borucinska, J.; Kohler, N. E. (1997).

4756: 4442:

and others described the malaria parasite's life cycle stages in

4425: 4332: 4112:

of data before the application of parametric test, or the use of

3924: 3820: 3752: 3581: 3422: 3188: 3164: 3082: 3036: 2834: 2808: 2769: 2684: 2542: 2361: 1972: 1812: 1654:, giving her time to lay her eggs in the host's nest unobserved. 1642: 1638: 1622: 1553: 1429: 1243: 1235: 1117: 1108: 1034: 859: 531: 339: 253: 122: 102: 10675: 10310:

Bush, A. O.; Fernández, J. C.; Esch, G. W.; Seed, J. R. (2001).

9935:

Hudson, Peter J.; Dobson, Andrew P.; Lafferty, Kevin D. (2006).

3551:

to ducks, creating the situation which had confused biologists.

3476:

Among competing parasitic insect-killing bacteria of the genera

2926:, an example being the root-colonising honey fungi in the genus 2817:

also threatens a wide range of other important crops, including

1242:, other arthropods such as fleas and ticks, vertebrates such as 11821: 11811: 8030:

Lawrence, C. M.; Menon, S.; Eilers, B. J.; et al. (2009).

6540:"Weather-mediated regulation of olive scale by two parasitoids" 4867: 4668:

in popular usage. According to the immunologist John Playfair,

4642:, the concept of the parasite was not strictly pejorative: the 4306:

seen in dogs and sheep as parasitic; a century later, in 1760,

4170:

called tapeworms "hailstones". The Roman physicians Celsus and

3920: 3848: 3844: 3808: 3791:

The physical barrier of the tough and often dry and waterproof

3343: 3200: 3063: 2970: 2845: 2830: 2791: 2741: 2717: 2693: 2657: 1630: 1439: 927: 377: 318: 166: 9119:"Evolution of parasite life history traits: myths and reality" 8484: 7473:

Parasitic Plants of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands

7235: 4268:), explicitly described ecto- and endoparasites, illustrating 4073:, reducing the dominance of superior competitors and allowing 3819:

of invading bacteria. Should the organism pass the mouth, the

3391:

worms cannot reproduce, or even survive, without infection by

7916:

Fisher, Bruce; Harvey, Richard P.; Champe, Pamela C. (2007).

7507: 7092:

Berec, Ludek; Schembri, Patrick J.; Boukal, David S. (2005).

6911: 6026: 4503: 4424:

transmitted by mosquitoes. Manson further predicted that the

4310:

correctly suggested that these were the larvae of tapeworms.

4269: 4225:

Traité de l'état, science et pratique de l'art de la Bergerie

4171: 3916: 3800: 3687: 3630: 3544: 3489: 3465: 3461: 3192: 3160: 3151: 3124: 3044: 2905: 2849: 2737: 2729: 2396: 1685: 1223: 1004: 560: 150: 9737: 9735: 9625:"Specific and non-specific defense against parasitic attack" 9523:"Parasites, Bright Males, and the Immunocompetence Handicap" 8760:"Ancient co-speciation of simian foamy viruses and primates" 8610: 8140: 6671:

bees selectively detect and infiltrate queenless colonies".

6428:

Host–parasite evolution: General principles and avian models

6254: 3358: 10146:

10.1645/0022-3395(2000)086[0228:QPISOH]2.0.CO;2

9753: 9683: 7940: 7414: 7412: 7410: 4863: 3792: 3780: 3756: 3699: 3695: 3457: 3302: 3287: 3068: 2818: 2765: 1435: 1113: 800: 310: 234: 138: 10552: 10429:. The College of Physicians of Philadelphia. 19 April 2017 10016: 9165: 8676:

Rigaud, T.; Perrot-Minnot, M.-J.; Brown, M. J. F. (2010).

7770: 7098:(Echiura: Bonelliidae): population dynamics and evolution" 1756:

Examples of the major variant strategies are illustrated.

1502:. The controlling effects can be seen in the way that the 10781:"This is clearly an important species we're dealing with" 10457: 10313:

Parasitism: The Diversity and Ecology of Animal Parasites

9732: 8757: 8143:"Homage to Linnaeus: How many parasites? How many hosts?" 6996:

Furness, R. W. (1978). "Kleptoparasitism by great skuas (

5461: 3867: 3184: 3180: 2811:, which are among the world's most important food crops. 1681: 1549: 325:'s 1733 poem "On Poetry: A Rhapsody", comparing poets to 10685:; McDougall, Cameron; Presswell, Bronwen (11 May 2022). 10681: 10604:

The Mask of the Parasite: A Pathology of Roman Patronage

10282: 9692:"Plant Volatiles as a Defense against Insect Herbivores" 9363:

Runyon, J. B.; Mescher, M. C.; De Moraes, C. M. (2010).

9233:"Host–Parasite Interactions Innate Defenses of the Host" 8675: 7407: 5892:"Concomitant infections, parasites and immune responses" 5797: 5795: 3923:

release increased amounts of volatile chemicals such as

3195:

envelope. They thus lack all the usual machinery of the

10691:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

10076:"Parasites in Food Webs: Untangling the Entangled Bank" 9937:"Is a healthy ecosystem one that is rich in parasites?" 9562: 8812: 8725:

Page, Roderic D. M. (27 January 2006). "Cospeciation".

8682:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

8494:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

8032:"Structural and functional studies of archaeal viruses" 7991: 7920:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 332–353. 7308: 7038: 6453: 6451: 6022: 6020: 5468:(Synaphobranchidae) from the heart of a shortfin mako, 4586:, selection could cause delayed maturity and increased 4577:

in domestic sheep and cattle constitutes a worldwide un

1811:, the host raises the young of another species, here a 1491:

systems, there can be up to five levels of parasitism.

10549:

European Commission (2008). Accessed on 9 January 2017

8986: 8867:"Parasite adaptation to locally common host genotypes" 7941:

Koonin, E. V.; Senkevich, T. G.; Dolja, V. V. (2006).

7241: 7168: 7166: 6610:

Parratt, Steven R.; Laine, Anna-Liisa (January 2016).

5687: 5685: 5683: 5681: 5679: 4290:

Observations on Living Animals found in Living Animals

4065:

Although parasites are often omitted in depictions of

1271:, an anaerobic parasitic protozoan transmitted by the 10796:"5 Alien Parasites and Their Real-World Counterparts" 10124: 10010: 9690:

Paré, Paul W.; Tumlinson, James H. (1 October 1999).

9419: 8987:

Berdoy, M.; Webster, J. P.; Macdonald, D. W. (2000).

8813:

Johnson, K. P.; Kennedy, M.; McCracken, K. G (2006).

8480: 8478: 8476: 8331: 8258:"Common Avian Infection Plagued the Tyrant Dinosaurs" 7478: 6113: 6111: 6109: 6107: 5792: 5677: 5675: 5673: 5671: 5669: 5667: 5665: 5663: 5661: 5659: 5393:"The Many Roads to Parasitism: A Tale of Convergence" 3966:, in a science dominated by medicine, rather than by 3512:

with its host, resulting in the pattern described in

1167:

inside their hosts, which continue to grow and moult.

893:, the Chinese liver fluke, is trophically transmitted 10019:"Parasites in food webs: the ultimate missing links" 9934: 7048:. University of Nebraska. p. 22. Archived from 6538:

Rochat, Jacques; Gutierrez, Andrew Paul (May 2001).

6448: 6017: 5760:"Trophic strategies, animal diversity and body size" 5753: 5751: 5749: 5747: 4884: 4388:, was not discovered until 1873 by Friedrich Lösch. 3948:

was a successful if very expensive project, but its

2732:

in the world. All these plants have modified roots,

1213:

are micropredators, and important vectors of disease

305:

described internal and external parasites including

10540:

Encouraging innovation in biopesticide development.

10260: 8806: 7163: 7091: 4590:. Such changes appear to be underway: the nematode 3067:, from the diseases' reservoirs in animals such as 2860:plants, mostly in the tropics, however effectively 1140:

immediately paralyse their hosts for their larvae (

947:, where (by exception) the whole of the parasite's 829:lack mouths, castrates the intertidal marine snail 626:

Evolutionary strategies in parasitism and predation

113:structurally to this way of life. The entomologist 10914: 10851: 9514: 9475: 8538: 8473: 7915: 7665: 7588:"Biotrophic Fungal Pathogens: a Critical Overview" 6593:Transactions of the Society for British Entomology 6104: 5656: 3767:, at the price of reducing their immune defences. 3629:host to avoid predators. This parasite matures in 3592:hosts, those from different geographical regions. 3428: 3353: 3338:analyses how parasites spread and evolve, whereas 1222:, feeding on blood. They include annelids such as 9983: 9928: 8751: 8490:"Interference competition and parasite virulence" 7501: 7484: 7356: 7184: 7085: 6311: 6309: 5744: 5627: 5340:Vecchione, Anna; Aznar, Francisco Javier (2008). 3851:. These have receptors that recognise parasites. 2748:and therefore cannot make food for themselves by 2720:derives all of its nutrients from another plant. 1124:), or by regulating the host's endocrine system. 543:cycle outside of the host or on the host's body. 403: 'one who eats at the table of another' 11906: 10629: 10627: 10228: 10226: 10224: 9984:Stringer, Andrew Paul; Linklater, Wayne (2014). 7943:"The ancient Virus World and evolution of cells" 6603: 5239:"A Classification of Animal-Parasitic Nematodes" 5117: 4317:observed and illustrated the protozoan parasite 4262:Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione degl'Insetti 3584:infecting lake snails. This is in line with the 3061:, is transmitted by vectors, ticks of the genus 1772:on the cocoons of its host, itself a parasitoid 513:Within that scope are many possible strategies. 184:, directly transmitted parasitism (by contact), 9429:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 9262: 9260: 9172:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8648: 8334:"A new flea from the Early Cretaceous of China" 8147:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 7852: 7418: 6960: 6537: 5112:parasitism may lead to disease, but not always. 4829:Effects of parasitic worms on the immune system 614:on these six, which are evolutionarily stable. 62:"Parasite" redirects here. For other uses, see 10125:Rózsa, L.; Reiczigel, J.; Majoros, G. (2000). 9618: 9616: 9614: 9558: 9556: 9358: 9356: 9316: 9314: 8929: 8200: 8198: 8196: 6487: 6485: 6306: 6250: 6248: 6198: 6196: 6151:Wilson, Anthony J.; et al. (March 2017). 6117: 5691: 5339: 4993: 4991: 4052:An ectoparasite, the California condor louse, 3676:is flightless, like many insect ectoparasites. 3568:in rats through infection of neurons in their 11368: 11184: 11026: 10740:. University of Michigan Press. p. 216. 10624: 10606:. University of Michigan Press. p. 148. 10221: 10118: 9977: 9689: 9520: 9481: 9413: 8864: 8488:; Buckling, A.; ffrench-Constant, R. (2004). 8136: 8134: 8080: 7810:Esch, K. J.; Petersen, C. A. (January 2013). 6954: 6905: 6533: 6531: 6361: 6359: 5757: 4494:. All of these have proven problematic, with 4452:for his work, while Grassi was not. In 1903, 4010: 2852:exchange carbon and nutrients in mutualistic 1861:permanently attached below the female's body. 1702:A unique approach is seen in some species of 1560:. Examples include the large blue butterfly, 1043:and sleeping-sickness parasites in the genus 789:crustaceans such as those in the specialised 10817: 10472: 10278: 10276: 9257: 9227: 9225: 9223: 9221: 8860: 8858: 8423:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 7809: 7437: 7144: 6802: 6609: 6417: 6415: 5980: 5383: 5381: 5379: 5377: 5309: 5307: 5305: 5182: 5123: 4901: 4899: 4866:is a social predator, hunting in packs; the 4450:controversially awarded the 1902 Nobel prize 1112:development, for example preventing it from 1011:(disease-causers). Their vectors are mostly 10802: 10787: 10195:Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 10188: 10186: 10184: 10182: 10180: 10178: 10127:"Quantifying parasites in samples of hosts" 9611: 9553: 9521:Folstad, Ivar; Karter, Andrew John (1992). 9353: 9311: 8436: 8434: 8193: 7861:"Adaptive Immunity: Care for the community" 7858: 7362: 6989: 6837: 6482: 6245: 6193: 5987:Steere, A. C. (July 2001). "Lyme disease". 5349:Journal of Marine Animals and Their Ecology 4988: 4931: 4913:. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 112. 4216:, completed in 1025, the Persian physician 3935: 3930: 3595: 3421:from an intracellular relationship between 3260:Parasitism is hard to demonstrate from the 3175:consisting of a single or double strand of 2799:infects both grasses and grains, including 731:Trophically-transmitted parasitic castrator 387: 23: 11375: 11361: 11191: 11177: 11033: 11019: 10994:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 10655: 10067: 8669: 8131: 7934: 7909: 7315:. Cambridge University Press. p. 44. 7187:"Biodiversity of hymenopteran parasitoids" 7185:Polaszek, Andrew; Vilhemsen, Lars (2023). 7149:. Oxford: Elsevier Science. pp. 4–7. 7138: 6773: 6528: 6356: 6315: 6144: 5391:(2011). Rollinson, D.; Hay, S. I. (eds.). 5188: 4999:"The Making of Alien's Chestburster Scene" 4456:identified the protozoan parasite and the 4300:. Redi was the first to name the cysts of 1680:lay their eggs in the nest cells of other 1253: 879: 429: 343:and its many later adaptations featured a 267:People have known about parasites such as 24: 11056:Coloration evidence for natural selection 10772: 10710: 10303: 10273: 10101: 10091: 10050: 10001: 9862: 9845: 9789: 9779: 9715: 9651: 9458: 9448: 9396: 9294: 9284: 9218: 9201: 9191: 9086: 9016: 8855: 8838: 8701: 8649:Sarkar, Sahotra; Plutynski, Anya (2008). 8530: 8513: 8400: 8390: 8349: 8291: 8281: 8232: 8222: 8176: 8166: 8057: 8047: 7968: 7958: 7884: 7835: 7747: 7707: 7285: 7267: 7210: 7042:Online Dictionary of Invertebrate Zoology 6980: 6937: 6884: 6805:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 6684: 6643: 6563: 6412: 6395: 6289: 6228: 6176: 6052: 5839: 5720: 5597: 5455: 5374: 5302: 5285: 5214: 5124:Suzuki, Sayaki U.; Sasaki, Akira (2019). 4971: 4896: 4698:And these have smaller fleas to bite 'em. 4612:"An Old Parasite in a New Form": an 1881 3095:and respiratory tract infections such as 934:. Many trophically transmitted parasites 11040: 10637:Living with Germs: In health and disease 10633: 10570: 10441: 10427:"Malaria and Malaria Vaccine Candidates" 10175: 9819: 9238:. University of Colorado. Archived from 9093:. Oxford University Press. p. 119. 9039: 8989:"Fatal attraction in rats infected with 8652:A Companion to the Philosophy of Biology 8431: 8023: 7803: 7443: 6887:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 6756: 5516: 5080:, Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert, 5064:, Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert, 5032:, Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert, 4733: 4607: 4603: 4525: 4343: 4266:Experiences of the Generation of Insects 4193: 4108:as commonly used by biologists invalid. 4079: 4005:campaign for eradicating the Guinea worm 3939: 3858: 3774: 3665: 3651:avoid cat odors, but rats infected with 3553: 3443: 3357: 3214: 3123: 2954: 2870: 2678: 1257: 1205: 1021:acts as a vector for diseases including 970: 883: 842: 767: 452: 369:First used in English in 1539, the word 260:, and in some fungi, shading into being 199:Like predation, parasitism is a type of 180:of exploitation of animal hosts, namely 70: 32:This is an accepted version of this page 10823: 10640:. Oxford University Press. p. 19. 10263:Sept siècles de parasitologie en France 9903: 9878:Israel Journal of Ecology and Evolution 9266: 8930:Lafferty, K. D.; Morris, A. K. (1996). 8207:"Where are the parasites in food webs?" 8204: 7335: 7329: 6995: 6831: 6491: 6426:. In Clayton, D. H.; Moore, J. (eds.). 6203:Godfrey, Stephanie S. (December 2013). 6202: 6118:Gullan, P. J.; Cranston, P. S. (2010). 6075: 5856: 5695:; Randhawa, Haseeb S. (February 2015). 4434:, had a mosquito vector, and persuaded 4092: 3613:parasite increased trophic transmission 3210: 2772:of parasitic plant in approximately 20 1815:'s egg, that has been laid in its nest. 1033:. Protozoan endoparasites, such as the 838: 757: 521:, which are sometimes very complex. An 14: 11907: 11382: 10846: 10808: 10793: 10558: 10316:. Cambridge University Press. p. 9909: 9899:from the original on 8 September 2015. 9741: 9423:; Axelrod, R.; Tanese, R. (May 1990). 9320: 9113: 8865:Lively, C. M.; Dybdahl, M. F. (2000). 8655:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 358. 8565: 8545:. Oxford University Press. p. 8. 7859:McFall-Ngai, Margaret (January 2007). 7764: 7592:Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 7585: 7312:Parasite Diversity and Diversification 7172: 6150: 6078:"Predation, Herbivory, and Parasitism" 5986: 5801: 5758:Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M. (2002). 5387: 5267: 5048:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, 4905: 4890: 1712:, where the males are reduced to tiny 816:diverting nutrients. For example, the 637:Intensity-independent: purple, italics 420: 'wheat, food'. The related term 361:to feature a parasitic alien species. 11356: 11172: 11014: 10661: 10597: 10447: 10387: 10232: 10073: 9622: 9159: 9040:Takasuka, Keizo (16 September 2019). 8536: 7586:Fei, Wang; Liu, Ye (11 August 2022). 7542: 6961:Welbergen, J.; Davies, N. B. (2011). 6779: 6737: 6586: 6421: 6122:The Insects: An Outline of Entomology 5932:from the original on 2 December 2017. 5862: 5571: 4515: 4488:organochlorine and other insecticides 4482:have been tried including the use of 4035:"Why you should care about parasites" 3787:prevents the entry of many parasites. 3103:, is transmitted by droplet contact. 3039:, is spread by contact with infected 2760:in the air or soil given off by host 960: 634: 10984:Aberystwyth University: Parasitology 10778: 10733: 10453:"Malaria vaccine gets 'green light'" 10393:British Journal of Hospital Medicine 10237:. Academic Press. pp. 120–134. 9868: 8724: 8718: 8440: 8127:from the original on 3 October 2019. 7419:Heide-Jørgensen, Henning S. (2008). 7342:. Pitambar Publishing. p. 115. 7134:from the original on 3 October 2019. 6717:"Social Parasites in the Ant Colony" 6430:. Oxford University Press. pp. 5946:. Australian Society of Parasitology 5869:. Elsevier Science. pp. 13–15. 4937: 4695:Hath smaller fleas that on him prey; 4569:Poulin observes that the widespread 3944:The rescuing from extinction of the 3747:and breeding male vertebrate hosts' 1719: 1691: 1525: 10766:The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction 10521:from the original on 27 August 2016 10192: 9327:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 8081:Edwards, R. A.; Rohwer, F. (2005). 8036:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 7634: 7004:L.) at a Shetland seabird colony". 5936: 5889: 4738:Fictional parasitism: oil painting 4392:discovered the intestinal nematode 3759:. This is because the male hormone 2885:feeding on the trees it has killed. 2856:relationships. Some 400 species of 1657: 1641:. The eggs of some brood parasites 1606: 594:; directly transmitted parasitism; 581: 56: 10917:Who Gave Pinta to the Santa Maria? 10877: 10824:Nordine, Michael (25 April 2017). 9679:from the original on 14 June 2001. 8976:from the original on 3 March 2019. 7557:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x 7145:Rollinson, D.; Hay, S. I. (2011). 6817:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1991.tb00591.x 6750: 6462:; Naguib, Marc (30 January 2005). 5409:10.1016/B978-0-12-385897-9.00001-X 5178:from the original on 6 March 2020. 5011:from the original on 30 April 2010 4633: 3403:and others have argued, following 1887: 1472: 811:such as broader abdomens, smaller 57: 11941: 10964: 10854:Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites 10794:Pappas, Stephanie (29 May 2012). 10267:The French School of Parasitology 10261:Humphrey-Smith, Ian, ed. (1993). 9944:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 9488:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 8919:from the original on 7 June 2016. 8566:Werren, John H. (February 2003). 7461:from the original on 6 March 2016 7191:Current Opinion in Insect Science 6465:Advances in the Study of Behavior 5966:"Pathogenic Parasitic Infections" 4772:parasite (a vampire). The critic 4710:Is bit by him that comes behind: 4416:discovered the life cycle of the 4017:Conservation biology of parasites 3988:are minimally affected by native 3815:, an enzyme that breaks down the 3643:but can be carried by many other 3410:Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution 1506:helps to control the damage that 1201: 943:by multiple parasites is common. 630:Intensity-dependent: green, roman 530:surface. Mesoparasites—like some 442: 301:in his microscope in 1681, while 11546: 11001:—parasitology articles and links 10970: 10811:"Parasitism in the Alien Movies" 10754: 10727: 10591: 10564: 10533: 10515:"Parasitoid Wasps (Hymenoptera)" 10507: 10419: 10381: 10356: 10342:"Acarus as the cause of scabies" 10334: 10254: 10043:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01174.x 9813: 9805: 9747: 9107: 9080: 9033: 8980: 8923: 7125:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2005.13350.x 6899:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.21.1.481 6565:10.1046/j.1365-2656.2001.00505.x 6126:(4th ed.). Wiley. pp. 5736: 5613: 4964:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01566.x 4335:as caused by the parasitic mite 4029: 3722: 3564:facilitates its transmission by 3305:were found in the Late Triassic 3249: 3225:with holes possibly caused by a 2881:, is a parasite of trees, and a 1866: 1840: 1820: 1800: 1780: 1761: 1751: 1172: 1149: 1129: 690:Trophically-transmitted pathogen 684:Trophically-transmitted parasite 10893:The University of Chicago Press 10577:. Michael O'Mara. p. 252. 9914:. University of Chicago Press. 9820:Eberhard, M. L. (August 2016). 8642: 8604: 8559: 8541:Evolution of Infectious Disease 8358: 8325: 8308: 8249: 8074: 7724: 7659: 7579: 7536: 7449:"Parasitic Plants of the World" 7302: 7178: 7059: 7032: 6878: 6844:American Journal of Primatology 6796: 6731: 6709: 6660: 6580: 6468:. Academic Press. p. 365. 6069: 5990:New England Journal of Medicine 5958: 5883: 5767:Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5621: 5565: 5510: 5476:Environmental Biology of Fishes 5433: 5333: 5261: 5231: 4856: 4846: 4691:Their foes superior by an inch. 4689:The vermin only teaze and pinch 4626:bustle to a parasitic insect's 4596:is changing its adult size and 4363: 4247: 3525:cytochrome c oxidase subunit II 3508:A parasite sometimes undergoes 3503: 3429:Competition favouring virulence 3354:Coevolution favouring mutualism 3011:—and have complex life cycles. 1724:Adelphoparasitism, (from Greek 1650:further mimics a predator, the 413: 'beside, by' and 109:, causing it some harm, and is 10990:Division of Parasitic Diseases 8205:Sukhdeo, Michael V.K. (2012). 6076:Stevens, Alison N. P. (2010). 5087: 5071: 5055: 5039: 5023: 4911:The Meaning of Human Existence 4693:So nat'ralists observe, a flea 4648:accepted role in Roman society 3770: 3367:bacteria within an insect cell 3316: 3187:, respectively), covered in a 2985:Human parasite § Protozoa 2724:make up about one per cent of 1907:Major parasitic animal groups 1052: 586:There are six major parasitic 424:appears in English from 1611. 176:There are six major parasitic 13: 1: 10779:Dove, Alistair (9 May 2011). 10493:10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.645 10405:10.12968/hmed.2006.67.3.20624 8727:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences 8338:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 8153:(Supplement 1): 11482–11489. 7816:Clinical Microbiology Reviews 7522:10.1016/j.tplants.2010.01.004 6695:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.07.001 5820:Journal of Parasitic Diseases 5779:10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02615-0 5189:Rozsa, L.; Garay, J. (2023). 4877: 4708:Thus every poet, in his kind, 4558: 4166:, while the comic playwright 3915:, leaves of plants including 3837:pattern recognition receptors 3749:secondary sex characteristics 3680: 3639:, a parasite that matures in 3617:California coastal salt marsh 1464: 1414:free-living infectious stages 809:secondary sex characteristics 201:consumer–resource interaction 188:parasitism (by being eaten), 10809:Sercel, Alex (19 May 2017). 10093:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001580 9826:Emerging Infectious Diseases 9781:10.1371/journal.pone.0128674 9500:10.1016/0169-5347(96)81047-0 9138:10.1016/0169-4758(95)80187-1 9087:Alexander, David E. (2015). 8459:10.1016/j.trstmh.2007.05.014 8392:10.1371/journal.pone.0287891 8283:10.1371/journal.pone.0007288 7789:10.1016/j.vetpar.2004.09.006 7018:10.1016/0003-3472(78)90107-0 6761:. Nature Education Knowledge 6221:10.1016/j.ijppaw.2013.09.001 5274:Clinical Infectious Diseases 5084:, on Perseus Digital Library 5068:, on Perseus Digital Library 5052:, on Perseus Digital Library 5036:, on Perseus Digital Library 3535:are more closely related to 3135:virus. It infects its host, 3085:, or by contaminated water. 2964:, the bacterium that causes 2935:biotrophy-necrotrophy switch 2768:, respectively. About 4,500 1570:to parasitise certain ants, 920:, and many protozoa such as 364: 85:, replacing the tongue of a 7: 10889:The Art of Being a Parasite 10813:. Signal to Noise Magazine. 10481:Annual Review of Entomology 9912:The Art of being a Parasite 8320:Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal 8090:Nature Reviews Microbiology 7749:10.1038/nmicrobiol.2017.120 7646:Royal Horticultural Society 7487:The Plant Health Instructor 7377:10.1016/j.ydbio.2018.06.013 6759:"Social Parasitism in Ants" 6003:10.1056/NEJM200107123450207 5901:. 122. Supplement: S23–38. 4834:List of parasites of humans 4812: 4726:List of fictional parasites 4660:Parasitism (social offense) 4490:, and the development of a 4189: 3900:, under the control of the 3891: 3783:of vertebrates such as the 3731:The evolutionary biologist 3625:reduces the ability of its 3622:Euhaplorchis californiensis 3602:Behavior-altering parasites 3566:inducing behavioral changes 3014: 2978: 1902:List of parasitic organisms 1518:trees, and in the way that 1186:in the abdomen of a worker 1159:parasitoid wasps like this 1107:parasitoids, which include 186:trophically-transmitted 10: 11948: 11268:Behavior-altering parasite 10999:KSU: Parasitology Research 10860:Princeton University Press 10840: 10762:"Parasitism and Symbiosis" 10517:. University of Maryland. 9956:10.1016/j.tree.2006.04.007 9321:Jeanne, Robert L. (1979). 9046:The Journal of Arachnology 8318:10(3):339-343 (English) / 7742:(8): 17120. 25 July 2017. 7692:10.1038/s41598-017-17248-7 7604:10.1007/s12010-022-04087-0 7495:10.1094/PHI-I-2004-0330-01 7421:Parasitic flowering plants 7212:10.1016/j.cois.2023.101026 7000:Brünn.) and Arctic skuas ( 6757:Deslippe, Richard (2010). 6282:10.1038/s41598-017-08978-9 6082:Nature Education Knowledge 4779:Disgusting and terrifying 4723: 4719: 4657: 4653: 4562: 4519: 4471: 4467: 4367: 4174:documented the roundworms 4158:, parasites including the 4138:including roundworms, the 4128: 4124: 4119: 4096: 4014: 4011:Rationale for conservation 3854: 3663:were left on the spiders. 3599: 3519:An example is between the 3472:of flamingo lice to ducks. 3448:Biologists long suspected 3320: 3253: 3234: 3149: 3145: 3018: 2982: 2893: 2672: 1899: 1895: 1878:(centre), a parasitoid of 1738:, unmated females may lay 1695: 1661: 1610: 1529: 1476: 1056: 964: 778:(highlighted) attached to 761: 457:Head (scolex) of tapeworm 446: 433: 244:by general or specialised 61: 11894:Category:Eating behaviors 11869: 11715: 11639: 11618: 11555: 11544: 11511: 11475: 11399: 11390: 11278:Host–parasite coevolution 11213: 11096: 11048: 11007:(Oxford University Press) 10571:Matyszak, Philip (2017). 10233:Cheng, Thomas C. (1973). 10207:10.1016/j.idc.2004.01.001 9589:10.1007/s00442-002-0885-9 8322:1976(3):102-106 (Russian) 8009:10.1016/j.tim.2005.04.003 7269:10.1186/s12898-018-0176-x 6786:Biologisches Centralblatt 6740:Biologischen Centralblatt 6544:Journal of Animal Ecology 6514:10.1007/s10228-005-0286-2 6334:10.1017/s0022149x00033290 6130:, 365–367, 375, 440–441. 5907:10.1017/s003118200001698x 5863:Cheng, Thomas C. (2012). 5832:10.1007/s12639-013-0247-z 5713:10.1017/S0031182013001674 5599:10.1016/j.cub.2015.07.057 5403:. Academic Press: 27–28. 5355:(1): 4–11. Archived from 5207:10.1017/S0031182023000598 4762:its many film adaptations 4593:Teladorsagia circumcincta 4114:non-parametric statistics 4086:distributed very unevenly 4055:Colpocephalum californici 4028: 4023: 3955:Colpocephalum californici 3902:jasmonic acid-insensitive 3751:, such as the plumage of 3336:Evolutionary epidemiology 3330:host–parasite coevolution 3323:Host–parasite coevolution 2668: 1370:Heligmosomoides polygyrus 1099:feeding on the provisions 954:Strongyloides stercoralis 850:are directly transmitted 602:-transmitted parasitism; 598:-transmitted parasitism; 357:was one of many works of 64:Parasite (disambiguation) 11109:Anti-predator adaptation 10344:. University of Cagliari 10074:Chase, Jonathan (2013). 7147:Advances in parasitology 7002:Stercorarius parasiticus 6424:"Avian brood parasitism" 6322:Journal of Helminthology 6045:10.1016/j.pt.2011.01.004 5397:Advances in Parasitology 5316:Overview of Parasitology 5096:Overview of Parasitology 4839: 4440:Giovanni Battista Grassi 3936:Ecology and parasitology 3931:Biology and conservation 3596:Modifying host behaviour 3294:. Eggs that belonged to 3274:may have been caused by 3268:of several specimens of 2889: 2728:and are in almost every 1512:Cryphonectria parasitica 772:The parasitic castrator 651:Single host, stays alive 478:Parasitism is a kind of 39:latest accepted revision 11874:Antipredator adaptation 11203:biological interactions 11083:Paradox of the plankton 10634:Playfair, John (2007). 10598:Damon, Cynthia (1997). 9910:Combes, Claude (2005). 9890:10.1560/IJEE.56.3-4.239 9527:The American Naturalist 9267:Maizels, R. M. (2009). 9193:10.1073/pnas.1909907117 8735:10.1038/npg.els.0004124 8537:Ewald, Paul W. (1994). 8316:Paleontological Journal 8224:10.1186/1756-3305-5-239 8211:Parasites & Vectors 8168:10.1073/pnas.0803232105 7777:Veterinary Parasitology 7732:"Stop neglecting fungi" 7642:"What is honey fungus?" 7510:Trends in Plant Science 7336:Rastogi, V. B. (1997). 7073:. University of Florida 6494:Ichthyological Research 5519:Biosteres longicaudatus 5496:10.1023/a:1007398609346 5466:Simenchelys parasiticus 5133:The American Naturalist 5082:A Greek–English Lexicon 5066:A Greek–English Lexicon 5050:A Greek–English Lexicon 5034:A Greek–English Lexicon 4781:parasitic alien species 4742:by Katrin Alvarez, 2011 4620:Edward Linley Sambourne 4462:African trypanosomiasis 4315:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 4303:Echinococcus granulosus 4183:Enterobius vermicularis 4099:Aggregated distribution 3972:evolutionary biologists 3847:and antibody-producing 3615:). For example, in the 3286:, the Early Cretaceous 3129:Enterobacteria phage T4 1566:, its larvae employing 1389:sex-biased transmission 1254:Transmission strategies 1238:such as mosquitoes and 1037:parasites in the genus 979:protozoan endoparasite 880:Trophically transmitted 872:aggregated distribution 430:Evolutionary strategies 378: 293:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 10703:10.1098/rspb.2021.2708 9838:10.3201/eid2208.160043 9662:10.1006/jtbi.1999.1054 9450:10.1073/pnas.87.9.3566 9009:10.1098/rspb.2000.1182 8831:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0427 8694:10.1098/rspb.2010.1163 8628:. Simon and Schuster. 8506:10.1098/rspb.2004.2676 8351:10.4202/app.00680.2019 8049:10.1074/jbc.R800078200 7997:Trends in Microbiology 7960:10.1186/1745-6150-1-29 7094:"Sex determination in 6930:10.1098/rsbl.2013.0076 6856:10.1002/ajp.1350160406 6636:10.1038/ismej.2015.247 6169:10.1098/rstb.2016.0085 6033:Trends in Parasitology 5268:Garcia, L. S. (1999). 4743: 4713: 4674: 4630: 4600:in response to drugs. 4540: 4500:insecticide resistance 4360: 4325:Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo 4296:in humans that causes 4282:spontaneous generation 4207: 4089: 3959: 3880:nests across multiple 3871: 3788: 3677: 3573: 3570:central nervous system 3473: 3368: 3232: 3207:, infecting bacteria. 3142: 3088:Haemophilus influenzae 2975: 2886: 2697: 1601:wedge-capped capuchins 1585:Tetramorium inquilinum 1498:and to some extent in 1307:Gyrodactylus turnbulli 1275: 1246:, and mammals such as 1226:, crustaceans such as 1214: 1192:altering its behaviour 1163:lay their eggs via an 1007:, often intracellular 989: 894: 855: 782: 498:of pathogens, causing 475: 388: 329:"vermin". In fiction, 240:Parasites reduce host 227:, the malaria-causing 121:such as the agents of 91: 11049:Patterns of evolution 10003:10.1093/biosci/biu135 9623:Frank, S. A. (2000). 9389:10.4161/psb.5.8.11772 7365:Developmental Biology 7067:"Featured Creatures. 6982:10.1093/beheco/arr008 6587:Askew, R. R. (1961). 6422:Payne, R. B. (1997). 6388:10.4161/cib.3.2.10603 5572:Cardé, R. T. (2015). 5243:plpnemweb.ucdavis.edu 4824:Carcinogenic parasite 4787:, as for instance in 4737: 4724:Further information: 4686: 4670: 4658:Further information: 4611: 4604:Cultural significance 4579:controlled experiment 4563:Further information: 4529: 4520:Further information: 4509:Plasmodium falciparum 4472:Further information: 4448:mosquitoes. Ross was 4385:Entamoeba histolytica 4355:for showing that the 4347: 4197: 4162:are described in the 4129:Further information: 4106:parametric statistics 4097:Further information: 4083: 4015:Further information: 3943: 3862: 3778: 3741:genetic recombination 3669: 3609:modify host behaviour 3600:Further information: 3557: 3460:with their parasitic 3447: 3361: 3348:autoimmune conditions 3321:Further information: 3254:Further information: 3235:Further information: 3218: 3191:coat and sometimes a 3127: 2983:Further information: 2958: 2894:Further information: 2874: 2682: 1900:Further information: 1672:(from Greek κλέπτης ( 1662:Further information: 1611:Further information: 1530:Further information: 1453:attracted by odour of 1383:(yellow-necked mouse) 1268:Entamoeba histolytica 1261: 1209: 974: 965:Further information: 887: 846: 771: 672:Conventional parasite 456: 447:Further information: 161:; and plants such as 74: 11293:Parasitic castration 11233:Deception in animals 11061:Convergent evolution 11042:Evolutionary ecology 10734:Otis, Laura (2001). 10668:On Poetry: A Rapsody 10235:General Parasitology 9869:Holt, R. D. (2010). 9708:10.1104/pp.121.2.325 9484:Hamilton, William D. 9155:on 16 February 2012. 9058:10.1636/joa-s-18-082 8441:Rook, G. A. (2007). 8083:"Viral metagenomics" 7828:10.1128/CMR.00067-12 5944:"Helminth Parasites" 5866:General Parasitology 4938:Getz, W. M. (2011). 4730:Parasites in fiction 4395:Trichinella spiralis 4177:Ascaris lumbricoides 4093:Quantitative ecology 3659:Cyclosa argenteoalba 3586:Red Queen hypothesis 3582:digenetic trematodes 3237:Evolutionary ecology 3211:Evolutionary ecology 3093:bacterial meningitis 3074:Campylobacter jejuni 2968:, is transmitted by 2961:Borrelia burgdorferi 2756:plants by detecting 2578:Twisted-wing insects 1795:and social parasite. 1652:European sparrowhawk 1579:Melipona scutellaris 1379:Apodemus flavicollis 936:modify the behaviour 932:intestinal parasites 839:Directly transmitted 786:Parasitic castrators 764:Parasitic castration 758:Parasitic castrators 592:parasitic castration 527:facultative parasite 449:Parasitic life cycle 182:parasitic castration 11889:Carnivorous protist 11743:Intraguild predator 11134:Distraction display 11078:Divergent evolution 10561:, pp. 265–266. 10545:15 May 2012 at the 10035:2008EcolL..11..533L 9772:2015PLoSO..1028674B 9644:2000JThBi.202..283F 9581:2002Oecol.131..227T 9441:1990PNAS...87.3566H 9381:2010PlSiB...5..929R 9184:2020PNAS..117.5358Y 8951:1996Ecol...77.1390L 8886:2000Natur.405..679L 8784:10.1038/nature03341 8776:2005Natur.434..376S 8688:(1701): 3693–3702. 8383:2023PLoSO..1887891N 8274:2009PLoSO...4.7288W 8159:2008PNAS..10511482D 8102:10.1038/nrmicro1163 7877:2007Natur.445..153M 7736:Nature Microbiology 7684:2017NatSR...717251C 7445:Nickrent, Daniel L. 7260:2018BMCE...18...21F 7203:2023COIS...5601026P 7117:2005Oikos.108..473B 6628:2016ISMEJ..10.1815P 6556:2001JAnEc..70..476R 6506:2005IchtR..52..207P 6318:Nosema helminthorum 6274:2017NatSR...7.9283D 6153:"What is a vector?" 5890:Cox, F. E. (2001). 5707:(Suppl 1): S6–S15. 5590:2015CBio...25.R793C 5535:1981Oecol..48..249L 5488:1997EnvBF..49..139C 5443:. Blackwell Science 5007:. 13 October 2009. 4956:2011EcolL..14..113G 4480:malaria prophylaxis 4401:Clonorchis sinensis 4284:. In his 1684 book 4274:nasal flies of deer 4254:early modern period 3958:, was made extinct. 3877:Polistes canadensis 3785:short-horned lizard 3737:sexual reproduction 3712:Henneguya zschokkei 3670:Trait loss: bedbug 3298:worms and probably 3264:, but holes in the 3021:Pathogenic bacteria 2833:, and varieties of 2783:Species within the 2688:(a dodder), a stem 2617:130,000 - 1,100,000 1908: 1455:infected human host 1407:Sphenodon punctatus 1320:Poecilia reticulata 1300:Ecological context 1297:Transmission method 1287: 1144:, pictured) to eat. 890:Clonorchis sinensis 725:Parasitic castrator 641: 465:intestinal parasite 29:Page version status 11884:Carnivorous fungus 11534:Sexual cannibalism 11519:Animal cannibalism 11384:Feeding behaviours 11332:Cleaning symbiosis 11129:Deimatic behaviour 11088:Predator satiation 11073:Parallel evolution 10768:. 10 January 2016. 9973:on 10 August 2017. 9744:, pp. x, 1–2. 9369:Plant Signal Behav 9339:10.1007/bf00297649 9126:Parasitology Today 9117:(September 1995). 7672:Scientific Reports 6968:Behavioral Ecology 6780:Emery, C. (1909). 6460:Brockmann, H. Jane 6376:Commun Integr Biol 6262:Scientific Reports 6163:(1719): 20160085. 5788:on 3 October 2019. 5543:10.1007/BF00347971 4797:. In one scene, a 4783:are widespread in 4744: 4666:a derogatory sense 4631: 4575:anthelmintic drugs 4545:biological control 4541: 4522:Biological control 4516:Biological control 4484:antimalarial drugs 4361: 4308:Peter Simon Pallas 4208: 4164:Hippocratic Corpus 4110:Log-transformation 4090: 3960: 3898:polyphenol oxidase 3872: 3811:and tears contain 3789: 3678: 3574: 3521:simian foamy virus 3474: 3369: 3340:Darwinian medicine 3233: 3143: 3106:Treponema pallidum 3032:Bacillus anthracis 2976: 2887: 2875:The honey fungus, 2858:myco-heterotrophic 2837:. Yield loss from 2698: 1906: 1854:Ceratias holboelli 1768:A hyperparasitoid 1709:Ceratias holboelli 1635:black-headed ducks 1391:(mainly to males) 1353:(Japanese macaque) 1285: 1276: 1215: 993:Vector-transmitted 990: 977:vector-transmitted 961:Vector-transmitted 895: 856: 783: 746: 734: 722: 699: 687: 675: 625: 540:mathematical model 476: 190:vector-transmitted 157:and the agents of 133:; animals such as 99:close relationship 92: 35: 11902: 11901: 11879:Carnivorous plant 11755:Aquatic predation 11542: 11541: 11524:Human cannibalism 11350: 11349: 11166: 11165: 11104:Signalling theory 10956:978-0-7432-0011-0 10928:978-0-15-600585-2 10921:. Harvest Books. 10902:978-0-226-11438-5 10869:978-0-691-12085-0 10747:978-0-472-11213-5 10647:978-0-19-157934-9 10613:978-0-472-10760-5 10584:978-1-78243-857-1 10327:978-0-521-66447-9 10244:978-0-12-170750-7 9921:978-0-226-11438-5 9178:(10): 5358–5363. 9100:978-0-19-999679-7 8991:Toxoplasma gondii 8770:(7031): 376–380. 8744:978-0-470-01617-6 8662:978-0-470-69584-5 8635:978-0-684-81087-4 8552:978-0-19-534519-3 8500:(1541): 785–788. 8453:(11): 1072–1074. 8042:(19): 12599–603. 7927:978-0-7817-8215-9 7430:978-90-04-16750-6 7349:978-81-209-0496-5 7322:978-1-107-03765-6 7156:978-0-12-385897-9 7069:Encarsia perplexa 7055:on 18 April 2018. 6475:978-0-08-049015-1 6441:978-0-19-854892-8 6137:978-1-118-84615-5 5876:978-0-323-14010-2 5584:(18): R793–R795. 5470:Isurus oxyrinchus 5418:978-0-12-385897-9 5326:978-1-86499-991-4 5249:on 6 October 2017 5106:978-1-86499-991-4 4920:978-0-87140-480-0 4907:Wilson, Edward O. 4598:reproductive rate 4535:, widely used in 4338:Sarcoptes scabiei 4278:sheep liver fluke 4241:Fasciola hepatica 4223:In his 1397 book 4213:Canon of Medicine 4075:competing species 4060:California condor 4046: 4045: 4040:Knowable Magazine 3946:California condor 3825:hydrochloric acid 3755:and the manes of 3673:Cimex lectularius 3636:Toxoplasma gondii 3576:Parasites infect 3561:Toxoplasma gondii 3514:Fahrenholz's rule 3439:natural selection 3417:which formed the 3280:-like parasites. 3256:Paleoparasitology 3219:Restoration of a 3009:amoebic dysentery 2989:Protozoa such as 2896:Pathogenic fungus 2878:Armillaria mellea 2642: 2641: 1875:Encarsia perplexa 1735:Encarsia perplexa 1720:Adelphoparasitism 1698:Sexual parasitism 1692:Sexual parasitism 1526:Social parasitism 1516:American chestnut 1462: 1461: 1417:social behaviour 1330:social behaviour 1234:isopods, various 1182:(centre left) is 1078:; others include 1018:Ixodes scapularis 803:. In the case of 775:Sacculina carcini 755: 754: 749:Solitary predator 654:Single host, dies 523:obligate parasite 471:to attach to its 307:sheep liver fluke 131:amoebic dysentery 127:sleeping sickness 26: 16:(Redirected from 11937: 11748:Pursuit predator 11550: 11529:Self-cannibalism 11397: 11396: 11377: 11370: 11363: 11354: 11353: 11341: 11334: 11320: 11313: 11288:Kleptoparasitism 11273:Brood parasitism 11193: 11186: 11179: 11170: 11169: 11035: 11028: 11021: 11012: 11011: 10974: 10960: 10932: 10920: 10911:Desowitz, Robert 10906: 10873: 10857: 10834: 10833: 10821: 10815: 10814: 10806: 10800: 10799: 10791: 10785: 10784: 10783:. Deep Sea News. 10776: 10770: 10769: 10758: 10752: 10751: 10731: 10725: 10724: 10714: 10679: 10673: 10672: 10659: 10653: 10651: 10631: 10622: 10621: 10595: 10589: 10588: 10568: 10562: 10556: 10550: 10537: 10531: 10530: 10528: 10526: 10511: 10505: 10504: 10476: 10470: 10469: 10467: 10465: 10451:(24 July 2015). 10445: 10439: 10438: 10436: 10434: 10423: 10417: 10416: 10385: 10379: 10378: 10376: 10374: 10360: 10354: 10353: 10351: 10349: 10338: 10332: 10331: 10307: 10301: 10300: 10280: 10271: 10270: 10258: 10252: 10251: 10230: 10219: 10218: 10190: 10173: 10172: 10171:on 19 June 2018. 10170: 10164:. Archived from 10131: 10122: 10116: 10115: 10105: 10095: 10071: 10065: 10064: 10054: 10014: 10008: 10007: 10005: 9981: 9975: 9974: 9972: 9966:. Archived from 9941: 9932: 9926: 9925: 9907: 9901: 9900: 9898: 9875: 9866: 9860: 9859: 9849: 9832:(8): 1428–1430. 9817: 9811: 9810: 9809: 9803: 9793: 9783: 9751: 9745: 9739: 9730: 9729: 9719: 9696:Plant Physiology 9687: 9681: 9680: 9678: 9655: 9629: 9620: 9609: 9608: 9560: 9551: 9550: 9518: 9512: 9511: 9479: 9473: 9472: 9462: 9452: 9435:(9): 3566–3573. 9417: 9411: 9410: 9400: 9360: 9351: 9350: 9318: 9309: 9308: 9298: 9288: 9286:10.1186/jbiol166 9264: 9255: 9254: 9252: 9250: 9244: 9237: 9229: 9216: 9215: 9205: 9195: 9163: 9157: 9156: 9154: 9148:. Archived from 9123: 9111: 9105: 9104: 9084: 9078: 9077: 9037: 9031: 9030: 9020: 9003:(1452): 1591–4. 8984: 8978: 8977: 8975: 8945:(5): 1390–1397. 8936: 8927: 8921: 8920: 8918: 8894:10.1038/35015069 8880:(6787): 679–81. 8871: 8862: 8853: 8852: 8842: 8810: 8804: 8803: 8755: 8749: 8748: 8722: 8716: 8715: 8705: 8673: 8667: 8666: 8646: 8640: 8639: 8608: 8602: 8601: 8599: 8597: 8588:. Archived from 8563: 8557: 8556: 8544: 8534: 8528: 8527: 8517: 8482: 8471: 8470: 8438: 8429: 8428: 8422: 8414: 8404: 8394: 8362: 8356: 8355: 8353: 8329: 8323: 8312: 8306: 8305: 8295: 8285: 8253: 8247: 8246: 8236: 8226: 8202: 8191: 8190: 8180: 8170: 8138: 8129: 8128: 8126: 8087: 8078: 8072: 8071: 8061: 8051: 8027: 8021: 8020: 7989: 7983: 7982: 7972: 7962: 7938: 7932: 7931: 7913: 7907: 7906: 7888: 7856: 7850: 7849: 7839: 7807: 7801: 7800: 7783:(1–2): 145–166. 7768: 7762: 7761: 7751: 7728: 7722: 7721: 7711: 7663: 7657: 7656: 7654: 7652: 7638: 7632: 7631: 7583: 7577: 7576: 7540: 7534: 7533: 7505: 7499: 7498: 7482: 7476: 7470: 7468: 7466: 7460: 7453: 7441: 7435: 7434: 7416: 7405: 7404: 7360: 7354: 7353: 7333: 7327: 7326: 7306: 7300: 7299: 7289: 7271: 7239: 7233: 7232: 7214: 7182: 7176: 7170: 7161: 7160: 7142: 7136: 7135: 7133: 7102: 7096:Bonellia viridis 7089: 7083: 7082: 7080: 7078: 7063: 7057: 7056: 7054: 7047: 7036: 7030: 7029: 7006:Animal Behaviour 6993: 6987: 6986: 6984: 6958: 6952: 6951: 6941: 6909: 6903: 6902: 6882: 6876: 6875: 6835: 6829: 6828: 6800: 6794: 6793: 6777: 6771: 6770: 6768: 6766: 6754: 6748: 6747: 6735: 6729: 6728: 6726: 6724: 6713: 6707: 6706: 6688: 6673:Animal Behaviour 6664: 6658: 6657: 6647: 6622:(8): 1815–1822. 6616:The ISME Journal 6607: 6601: 6600: 6584: 6578: 6577: 6567: 6535: 6526: 6525: 6489: 6480: 6479: 6455: 6446: 6445: 6419: 6410: 6409: 6399: 6363: 6354: 6353: 6313: 6304: 6303: 6293: 6252: 6243: 6242: 6232: 6200: 6191: 6190: 6180: 6148: 6142: 6141: 6125: 6115: 6102: 6101: 6095: 6093: 6073: 6067: 6066: 6056: 6024: 6015: 6014: 5984: 5978: 5977: 5975: 5973: 5962: 5956: 5955: 5953: 5951: 5940: 5934: 5933: 5931: 5896: 5887: 5881: 5880: 5860: 5854: 5853: 5843: 5811: 5805: 5799: 5790: 5789: 5787: 5781:. Archived from 5764: 5755: 5742: 5741: 5740: 5734: 5724: 5689: 5654: 5653: 5625: 5619: 5618: 5617: 5611: 5601: 5569: 5563: 5562: 5514: 5508: 5507: 5459: 5453: 5452: 5450: 5448: 5437: 5431: 5430: 5385: 5372: 5371: 5369: 5367: 5362:on 10 April 2018 5361: 5346: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5311: 5300: 5299: 5289: 5265: 5259: 5258: 5256: 5254: 5245:. Archived from 5235: 5229: 5228: 5218: 5186: 5180: 5179: 5177: 5130: 5121: 5115: 5114: 5091: 5085: 5075: 5069: 5059: 5053: 5043: 5037: 5027: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5016: 4995: 4986: 4985: 4975: 4935: 4929: 4928: 4903: 4894: 4888: 4871: 4860: 4854: 4850: 4803:explosive squibs 4764:, the eponymous 4700:And so proceeds 4532:Encarsia formosa 4357:malaria parasite 4329:Diacinto Cestoni 4272:, the larvae of 4237: 4071:keystone species 4033: 4032: 4021: 4020: 3765:sexual selection 3745:immunocompetence 3702:have lost their 3177:genetic material 3138:Escherichia coli 3041:domestic animals 2950:microsporidiosis 2866:vascular bundles 2778:flowering plants 2722:Parasitic plants 2706:partial parasite 2613:Parasitoid wasps 1909: 1905: 1870: 1857:lives as a tiny 1847:The male of the 1844: 1824: 1809:brood parasitism 1804: 1791:butterfly is an 1784: 1765: 1745:Bonellia viridis 1714:sexual parasites 1670:kleptoparasitism 1664:Kleptoparasitism 1658:Kleptoparasitism 1619:brood parasitism 1613:Brood parasitism 1607:Brood parasitism 1573:Bombus bohemicus 1548:animals such as 1451:mosquito vector, 1360:social behaviour 1327:physical contact 1288: 1284: 1280:fecal–oral route 1273:fecal–oral route 1176: 1153: 1138:parasitoid wasps 1133: 1072:parasitoid wasps 910:acanthocephalans 750: 744: 738: 732: 726: 720: 703: 697: 691: 685: 679: 673: 667:(fitness > 0) 642: 638: 631: 624: 582:Major strategies 555:insects such as 467:, has hooks and 391: 381: 327:hyperparasitical 47:6 September 2024 21: 11947: 11946: 11940: 11939: 11938: 11936: 11935: 11934: 11920:Disease ecology 11905: 11904: 11903: 11898: 11865: 11856:Surplus killing 11728:Ambush predator 11711: 11635: 11614: 11551: 11538: 11507: 11471: 11386: 11381: 11351: 11346: 11337: 11330: 11316: 11309: 11209: 11197: 11167: 11162: 11092: 11044: 11039: 10967: 10957: 10935: 10929: 10909: 10903: 10883: 10880: 10878:Further reading 10870: 10843: 10838: 10837: 10822: 10818: 10807: 10803: 10798:. Live Science. 10792: 10788: 10777: 10773: 10760: 10759: 10755: 10748: 10732: 10728: 10680: 10676: 10663:Swift, Jonathan 10660: 10656: 10648: 10632: 10625: 10614: 10596: 10592: 10585: 10569: 10565: 10557: 10553: 10547:Wayback Machine 10538: 10534: 10524: 10522: 10513: 10512: 10508: 10477: 10473: 10463: 10461: 10446: 10442: 10432: 10430: 10425: 10424: 10420: 10386: 10382: 10372: 10370: 10368:Merriam-Webster 10362: 10361: 10357: 10347: 10345: 10340: 10339: 10335: 10328: 10308: 10304: 10281: 10274: 10259: 10255: 10245: 10231: 10222: 10191: 10176: 10168: 10129: 10123: 10119: 10086:(6): e1001580. 10072: 10068: 10023:Ecology Letters 10015: 10011: 9996:(10): 932–937. 9982: 9978: 9970: 9939: 9933: 9929: 9922: 9908: 9904: 9896: 9873: 9867: 9863: 9818: 9814: 9804: 9766:(6): e0128674. 9752: 9748: 9740: 9733: 9688: 9684: 9676: 9653:10.1.1.212.7024 9627: 9621: 9612: 9561: 9554: 9519: 9515: 9482:Ebert, Dieter; 9480: 9476: 9421:Hamilton, W. D. 9418: 9414: 9361: 9354: 9319: 9312: 9265: 9258: 9248: 9246: 9245:on 4 March 2016 9242: 9235: 9231: 9230: 9219: 9164: 9160: 9152: 9121: 9112: 9108: 9101: 9085: 9081: 9038: 9034: 8997:Proc. Biol. Sci 8985: 8981: 8973: 8959:10.2307/2265536 8934: 8928: 8924: 8916: 8869: 8863: 8856: 8819:Biology Letters 8811: 8807: 8756: 8752: 8745: 8723: 8719: 8674: 8670: 8663: 8647: 8643: 8636: 8620:Eldredge, Niles 8609: 8605: 8595: 8593: 8573:Natural History 8564: 8560: 8553: 8535: 8531: 8483: 8474: 8439: 8432: 8416: 8415: 8377:(8): e0287891. 8363: 8359: 8330: 8326: 8313: 8309: 8254: 8250: 8203: 8194: 8139: 8132: 8124: 8085: 8079: 8075: 8028: 8024: 7990: 7986: 7939: 7935: 7928: 7914: 7910: 7886:10.1038/445153a 7857: 7853: 7808: 7804: 7769: 7765: 7730: 7729: 7725: 7664: 7660: 7650: 7648: 7640: 7639: 7635: 7584: 7580: 7545:New Phytologist 7541: 7537: 7506: 7502: 7483: 7479: 7464: 7462: 7458: 7451: 7442: 7438: 7431: 7417: 7408: 7361: 7357: 7350: 7334: 7330: 7323: 7307: 7303: 7240: 7236: 7183: 7179: 7171: 7164: 7157: 7143: 7139: 7131: 7100: 7090: 7086: 7076: 7074: 7065: 7064: 7060: 7052: 7045: 7037: 7033: 6998:Catharacta skua 6994: 6990: 6959: 6955: 6924:(3): 20130076. 6918:Biology Letters 6910: 6906: 6883: 6879: 6840:Cebus olivaceus 6836: 6832: 6801: 6797: 6778: 6774: 6764: 6762: 6755: 6751: 6736: 6732: 6722: 6720: 6715: 6714: 6710: 6686:10.1.1.309.6081 6665: 6661: 6608: 6604: 6585: 6581: 6536: 6529: 6490: 6483: 6476: 6456: 6449: 6442: 6420: 6413: 6364: 6357: 6320:Moniez, 1887". 6314: 6307: 6253: 6246: 6201: 6194: 6149: 6145: 6138: 6116: 6105: 6091: 6089: 6074: 6070: 6025: 6018: 5985: 5981: 5971: 5969: 5964: 5963: 5959: 5949: 5947: 5942: 5941: 5937: 5929: 5894: 5888: 5884: 5877: 5861: 5857: 5812: 5808: 5800: 5793: 5785: 5773:(11): 507–513. 5762: 5756: 5745: 5735: 5690: 5657: 5626: 5622: 5612: 5578:Current Biology 5570: 5566: 5515: 5511: 5464:"Pugnose eels, 5460: 5456: 5446: 5444: 5439: 5438: 5434: 5419: 5386: 5375: 5365: 5363: 5359: 5344: 5338: 5334: 5327: 5313: 5312: 5303: 5266: 5262: 5252: 5250: 5237: 5236: 5232: 5187: 5183: 5175: 5128: 5122: 5118: 5107: 5093: 5092: 5088: 5076: 5072: 5060: 5056: 5044: 5040: 5028: 5024: 5014: 5012: 4997: 4996: 4989: 4944:Ecology Letters 4936: 4932: 4921: 4904: 4897: 4893:, pp. 4–5. 4889: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4874: 4861: 4857: 4851: 4847: 4842: 4815: 4785:science fiction 4732: 4722: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4699: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4692: 4690: 4664:Parasitism has 4662: 4656: 4636: 4634:Classical times 4606: 4584:parasitic worms 4567: 4565:Drug resistance 4561: 4524: 4518: 4496:drug resistance 4492:malaria vaccine 4476: 4474:Malaria vaccine 4470: 4410:Rudolf Leuckart 4406:Algernon Thomas 4372: 4366: 4320:Giardia lamblia 4294:large roundworm 4250: 4231: 4192: 4136:Human parasites 4133: 4127: 4122: 4101: 4095: 4030: 4024:External videos 4019: 4013: 3964:parasitologists 3938: 3933: 3894: 3857: 3773: 3735:suggested that 3725: 3683: 3607:Some parasites 3606: 3604: 3598: 3506: 3468:, with a later 3431: 3405:Peter Kropotkin 3356: 3325: 3319: 3258: 3252: 3239: 3213: 3158: 3150:Main articles: 3148: 3119:sexual activity 3109:, the cause of 3079:gastroenteritis 3059:relapsing fever 3053:, the cause of 3035:, the cause of 3023: 3017: 2987: 2981: 2924:saprophytically 2919:Ustilago maydis 2902: 2900:Plant pathology 2892: 2677: 2675:Parasitic plant 2671: 2149:Horsehair worms 1961: 1956: 1948: 1943: 1936: 1929: 1924: 1919: 1904: 1898: 1890: 1888:Taxonomic range 1883: 1880:citrus blackfly 1871: 1862: 1859:sexual parasite 1845: 1836: 1825: 1816: 1805: 1796: 1785: 1776: 1770:pteromalid wasp 1766: 1754: 1722: 1700: 1694: 1666: 1660: 1648:European cuckoo 1615: 1609: 1563:Phengaris arion 1542: 1528: 1508:chestnut blight 1481: 1475: 1473:Hyperparasitism 1467: 1454: 1452: 1442: 1427: 1410: 1401: 1390: 1382: 1373: 1361: 1352: 1338: 1323: 1310: 1256: 1204: 1195: 1177: 1168: 1154: 1145: 1134: 1065: 1063:Parasitoid wasp 1057:Main articles: 1055: 987:red blood cells 969: 963: 882: 848:Human head-lice 841: 832:Tritia obsoleta 822:Zoogonus lasius 766: 760: 748: 745: 743:Social predator 742: 736: 733: 730: 724: 721: 718: 713: 711: 701: 698: 695: 689: 686: 683: 677: 674: 671: 666: 664: 657:Multiple hosts 636: 633: 629: 627: 584: 451: 445: 438: 432: 375:Medieval French 373:comes from the 367: 359:science fiction 298:Giardia lamblia 82:Cymothoa exigua 67: 60: 55: 54: 53: 52: 51: 50: 34: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11945: 11944: 11933: 11932: 11927: 11922: 11917: 11900: 11899: 11897: 11896: 11891: 11886: 11881: 11876: 11870: 11867: 11866: 11864: 11863: 11858: 11853: 11848: 11843: 11838: 11833: 11831:Hypercarnivore 11828: 11827: 11826: 11825: 11824: 11814: 11807:Cattle feeding 11804: 11799: 11798: 11797: 11792: 11790:Feeding frenzy 11787: 11782: 11777: 11775:Suction feeder 11772: 11767: 11762: 11752: 11751: 11750: 11745: 11740: 11735: 11730: 11719: 11717: 11713: 11712: 11710: 11709: 11704: 11699: 11694: 11689: 11684: 11679: 11674: 11669: 11664: 11659: 11654: 11649: 11643: 11641: 11637: 11636: 11634: 11633: 11628: 11622: 11620: 11616: 11615: 11613: 11612: 11607: 11602: 11597: 11592: 11587: 11585:Seed predation 11582: 11577: 11572: 11567: 11561: 11559: 11553: 11552: 11545: 11543: 11540: 11539: 11537: 11536: 11531: 11526: 11521: 11515: 11513: 11509: 11508: 11506: 11505: 11500: 11495: 11490: 11485: 11479: 11477: 11473: 11472: 11470: 11469: 11464: 11459: 11454: 11449: 11444: 11439: 11434: 11429: 11424: 11419: 11414: 11409: 11403: 11401: 11394: 11388: 11387: 11380: 11379: 11372: 11365: 11357: 11348: 11347: 11345: 11344: 11343: 11342: 11335: 11323: 11322: 11321: 11314: 11302: 11301: 11300: 11295: 11290: 11285: 11280: 11275: 11270: 11260: 11255: 11250: 11245: 11240: 11235: 11230: 11225: 11220: 11214: 11211: 11210: 11196: 11195: 11188: 11181: 11173: 11164: 11163: 11161: 11160: 11155: 11150: 11145: 11140: 11138: 11137: 11136: 11131: 11126: 11124:Apparent death 11121: 11116: 11106: 11100: 11098: 11094: 11093: 11091: 11090: 11085: 11080: 11075: 11070: 11069: 11068: 11058: 11052: 11050: 11046: 11045: 11038: 11037: 11030: 11023: 11015: 11009: 11008: 11002: 10996: 10987: 10981: 10966: 10965:External links 10963: 10962: 10961: 10955: 10933: 10927: 10907: 10901: 10885:Combes, Claude 10879: 10876: 10875: 10874: 10868: 10848:Poulin, Robert 10842: 10839: 10836: 10835: 10816: 10801: 10786: 10771: 10753: 10746: 10726: 10683:Poulin, Robert 10674: 10654: 10646: 10623: 10612: 10590: 10583: 10563: 10551: 10532: 10506: 10471: 10440: 10418: 10380: 10364:"Parasitology" 10355: 10333: 10326: 10302: 10272: 10253: 10243: 10220: 10201:(2): 173–174. 10174: 10117: 10066: 10029:(6): 533–546. 10009: 9976: 9950:(7): 381–385. 9927: 9920: 9902: 9884:(3): 239–250. 9861: 9812: 9746: 9731: 9702:(2): 325–332. 9682: 9638:(4): 283–304. 9632:J. Theor. Biol 9610: 9575:(2): 227–235. 9552: 9539:10.1086/285346 9533:(3): 603–622. 9513: 9474: 9412: 9352: 9333:(3): 293–310. 9310: 9256: 9217: 9158: 9132:(9): 342–345. 9115:Poulin, Robert 9106: 9099: 9079: 9032: 8979: 8922: 8854: 8825:(2): 275–278. 8805: 8750: 8743: 8729:. John Wiley. 8717: 8668: 8661: 8641: 8634: 8612:Margulis, Lynn 8603: 8592:on 8 July 2012 8558: 8551: 8529: 8472: 8430: 8357: 8324: 8307: 8248: 8192: 8130: 8096:(6): 504–510. 8073: 8022: 8003:(6): 278–284. 7984: 7947:Biology Direct 7933: 7926: 7908: 7851: 7802: 7763: 7723: 7658: 7633: 7578: 7551:(2): 171–216. 7535: 7516:(4): 227–235. 7500: 7477: 7436: 7429: 7406: 7355: 7348: 7339:Modern Biology 7328: 7321: 7301: 7234: 7177: 7162: 7155: 7137: 7111:(3): 473–484. 7084: 7058: 7031: 6988: 6975:(3): 574–579. 6953: 6904: 6877: 6850:(4): 341–344. 6830: 6811:(3): 157–178. 6795: 6772: 6749: 6730: 6708: 6679:(3): 603–609. 6659: 6602: 6579: 6550:(3): 476–490. 6527: 6500:(3): 207–236. 6481: 6474: 6447: 6440: 6411: 6382:(2): 169–171. 6355: 6328:(1–2): 47–64. 6305: 6244: 6192: 6143: 6136: 6103: 6068: 6039:(5): 197–203. 6016: 5997:(2): 115–125. 5979: 5957: 5935: 5882: 5875: 5855: 5826:(3): 337–339. 5806: 5804:, p. 111. 5791: 5743: 5693:Poulin, Robert 5655: 5642:10.2179/18-173 5636:(2): 249–262. 5620: 5564: 5529:(2): 249–251. 5509: 5482:(1): 139–144. 5454: 5432: 5417: 5389:Poulin, Robert 5373: 5332: 5325: 5301: 5287:10.1086/520425 5280:(4): 734–746. 5260: 5230: 5201:(9): 761–768. 5181: 5145:10.1086/703485 5116: 5105: 5086: 5070: 5054: 5038: 5022: 4987: 4950:(2): 113–124. 4930: 4919: 4895: 4882: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4873: 4872: 4855: 4844: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4837: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4814: 4811: 4770:blood-drinking 4721: 4718: 4687: 4682:Jonathan Swift 4655: 4652: 4635: 4632: 4605: 4602: 4560: 4557: 4517: 4514: 4469: 4466: 4418:filarial worms 4414:Patrick Manson 4368:Main article: 4365: 4362: 4258:Francesco Redi 4249: 4246: 4200:Francesco Redi 4191: 4188: 4156:ancient Greece 4131:Human parasite 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4094: 4091: 4084:Parasites are 4044: 4043: 4037:, 12.14.2018, 4026: 4025: 4012: 4009: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3906:salicylic acid 3893: 3890: 3856: 3853: 3833:serum proteins 3799:also secretes 3772: 3769: 3733:W. D. Hamilton 3724: 3721: 3704:ability to fly 3682: 3679: 3597: 3594: 3558:The protozoan 3549:switched hosts 3505: 3502: 3437:parasites, by 3430: 3427: 3355: 3352: 3318: 3315: 3290:, parasitized 3251: 3248: 3231:-like parasite 3212: 3209: 3205:bacteriophages 3147: 3144: 3091:, an agent of 3019:Main article: 3016: 3013: 2980: 2977: 2891: 2888: 2750:photosynthesis 2673:Main article: 2670: 2667: 2640: 2639: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2629: 2627: 2624: 2621: 2618: 2615: 2610: 2604: 2603: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2591: 2588: 2586: 2583: 2580: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2540: 2534: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2518: 2515: 2513: 2510: 2505: 2499: 2498: 2495: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2485: 2483: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2470: 2464: 2463: 2461: 2458: 2455: 2452: 2449: 2446: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2433: 2427: 2426: 2423: 2420: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2402: 2399: 2394: 2388: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2359: 2353: 2352: 2350: 2348: 2345: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2324: 2318: 2317: 2315: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2297: 2294: 2289: 2283: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2253: 2247: 2246: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2229: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2217:Acanthocephala 2213: 2212: 2209: 2206: 2203: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2186: 2184: 2178: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2145: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2122: 2119: 2114: 2108: 2107: 2105: 2102: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2091: 2088: 2086: 2083: 2078: 2072: 2071: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2056: 2054: 2052: 2049: 2046: 2041: 2035: 2034: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2019: 2017: 2014: 2011: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1997: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1975: 1970: 1964: 1963: 1958: 1953: 1950: 1945: 1938: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1916: 1913: 1897: 1894: 1889: 1886: 1885: 1884: 1872: 1865: 1863: 1846: 1839: 1837: 1833:kleptoparasite 1831:is a powerful 1826: 1819: 1817: 1806: 1799: 1797: 1786: 1779: 1777: 1767: 1760: 1753: 1750: 1721: 1718: 1696:Main article: 1693: 1690: 1659: 1656: 1608: 1605: 1527: 1524: 1520:bacteriophages 1496:in agriculture 1484:Hyperparasites 1477:Main article: 1474: 1471: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1459: 1456: 1444: 1433: 1419: 1418: 1415: 1412: 1403: 1393: 1392: 1387: 1384: 1375: 1365: 1364: 1357: 1354: 1349:Macaca fuscata 1345: 1332: 1331: 1328: 1325: 1316: 1302: 1301: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1255: 1252: 1203: 1202:Micropredators 1200: 1197: 1196: 1178: 1171: 1169: 1155: 1148: 1146: 1135: 1128: 1054: 1051: 967:Disease vector 962: 959: 881: 878: 840: 837: 762:Main article: 759: 756: 753: 752: 740: 728: 716: 706: 705: 693: 681: 669: 659: 658: 655: 652: 649: 608:adaptive peaks 583: 580: 576:carbon dioxide 569:plant diseases 444: 443:Basic concepts 441: 431: 428: 366: 363: 345:blood-drinking 323:Jonathan Swift 303:Francesco Redi 58: 36: 30: 27: 25: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11943: 11942: 11931: 11928: 11926: 11923: 11921: 11918: 11916: 11913: 11912: 11910: 11895: 11892: 11890: 11887: 11885: 11882: 11880: 11877: 11875: 11872: 11871: 11868: 11862: 11859: 11857: 11854: 11852: 11849: 11847: 11844: 11842: 11841:Mesocarnivore 11839: 11837: 11836:Hypocarnivore 11834: 11832: 11829: 11823: 11820: 11819: 11818: 11815: 11813: 11810: 11809: 11808: 11805: 11803: 11800: 11796: 11795:Filter feeder 11793: 11791: 11788: 11786: 11785:Bottom feeder 11783: 11781: 11778: 11776: 11773: 11771: 11768: 11766: 11763: 11761: 11758: 11757: 11756: 11753: 11749: 11746: 11744: 11741: 11739: 11736: 11734: 11733:Apex predator 11731: 11729: 11726: 11725: 11724: 11721: 11720: 11718: 11714: 11708: 11705: 11703: 11700: 11698: 11695: 11693: 11690: 11688: 11685: 11683: 11680: 11678: 11675: 11673: 11670: 11668: 11665: 11663: 11660: 11658: 11655: 11653: 11650: 11648: 11645: 11644: 11642: 11638: 11632: 11629: 11627: 11624: 11623: 11621: 11617: 11611: 11608: 11606: 11603: 11601: 11598: 11596: 11593: 11591: 11588: 11586: 11583: 11581: 11578: 11576: 11573: 11571: 11568: 11566: 11563: 11562: 11560: 11558: 11554: 11549: 11535: 11532: 11530: 11527: 11525: 11522: 11520: 11517: 11516: 11514: 11512:cannibalistic 11510: 11504: 11501: 11499: 11498:Breastfeeding 11496: 11494: 11493:Placentophagy 11491: 11489: 11486: 11484: 11481: 11480: 11478: 11474: 11468: 11465: 11463: 11460: 11458: 11455: 11453: 11450: 11448: 11445: 11443: 11440: 11438: 11435: 11433: 11430: 11428: 11425: 11423: 11420: 11418: 11415: 11413: 11412:Egg predation 11410: 11408: 11405: 11404: 11402: 11398: 11395: 11393: 11389: 11385: 11378: 11373: 11371: 11366: 11364: 11359: 11358: 11355: 11340: 11336: 11333: 11329: 11328: 11327: 11324: 11319: 11315: 11312: 11308: 11307: 11306: 11303: 11299: 11296: 11294: 11291: 11289: 11286: 11284: 11283:Hyperparasite 11281: 11279: 11276: 11274: 11271: 11269: 11266: 11265: 11264: 11261: 11259: 11256: 11254: 11251: 11249: 11246: 11244: 11241: 11239: 11236: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11226: 11224: 11221: 11219: 11216: 11215: 11212: 11208: 11204: 11201: 11200:Inter-species 11194: 11189: 11187: 11182: 11180: 11175: 11174: 11171: 11159: 11156: 11154: 11151: 11149: 11146: 11144: 11141: 11139: 11135: 11132: 11130: 11127: 11125: 11122: 11120: 11117: 11115: 11112: 11111: 11110: 11107: 11105: 11102: 11101: 11099: 11095: 11089: 11086: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11074: 11071: 11067: 11064: 11063: 11062: 11059: 11057: 11054: 11053: 11051: 11047: 11043: 11036: 11031: 11029: 11024: 11022: 11017: 11016: 11013: 11006: 11003: 11000: 10997: 10995: 10991: 10988: 10985: 10982: 10979: 10978: 10973: 10969: 10968: 10958: 10952: 10948: 10944: 10943: 10938: 10934: 10930: 10924: 10919: 10918: 10912: 10908: 10904: 10898: 10894: 10890: 10886: 10882: 10881: 10871: 10865: 10861: 10856: 10855: 10849: 10845: 10844: 10831: 10827: 10820: 10812: 10805: 10797: 10790: 10782: 10775: 10767: 10763: 10757: 10749: 10743: 10739: 10738: 10730: 10722: 10718: 10713: 10708: 10704: 10700: 10696: 10692: 10688: 10684: 10678: 10670: 10669: 10664: 10658: 10649: 10643: 10639: 10638: 10630: 10628: 10620: 10615: 10609: 10605: 10601: 10594: 10586: 10580: 10576: 10575: 10567: 10560: 10555: 10548: 10544: 10541: 10536: 10520: 10516: 10510: 10502: 10498: 10494: 10490: 10486: 10482: 10475: 10460: 10459: 10454: 10450: 10449:Walsh, Fergus 10444: 10428: 10422: 10414: 10410: 10406: 10402: 10398: 10394: 10390: 10389:Ellis, Harold 10384: 10369: 10365: 10359: 10343: 10337: 10329: 10323: 10319: 10315: 10314: 10306: 10298: 10294: 10290: 10286: 10279: 10277: 10268: 10264: 10257: 10250: 10246: 10240: 10236: 10229: 10227: 10225: 10216: 10212: 10208: 10204: 10200: 10196: 10189: 10187: 10185: 10183: 10181: 10179: 10167: 10163: 10159: 10155: 10151: 10147: 10143: 10140:(2): 228–32. 10139: 10135: 10128: 10121: 10113: 10109: 10104: 10099: 10094: 10089: 10085: 10081: 10077: 10070: 10062: 10058: 10053: 10048: 10044: 10040: 10036: 10032: 10028: 10024: 10020: 10013: 10004: 9999: 9995: 9991: 9987: 9980: 9969: 9965: 9961: 9957: 9953: 9949: 9945: 9938: 9931: 9923: 9917: 9913: 9906: 9895: 9891: 9887: 9883: 9879: 9872: 9865: 9857: 9853: 9848: 9843: 9839: 9835: 9831: 9827: 9823: 9816: 9808: 9801: 9797: 9792: 9787: 9782: 9777: 9773: 9769: 9765: 9761: 9757: 9750: 9743: 9738: 9736: 9727: 9723: 9718: 9713: 9709: 9705: 9701: 9697: 9693: 9686: 9675: 9671: 9667: 9663: 9659: 9654: 9649: 9645: 9641: 9637: 9633: 9626: 9619: 9617: 9615: 9606: 9602: 9598: 9594: 9590: 9586: 9582: 9578: 9574: 9570: 9566: 9559: 9557: 9548: 9544: 9540: 9536: 9532: 9528: 9524: 9517: 9509: 9505: 9501: 9497: 9493: 9489: 9485: 9478: 9470: 9466: 9461: 9456: 9451: 9446: 9442: 9438: 9434: 9430: 9426: 9422: 9416: 9408: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9390: 9386: 9382: 9378: 9375:(8): 929–31. 9374: 9370: 9366: 9359: 9357: 9348: 9344: 9340: 9336: 9332: 9328: 9324: 9317: 9315: 9306: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9278: 9274: 9270: 9263: 9261: 9241: 9234: 9228: 9226: 9224: 9222: 9213: 9209: 9204: 9199: 9194: 9189: 9185: 9181: 9177: 9173: 9169: 9162: 9151: 9147: 9143: 9139: 9135: 9131: 9127: 9120: 9116: 9110: 9102: 9096: 9092: 9091: 9083: 9075: 9071: 9067: 9063: 9059: 9055: 9051: 9047: 9043: 9036: 9028: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9010: 9006: 9002: 8998: 8994: 8992: 8983: 8972: 8968: 8964: 8960: 8956: 8952: 8948: 8944: 8940: 8933: 8926: 8915: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8899: 8895: 8891: 8887: 8883: 8879: 8875: 8868: 8861: 8859: 8850: 8846: 8841: 8836: 8832: 8828: 8824: 8820: 8816: 8809: 8801: 8797: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8773: 8769: 8765: 8761: 8754: 8746: 8740: 8736: 8732: 8728: 8721: 8713: 8709: 8704: 8699: 8695: 8691: 8687: 8683: 8679: 8672: 8664: 8658: 8654: 8653: 8645: 8637: 8631: 8627: 8626: 8625:What Is Life? 8621: 8617: 8616:Sagan, Dorion 8613: 8607: 8591: 8587: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8574: 8569: 8562: 8554: 8548: 8543: 8542: 8533: 8525: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8507: 8503: 8499: 8495: 8491: 8487: 8486:Massey, R. C. 8481: 8479: 8477: 8468: 8464: 8460: 8456: 8452: 8448: 8444: 8437: 8435: 8426: 8420: 8412: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8388: 8384: 8380: 8376: 8372: 8368: 8361: 8352: 8347: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8328: 8321: 8317: 8311: 8303: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8275: 8271: 8267: 8263: 8259: 8252: 8244: 8240: 8235: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8216: 8212: 8208: 8201: 8199: 8197: 8188: 8184: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8164: 8160: 8156: 8152: 8148: 8144: 8137: 8135: 8123: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8095: 8091: 8084: 8077: 8069: 8065: 8060: 8055: 8050: 8045: 8041: 8037: 8033: 8026: 8018: 8014: 8010: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7993:Breitbart, M. 7988: 7980: 7976: 7971: 7966: 7961: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7944: 7937: 7929: 7923: 7919: 7912: 7904: 7900: 7896: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7878: 7874: 7871:(7124): 153. 7870: 7866: 7862: 7855: 7847: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7829: 7825: 7821: 7817: 7813: 7806: 7798: 7794: 7790: 7786: 7782: 7778: 7774: 7767: 7759: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7727: 7719: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7701: 7697: 7693: 7689: 7685: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7662: 7647: 7643: 7637: 7629: 7625: 7621: 7617: 7613: 7609: 7605: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7582: 7574: 7570: 7566: 7562: 7558: 7554: 7550: 7546: 7539: 7531: 7527: 7523: 7519: 7515: 7511: 7504: 7496: 7492: 7488: 7481: 7474: 7457: 7450: 7446: 7440: 7432: 7426: 7422: 7415: 7413: 7411: 7402: 7398: 7394: 7390: 7386: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7366: 7359: 7351: 7345: 7341: 7340: 7332: 7324: 7318: 7314: 7313: 7305: 7297: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7279: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7238: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7181: 7174: 7169: 7167: 7158: 7152: 7148: 7141: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7099: 7097: 7088: 7072: 7070: 7062: 7051: 7044: 7043: 7035: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7015: 7012:: 1167–1177. 7011: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6992: 6983: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6969: 6964: 6957: 6949: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6908: 6900: 6896: 6892: 6888: 6881: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6841: 6834: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6799: 6791: 6787: 6783: 6776: 6760: 6753: 6745: 6741: 6734: 6718: 6712: 6704: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6670: 6663: 6655: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6606: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6583: 6575: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6534: 6532: 6523: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6488: 6486: 6477: 6471: 6467: 6466: 6461: 6454: 6452: 6443: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6418: 6416: 6407: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6371: 6362: 6360: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6312: 6310: 6301: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6251: 6249: 6240: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6199: 6197: 6188: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6147: 6139: 6133: 6129: 6124: 6123: 6114: 6112: 6110: 6108: 6100: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6072: 6064: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6023: 6021: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5991: 5983: 5967: 5961: 5945: 5939: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5893: 5886: 5878: 5872: 5868: 5867: 5859: 5851: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5810: 5803: 5798: 5796: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5761: 5754: 5752: 5750: 5748: 5739: 5732: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5688: 5686: 5684: 5682: 5680: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5672: 5670: 5668: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5660: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5624: 5616: 5609: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5568: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5513: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5471: 5467: 5458: 5442: 5436: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5378: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5343: 5336: 5328: 5322: 5318: 5317: 5310: 5308: 5306: 5297: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5264: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5234: 5226: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5185: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5139:(1): 90–103. 5138: 5134: 5127: 5120: 5113: 5108: 5102: 5098: 5097: 5090: 5083: 5079: 5074: 5067: 5063: 5058: 5051: 5047: 5042: 5035: 5031: 5026: 5010: 5006: 5005: 5000: 4994: 4992: 4983: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4934: 4927: 4922: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4902: 4900: 4892: 4887: 4883: 4869: 4865: 4859: 4849: 4845: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4819:Antiparasitic 4817: 4816: 4810: 4808: 4807:Animal organs 4804: 4800: 4796: 4795: 4791:'s 1979 film 4790: 4786: 4782: 4777: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4766:Count Dracula 4763: 4759: 4758: 4753: 4752:Gothic horror 4749: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4727: 4717: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4685: 4683: 4679: 4673: 4669: 4667: 4661: 4651: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4640:classical era 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4616: 4610: 4601: 4599: 4595: 4594: 4589: 4585: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4566: 4556: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4538: 4534: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4513: 4511: 4510: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4475: 4465: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4446: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4432: 4427: 4423: 4422:elephantiasis 4419: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4402: 4397: 4396: 4391: 4387: 4386: 4381: 4377: 4371: 4358: 4354: 4351:won the 1902 4350: 4346: 4342: 4340: 4339: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4309: 4305: 4304: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4260:'s 1668 book 4259: 4255: 4245: 4243: 4242: 4235: 4230: 4229:Jehan de Brie 4226: 4221: 4219: 4215: 4214: 4205: 4201: 4198:A plate from 4196: 4187: 4185: 4184: 4179: 4178: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4148:Ebers Papyrus 4145: 4141: 4137: 4132: 4117: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4100: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4077:to co-exist. 4076: 4072: 4068: 4063: 4061: 4057: 4056: 4050: 4042: 4041: 4036: 4027: 4022: 4018: 4008: 4006: 4001: 3999: 3995: 3994:Atlantic Rock 3991: 3987: 3982: 3980: 3975: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3957: 3956: 3951: 3947: 3942: 3928: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3889: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3878: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3852: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3829:immune system 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3786: 3782: 3777: 3768: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3729: 3723:Host defences 3720: 3718: 3714: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3675: 3674: 3668: 3664: 3661: 3660: 3654: 3650: 3647:. Uninfected 3646: 3642: 3638: 3637: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3623: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3603: 3593: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3562: 3556: 3552: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3529: 3526: 3522: 3517: 3515: 3511: 3501: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3486: 3481: 3480: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3440: 3436: 3426: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3415:symbiogenesis 3412: 3411: 3406: 3402: 3401:Lynn Margulis 3398: 3396: 3395: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3366: 3365: 3360: 3351: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3331: 3324: 3314: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3284: 3283:Saurophthirus 3279: 3278: 3273: 3272: 3271:Tyrannosaurus 3267: 3263: 3262:fossil record 3257: 3250:Fossil record 3247: 3245: 3238: 3230: 3229: 3224: 3223: 3222:Tyrannosaurus 3217: 3208: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3157: 3156:Bacteriophage 3153: 3140: 3139: 3134: 3133:bacteriophage 3130: 3126: 3122: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3107: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3077:, a cause of 3076: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3051: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3033: 3028: 3022: 3012: 3010: 3006: 3005: 3000: 2999: 2994: 2993: 2986: 2973: 2972: 2967: 2963: 2962: 2957: 2953: 2951: 2947: 2946:Microsporidia 2943: 2938: 2936: 2932: 2930: 2925: 2921: 2920: 2914: 2913:hemibiotrophs 2909: 2907: 2901: 2897: 2884: 2880: 2879: 2873: 2869: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2842: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2815: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2793: 2788: 2787: 2786:Orobanchaceae 2781: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2666: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2622: 2619: 2616: 2614: 2611: 2609: 2606: 2605: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2594: 2592: 2589: 2587: 2584: 2581: 2579: 2576: 2574: 2571: 2570: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2544: 2541: 2539: 2536: 2535: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2514: 2511: 2509: 2506: 2504: 2501: 2500: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2474: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2456: 2453: 2450: 2447: 2444: 2442: 2439: 2437: 2434: 2432: 2429: 2428: 2424: 2421: 2418: 2415: 2412: 2409: 2406: 2403: 2400: 2398: 2395: 2393: 2390: 2389: 2385: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2373: 2370: 2368: 2365: 2363: 2360: 2358: 2355: 2354: 2351: 2349: 2346: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2319: 2316: 2313: 2311: 2308: 2305: 2303: 2300: 2298: 2295: 2293: 2290: 2288: 2285: 2284: 2281: 2278: 2275: 2272: 2269: 2267: 2264: 2262: 2259: 2257: 2254: 2252: 2249: 2248: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2214: 2210: 2207: 2204: 2201: 2198: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2180: 2179: 2175: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2150: 2147: 2146: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2115: 2113: 2110: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 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1485: 1480: 1479:Hyperparasite 1470: 1457: 1450: 1449: 1445: 1443:(inc. humans) 1441: 1437: 1434: 1431: 1426: 1425: 1421: 1420: 1416: 1413: 1409: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1399: 1395: 1394: 1388: 1385: 1381: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1371: 1367: 1366: 1363: 1358: 1355: 1351: 1350: 1346: 1344: 1343: 1342:Strongyloides 1337: 1334: 1333: 1329: 1326: 1322: 1321: 1317: 1314: 1309: 1308: 1304: 1303: 1299: 1296: 1293: 1290: 1289: 1283: 1281: 1274: 1270: 1269: 1264: 1260: 1251: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1212: 1208: 1199: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1175: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1152: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1132: 1127: 1126: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1116:or making it 1115: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1101:left for it. 1100: 1096: 1091: 1087: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1076:hymenopterans 1073: 1069: 1064: 1060: 1050: 1048: 1047: 1042: 1041: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1019: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 988: 984: 983: 978: 973: 968: 958: 956: 955: 950: 946: 945:Autoinfection 942: 937: 933: 929: 925: 924: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 892: 891: 886: 877: 875: 873: 869: 865: 861: 854:ectoparasites 853: 849: 845: 836: 834: 833: 828: 824: 823: 819: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 797: 792: 787: 781: 780:its crab host 777: 776: 770: 765: 751: 741: 739: 729: 727: 717: 715: 714:(fitness = 0) 708: 707: 704: 702:Micropredator 696:Micropredator 694: 692: 682: 680: 670: 668: 661: 660: 656: 653: 650: 648: 644: 643: 639: 623: 620: 615: 613: 609: 605: 604:parasitoidism 601: 597: 593: 589: 579: 577: 572: 570: 566: 562: 558: 557:scale insects 554: 550: 549:snubnosed eel 544: 541: 537: 533: 528: 524: 520: 516: 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 474: 470: 466: 462: 461: 460:Taenia solium 455: 450: 440: 437: 427: 425: 423: 419: 415: 412: 408: 405: 402: 398: 395: 394:Ancient Greek 392:, from 390: 385: 380: 376: 372: 362: 360: 356: 355: 351:'s 1979 film 350: 346: 342: 341: 336: 335:Gothic horror 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 299: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 277:ancient Egypt 274: 270: 265: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 238: 236: 233:species, and 232: 231: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 203:, but unlike 202: 197: 195: 194:parasitoidism 191: 187: 183: 179: 174: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 90: 89: 84: 83: 79:, the isopod 78: 77:fish parasite 73: 69: 65: 48: 44: 40: 33: 28: 19: 11930:Parasitology 11861:Trophallaxis 11845: 11765:Pivot feeder 11760:Lunge feeder 11738:Egg predator 11626:Phagocytosis 11476:reproductive 11447:Myrmecophagy 11437:Molluscivore 11262: 11223:Commensalism 11114:Alarm signal 10980:at Wikibooks 10976: 10942:Parasite Rex 10941: 10937:Zimmer, Carl 10916: 10888: 10853: 10829: 10819: 10804: 10789: 10774: 10765: 10756: 10736: 10729: 10694: 10690: 10677: 10667: 10657: 10636: 10617: 10603: 10593: 10573: 10566: 10554: 10535: 10523:. Retrieved 10509: 10484: 10480: 10474: 10462:. Retrieved 10456: 10443: 10431:. Retrieved 10421: 10396: 10392: 10383: 10371:. Retrieved 10367: 10358: 10346:. Retrieved 10336: 10312: 10305: 10291:(1): 61–66. 10288: 10285:Hist Sci Med 10284: 10266: 10262: 10256: 10248: 10234: 10198: 10194: 10166:the original 10137: 10134:J. Parasitol 10133: 10120: 10083: 10080:PLOS Biology 10079: 10069: 10026: 10022: 10012: 9993: 9989: 9979: 9968:the original 9947: 9943: 9930: 9911: 9905: 9881: 9877: 9864: 9829: 9825: 9815: 9763: 9759: 9749: 9699: 9695: 9685: 9635: 9631: 9572: 9568: 9530: 9526: 9516: 9494:(2): 79–82. 9491: 9487: 9477: 9432: 9428: 9415: 9372: 9368: 9330: 9326: 9276: 9272: 9247:. Retrieved 9240:the original 9175: 9171: 9161: 9150:the original 9129: 9125: 9109: 9089: 9082: 9049: 9045: 9035: 9000: 8996: 8990: 8982: 8942: 8938: 8925: 8877: 8873: 8822: 8818: 8808: 8767: 8763: 8753: 8726: 8720: 8685: 8681: 8671: 8651: 8644: 8624: 8606: 8594:. Retrieved 8590:the original 8577: 8571: 8561: 8540: 8532: 8497: 8493: 8450: 8446: 8419:cite journal 8374: 8370: 8360: 8341: 8337: 8327: 8319: 8315: 8310: 8268:(9): e7288. 8265: 8261: 8251: 8214: 8210: 8150: 8146: 8093: 8089: 8076: 8039: 8035: 8025: 8000: 7996: 7987: 7950: 7946: 7936: 7917: 7911: 7868: 7864: 7854: 7822:(1): 58–85. 7819: 7815: 7805: 7780: 7776: 7766: 7739: 7735: 7726: 7678:(1): 17251. 7675: 7671: 7661: 7649:. Retrieved 7636: 7595: 7591: 7581: 7548: 7544: 7538: 7513: 7509: 7503: 7486: 7480: 7472: 7463:. Retrieved 7439: 7420: 7371:(1): 53–59. 7368: 7364: 7358: 7338: 7331: 7311: 7304: 7251: 7247: 7237: 7194: 7190: 7180: 7175:, p. 6. 7146: 7140: 7108: 7104: 7095: 7087: 7075:. Retrieved 7068: 7061: 7050:the original 7041: 7034: 7009: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6991: 6972: 6966: 6956: 6921: 6917: 6907: 6890: 6886: 6880: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6833: 6808: 6804: 6798: 6789: 6785: 6775: 6763:. Retrieved 6752: 6743: 6739: 6733: 6721:. Retrieved 6719:. Antkeepers 6711: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6662: 6619: 6615: 6605: 6596: 6592: 6582: 6547: 6543: 6497: 6493: 6464: 6427: 6379: 6375: 6369: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6265: 6261: 6212: 6208: 6160: 6156: 6146: 6121: 6097: 6090:. Retrieved 6085: 6081: 6071: 6036: 6032: 5994: 5988: 5982: 5970:. Retrieved 5960: 5948:. Retrieved 5938: 5899:Parasitology 5898: 5885: 5865: 5858: 5823: 5819: 5809: 5783:the original 5770: 5766: 5704: 5701:Parasitology 5700: 5633: 5629: 5623: 5581: 5577: 5567: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5512: 5479: 5475: 5469: 5465: 5457: 5445:. Retrieved 5435: 5400: 5396: 5364:. Retrieved 5357:the original 5352: 5348: 5335: 5315: 5277: 5273: 5263: 5251:. Retrieved 5247:the original 5242: 5233: 5198: 5195:Parasitology 5194: 5184: 5136: 5132: 5119: 5110: 5095: 5089: 5081: 5073: 5065: 5057: 5049: 5041: 5033: 5025: 5013:. Retrieved 5004:The Guardian 5002: 4947: 4943: 4933: 4924: 4910: 4886: 4858: 4848: 4792: 4789:Ridley Scott 4778: 4755: 4745: 4739: 4714: 4703:ad infinitum 4701: 4688: 4675: 4671: 4663: 4643: 4637: 4613: 4591: 4571:prophylactic 4568: 4553:horticulture 4542: 4530: 4507: 4477: 4443: 4429: 4399: 4393: 4383: 4376:parasitology 4373: 4370:Parasitology 4364:Parasitology 4336: 4318: 4312: 4301: 4289: 4285: 4265: 4261: 4251: 4248:Early modern 4239: 4224: 4222: 4211: 4209: 4203: 4181: 4175: 4168:Aristophanes 4160:bladder worm 4134: 4102: 4064: 4053: 4051: 4047: 4038: 4002: 3983: 3976: 3961: 3953: 3952:, the louse 3950:ectoparasite 3913:caterpillars 3910:lepidopteran 3895: 3886:tineid moths 3875: 3873: 3790: 3761:testosterone 3730: 3726: 3717:mitochondria 3710: 3684: 3671: 3657: 3652: 3634: 3620: 3619:, the fluke 3605: 3575: 3559: 3530: 3518: 3510:cospeciation 3507: 3504:Cospeciation 3498:caterpillars 3494:bacteriocins 3483: 3479:Photorhabdus 3477: 3475: 3450:cospeciation 3432: 3408: 3399: 3392: 3373:commensalism 3370: 3362: 3334: 3326: 3281: 3275: 3269: 3259: 3240: 3226: 3220: 3159: 3136: 3104: 3086: 3072: 3062: 3055:Lyme disease 3048: 3030: 3024: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2988: 2969: 2966:Lyme disease 2959: 2939: 2927: 2918: 2910: 2903: 2876: 2843: 2838: 2812: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2782: 2714:holoparasite 2705: 2702:hemiparasite 2699: 2690:holoparasite 2683: 2643: 2009:Polypodiozoa 1891: 1873: 1852: 1755: 1743: 1733: 1729: 1723: 1707: 1701: 1673: 1667: 1616: 1598: 1594:Emery's rule 1589: 1583: 1577: 1571: 1561: 1543: 1540:Emery's rule 1511: 1493: 1482: 1468: 1446: 1422: 1405: 1396: 1377: 1374:(a nematode) 1368: 1359: 1347: 1340: 1318: 1305: 1277: 1266: 1248:vampire bats 1240:tsetse flies 1228:branchiurans 1220:hematophagic 1216: 1198: 1122:ecdysteroids 1103: 1088: 1084:phorid flies 1066: 1044: 1038: 1031:anaplasmosis 1023:Lyme disease 1016: 1013:hematophagic 991: 985:among human 980: 952: 921: 914:pentastomids 902:schistosomes 896: 888: 876: 857: 830: 820: 804: 794: 784: 773: 747: 735: 723: 709: 700: 688: 676: 662: 635: 616: 585: 573: 565:caterpillars 553:Plant-eating 545: 512: 508:E. O. Wilson 488:commensalism 477: 458: 439: 436:Parasitology 426: 421: 417: 414: 410: 407: 406:in turn from 404: 400: 397: 370: 368: 352: 349:Ridley Scott 338: 315:parasitology 296: 289:early modern 266: 250:transmission 239: 228: 198: 192:parasitism, 175: 155:honey fungus 147:vampire bats 115:E. O. Wilson 94: 93: 88:Lithognathus 86: 80: 68: 46: 37:This is the 31: 11682:Planktivore 11667:Detritivore 11662:Coprophagia 11652:Bacterivore 11647:Microbivory 11631:Myzocytosis 11590:Nectarivore 11580:Graminivore 11427:Lepidophagy 11422:Insectivore 11417:Hematophagy 11258:Synnecrosis 11238:Inquilinism 11228:Competition 11158:Unkenreflex 11119:Aposematism 10559:Poulin 2007 10487:: 645–669. 10433:11 February 9742:Poulin 2007 8596:15 November 7598:(1): 1–16. 7248:BMC Ecology 7173:Poulin 2007 6893:: 481–508. 6268:(1): 9283. 6215:: 235–245. 6092:12 February 5802:Poulin 2007 5472:(Lamnidae)" 5253:25 February 4891:Poulin 2007 4748:Bram Stoker 4628:exoskeleton 4622:compares a 4618:cartoon by 4549:agriculture 4454:David Bruce 4436:Ronald Ross 4420:that cause 4404:, in 1875. 4390:James Paget 4353:Nobel Prize 4349:Ronald Ross 4232: [ 4144:threadworms 4140:Guinea worm 3998:Jonah crabs 3986:green crabs 3841:lymphocytes 3771:Vertebrates 3708:myxosporean 3485:Xenorhabdus 3470:host switch 3317:Coevolution 3277:Trichomonas 3228:Trichomonas 3173:DNA viruses 2998:Trypanosoma 2854:mycorrhizal 2780:are known. 2746:chlorophyll 2726:angiosperms 2081:Monogeneans 1915:Class/Order 1678:cuckoo bees 1590:Tetramorium 1568:ant mimicry 1532:Ant mimicry 1362:(grooming) 1184:laying eggs 1095:egg is laid 1068:Parasitoids 1053:Parasitoids 1046:Trypanosoma 982:Trypanosoma 941:Coinfection 898:Trophically 868:monogeneans 866:amphipods; 596:trophically 519:life cycles 515:Taxonomists 484:saprotrophs 401:(parasitos) 382:, from the 331:Bram Stoker 262:saprophytic 209:specialised 11915:Parasitism 11909:Categories 11846:Parasitism 11780:Bait balls 11770:Ram feeder 11702:Plastivore 11697:Lithotroph 11687:Saprophagy 11610:Osteophagy 11600:Palynivore 11557:Herbivores 11488:Paedophagy 11462:Spongivore 11452:Ophiophagy 11392:Carnivores 11339:Mycorrhiza 11318:Intraguild 11298:Parasitoid 11263:Parasitism 11253:Neutralism 11218:Amensalism 11148:Camouflage 10947:Free Press 10399:(3): 158. 9990:BioScience 9052:(2): 181. 8217:(1): 239. 7651:12 October 7197:: 101026. 6792:: 352–362. 6765:29 October 6746:: 352–362. 6599:: 237–268. 6099:predation. 4878:References 4774:Laura Otis 4624:crinoletta 4559:Resistance 4547:agents in 4537:greenhouse 4460:vector of 4458:tsetse fly 4431:Plasmodium 4428:parasite, 4380:amoebiasis 4331:described 4298:ascariasis 4150:describes 3990:trematodes 3968:ecologists 3817:cell walls 3805:trematodes 3797:Human skin 3681:Trait loss 3590:allopatric 3419:eukaryotes 3397:bacteria. 3385:autoimmune 3292:pterosaurs 3101:bronchitis 2992:Plasmodium 2929:Armillaria 2904:Parasitic 2883:saprophyte 2648:including 2608:Arthropods 2573:Arthropods 2543:True flies 2538:Arthropods 2503:Arthropods 2468:Arthropods 2431:Arthropods 2392:Arthropods 2357:Arthropods 2327:Gastropods 2044:Trematodes 1849:anglerfish 1829:great skua 1789:large blue 1706:, such as 1704:anglerfish 1558:bumblebees 1536:Cuckoo bee 1514:, does to 1504:CHV1 virus 1465:Variations 1424:Plasmodium 1386:fecal–oral 1356:fecal–oral 1313:monogenean 1263:Life cycle 1211:Mosquitoes 1180:Phorid fly 1165:ovipositor 1157:Koinobiont 1136:Idiobiont 1105:Koinobiont 1059:Parasitoid 1040:Plasmodium 1027:babesiosis 949:life cycle 923:Toxoplasma 918:roundworms 827:sporocysts 737:Parasitoid 588:strategies 434:See also: 422:parasitism 347:parasite. 321:effect in 269:roundworms 230:Plasmodium 219:hosts and 217:vertebrate 178:strategies 171:broomrapes 169:, and the 143:mosquitoes 119:protozoans 95:Parasitism 11851:Scavenger 11723:Predation 11692:Xenophagy 11672:Geophagia 11657:Fungivore 11605:Xylophagy 11595:Mellivory 11575:Frugivore 11570:Florivore 11467:Vermivore 11457:Piscivore 11442:Mucophagy 11432:Man-eater 11326:Symbiosis 11311:Carnivore 11305:Predation 11248:Mutualism 10830:IndieWire 9648:CiteSeerX 9569:Oecologia 9279:(7): 62. 9074:202579182 9066:0161-8202 8580:(1): 58. 7700:2045-2322 7628:251474576 7612:0273-2289 7423:. Brill. 7385:0012-1606 7278:1472-6785 7254:(1): 21. 7229:257756440 7077:6 January 6825:0024-4066 6681:CiteSeerX 6370:Maculinea 5950:9 October 5523:Oecologia 5169:133349792 5153:0003-0147 5030:παράσιτος 4799:Xenomorph 4740:Parasites 4678:satirical 4644:parasitus 4588:virulence 4512:malaria. 4445:Anopheles 4313:In 1681, 4067:food webs 3904:(JA) and 3864:Leaf spot 3823:with its 3653:T. gondii 3627:killifish 3578:sympatric 3533:flamingos 3454:flamingos 3394:Wolbachia 3377:mutualism 3364:Wolbachia 3311:phytosaur 3307:coprolite 3300:protozoan 3266:mandibles 3244:food webs 3097:influenza 3027:pathogens 3004:Entamoeba 2839:Orobanche 2823:chickpeas 2814:Orobanche 2758:chemicals 2734:haustoria 2710:mistletoe 2379:1 or more 2236:2 or more 2202:1 or more 2182:Nematodes 2168:1 or more 2134:2 or more 2112:Flatworms 2076:Flatworms 2061:2 or more 2039:Flatworms 1990:2 or more 1944:def. host 1937:def. host 1793:ant mimic 1448:Anopheles 1432:parasite) 1411:(tuatara) 1398:Amblyomma 1336:Nematodes 1236:dipterans 1188:honey-bee 1142:Pimplinae 1090:Idiobiont 1080:dipterans 1074:or other 1009:pathogens 818:trematode 805:Sacculina 796:Sacculina 712:reproduce 710:Unable to 665:reproduce 612:converged 590:, namely 536:helminths 504:Predation 492:mutualism 480:symbiosis 399:παράσιτος 389:parasitus 384:Latinised 365:Etymology 319:satirical 313:. Modern 295:observed 273:tapeworms 258:mutualism 246:pathology 221:tapeworms 213:reproduce 205:predators 163:mistletoe 135:hookworms 18:Parasites 11802:Browsing 11677:Omnivore 11619:Cellular 11565:Folivore 11066:examples 10939:(2001). 10913:(1998). 10887:(2005). 10850:(2007). 10721:35538778 10697:(1974). 10665:(1733). 10543:Archived 10519:Archived 10501:15012401 10413:16562450 10373:13 April 10348:11 April 10297:11625103 10215:15145374 10162:16228008 10154:10780537 10112:23776405 10061:18462196 9964:16713014 9894:Archived 9856:27434418 9800:26030816 9760:PLOS ONE 9726:10517823 9674:Archived 9670:10666361 9605:25912204 9597:28547690 9547:85266542 9508:21237766 9407:20495380 9347:36132488 9305:19664200 9212:32094163 9146:15275316 9027:11007336 8971:Archived 8914:Archived 8902:10864323 8849:17148381 8792:15772660 8712:20667874 8622:(1995). 8524:15255095 8467:17619029 8411:37556448 8402:10411797 8371:PLOS ONE 8302:19789646 8262:PLOS ONE 8243:23092160 8187:18695218 8122:Archived 8110:15886693 8068:19158076 8017:15936660 7979:16984643 7895:17215830 7846:23297259 7797:15567583 7758:28741610 7718:29222513 7620:35951248 7573:85142620 7565:33874520 7530:20153240 7465:10 April 7456:Archived 7447:(2002). 7401:49394142 7393:29935146 7296:30001194 7221:36966863 7129:Archived 7026:53155057 6948:23485877 6872:86176932 6864:32079372 6703:12921696 6669:Melipona 6654:26784356 6574:73607283 6522:24768783 6406:20585513 6350:35487084 6342:13429025 6300:28839251 6239:24533342 6209:Wildlife 6187:28289253 6088:(10): 36 6063:21345732 6011:11450660 5927:Archived 5915:11442193 5850:25035598 5731:24229807 5650:92178009 5630:Castanea 5608:26394099 5551:28309807 5504:37865366 5427:21295676 5366:11 April 5296:10589879 5225:37458178 5216:10478066 5173:Archived 5161:31251653 5078:σιτισμός 5009:Archived 4982:21199247 4909:(2014). 4813:See also 4750:'s 1897 4218:Avicenna 4190:Medieval 4152:hookworm 3979:food web 3925:terpenes 3843:such as 3813:lysozyme 3779:The dry 3753:peacocks 3435:virulent 3407:'s 1902 3389:nematode 3296:nematode 3199:such as 3111:syphilis 3050:Borrelia 3015:Bacteria 2979:Protozoa 2827:tomatoes 2774:families 2716:such as 2708:such as 2692:, on an 2654:cestodes 2646:helminth 2436:Copepods 2322:Molluscs 2292:Bivalves 2287:Molluscs 2251:Annelids 2117:Cestodes 2004:Cnidaria 1968:Cnidaria 1851:species 1730:adelphós 1623:cowbirds 1554:termites 1546:eusocial 1500:medicine 1489:oak gall 1402:(a tick) 1291:Parasite 1244:lampreys 1232:gnathiid 1161:braconid 1114:pupating 1082:such as 1035:malarial 1001:bacteria 997:protozoa 906:cestodes 860:copepods 852:obligate 825:, whose 791:barnacle 678:Pathogen 532:copepods 379:parasite 371:parasite 333:'s 1897 159:ringworm 153:such as 101:between 43:reviewed 11925:Ecology 11817:Grazing 11716:Methods 11503:Weaning 11483:Oophagy 11407:Avivore 11243:Mimicry 11207:ecology 11153:Mimicry 11143:Crypsis 11097:Signals 10841:Sources 10712:9091844 10619:useful. 10464:25 July 10103:3678997 10052:2408649 10031:Bibcode 9847:4982183 9791:4451766 9768:Bibcode 9717:1539229 9640:Bibcode 9577:Bibcode 9469:2185476 9437:Bibcode 9398:3115164 9377:Bibcode 9296:2736671 9273:J. 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