526:
effective cure will require a sequential, integrated approach that combines adequate and safe immune interventions with beta cell regenerative approaches. It has also been demonstrated that alpha cells can spontaneously switch fate and transdifferentiate into beta cells in both healthy and diabetic human and mouse pancreatic islets, a possible future source for beta cell regeneration. In fact, it has been found that islet morphology and endocrine differentiation are directly related. Endocrine progenitor cells differentiate by migrating in cohesion and forming bud-like islet precursors, or "peninsulas", in which alpha cells constitute the peninsular outer layer and beta cells form later beneath them. Cryopreservation has shown promise to improve the supply chain of pancreatic islets for better transplantation outcomes.
573:
336:
324:
538:
384:
36:
312:
55:
396:
408:
561:
467:. Islet transplantation emerged as a viable option for the treatment of insulin requiring diabetes in the early 1970s with steady progress over the following three decades. Clinical trials as of 2008 have shown that insulin independence and improved metabolic control can be reproducibly obtained after transplantation of cadaveric donor islets into patients with
572:
290:
The proportion of beta cells in islets varies depending on the species, in humans it is about 40–50%. In addition to endocrine cells, there are stromal cells (fibroblasts), vascular cells (endothelial cells, pericytes), immune cells (granulocytes, lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells,) and
509:
produced by islets and vascular endothelial cells. However, intraportal transplantation has some other shortcomings, and so other alternative sites that would provide better microenvironment for islets implantation are being examined. Islet transplant research also focuses on islet encapsulation,
481:
Islet transplantation only involves the transfer of tissue consisting of beta cells that are necessary as a treatment of this disease. It thus represents an advantage over whole pancreas transplantation, which is more technically demanding and poses a risk of, for example, pancreatitis leading to
525:
would contribute to overcoming the shortage of donor organs for transplantation. The field of regenerative medicine is rapidly evolving and offers great hope for the nearest future. However, type 1 diabetes is the result of the autoimmune destruction of beta cells in the pancreas. Therefore, an
286:
of pancreatic islets differs between species. In particular, while rodent islets are characterized by a predominant proportion of insulin-producing beta cells in the core of the cluster and by scarce alpha, delta and PP cells in the periphery, human islets display alpha and beta cells in close
504:
and the low value of islet survival a few minutes after transplantation, because the vascular density at this site is after the surgery several months lower than in endogenous islets. Thus, neovascularization is key to islet survival, that is supported, for example, by
478:(BMI) are unsuitable pancreatic donors due to greater technical complications during transplantation. However, it is possible to isolate a larger number of islets because of their larger pancreas, and therefore they are more suitable donors of islets.
210:
There are about 1 million islets distributed throughout the pancreas of a healthy adult human. While islets vary in size, the average diameter is about 0.2 mm. Each islet is separated from the surrounding pancreatic tissue by a thin, fibrous,
934:
Ichii H, Inverardi L, Pileggi A, Molano RD, Cabrera O, Caicedo A, Messinger S, Kuroda Y, Berggren PO, Ricordi C (2005). "A novel method for the assessment of cellular composition and beta-cell viability in human islet preparations".
198:. The pancreatic islets constitute 1â2% of the pancreas volume and receive 10â15% of its blood flow. The pancreatic islets are arranged in density routes throughout the human pancreas, and are important in the metabolism of
377:(GPCRs) regulate the secretion of insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin from pancreatic islets, and some of these GPCRs are the targets of drugs used to treat type-2 diabetes (ref GLP-1 receptor agonists, DPPIV inhibitors).
1870:
BermĂșdez-Silva, F. J.; SuĂĄrez, J.; Baixeras, E.; Cobo, N.; Bautista, D.; Cuesta-Muñoz, A. L.; Fuentes, E.; Juan-Pico, P.; Castro, M. J.; Milman, G.; Mechoulam, R.; Nadal, A.; RodrĂguez de
Fonseca, F. (2008-03-01).
1857:
Zhan, L., Rao, J.S., Sethia, N. et al. Pancreatic islet cryopreservation by vitrification achieves high viability, function, recovery and clinical scalability for transplantation. Nat Med (2022).
1750:
van der Meulen, T.; Mawla, A.M.; DiGruccio, M.R.; Adams, M.W.; Nies, V.; Dolleman, S.; Liu, S.; Ackermann, A.M.; Caceres, E.; Hunter, A.E.; Kaestner, K.H.; Donaldson, C.J.; Huising, M.O. (2017).
1063:
Jansson, Leif; Barbu, Andreea; Bodin, Birgitta; Drott, Carl Johan; Espes, Daniel; Gao, Xiang; Grapensparr, Liza; KĂ€llskog, Ărjan; Lau, Joey; LiljebĂ€ck, Hanna; Palm, Fredrik (2016-04-02).
223:
Hormones produced in the pancreatic islets are secreted directly into the blood flow by (at least) five types of cells. In rat islets, endocrine cell types are distributed as follows:
1801:
Sharon, N.; Chawla, R.; Mueller, J.; Vanderhooft, J.; Whitehorn, L.J.; Rosenthal, B.; GĂŒrtler, M.; Estanboulieh, R.R.; Shvartsman, D.; Gifford, D.K.; Trapnell, C.; Melton, D. (2019).
537:
2024:"Effects of oral, smoked, and vaporized cannabis on endocrine pathways related to appetite and metabolism: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, human laboratory study"
459:, clinicians and researchers are actively pursuing islet transplantation as a means of restoring physiological beta cell function, which would offer an alternative to a complete
1920:
Flores, Luis E.; Alzugaray, MarĂa E.; Cubilla, Marisa A.; Raschia, MarĂa A.; Del Zotto, HĂ©ctor H.; RomĂĄn, Carolina L.; Suburo, Ăngela M.; Gagliardino, Juan J. (October 2013).
1975:
Juan-PicĂł, Pablo; Fuentes, Esther; Javier BermĂșdez-Silva, F.; Javier DĂaz-Molina, F.; Ripoll, Cristina; RodrĂguez de
Fonseca, Fernando; Nadal, Angel (2006-02-01).
1242:
Amisten, S; Salehi, A; Rorsman, P; Jones, PM; Persaud, SJ (2013). "An atlas and functional analysis of G-protein coupled receptors in human islets of
Langerhans".
294:
A large amount of blood flows through the islets, 5–6 mL/min per 1 g of islet. It is up to 15 times more than in exocrine tissue of the pancreas.
150:
2104:
1689:
Pileggi A, Cobianchi L, Inverardi L, Ricordi C (2006). "Overcoming the challenges now limiting islet transplantation: a sequential, integrated approach".
1921:
2448:
471:. Alternatively, daily insulin injections are an effective treatment for type 1 diabetes patients who are not candidates for islet transplantation.
839:
1479:
Niclauss, Nadja; Meier, Raphael; BĂ©dat, BenoĂźt; Berishvili, Ekaterine; Berney, Thierry (2016-01-27), Stettler, C.; Christ, E.; Diem, P. (eds.),
126:
2845:
1691:
427:
techniques. It has turned out that the behavior of cells in intact islets differs significantly from the behavior of dispersed cells.
383:
335:
323:
2097:
671:
1638:
Chang, Charles A.; Lawrence, Michael C.; Naziruddin, Bashoo (October 2017). "Current issues in allogeneic islet transplantation".
1392:"Transplantation: current developments and future directions; the future of clinical islet transplantation as a cure for diabetes"
611:
are found widely expressed in islets of
Langerhans, and several studies have investigated specific distribution and mechanisms of
2441:
1504:
1170:
810:
728:
2840:
2090:
215:
capsule which is continuous with the fibrous connective tissue that is interwoven throughout the rest of the pancreas.
755:
Pour, Parviz M.; Standop, Jens; Batra, Surinder K. (January 2002). "Are islet cells the gatekeepers of the pancreas?".
305:
communication, and beta cells are coupled electrically to six to seven other beta cells, but not to other cell types.
2434:
2227:
1211:
801:
Sleisenger, edited by Mark
Feldman, Lawrence S. Friedman, Lawrence J. Brandt; consulting editor, Marvin H. (2015).
157:
1803:"A Peninsular Structure Coordinates Asynchronous Differentiation with Morphogenesis to Generate Pancreatic Islets"
1595:
665:
743:
59:
A pancreatic islet from a mouse in a typical position, close to a blood vessel; insulin in red, nuclei in blue.
311:
145:
2769:
2377:
587:
395:
2114:
407:
1187:
895:"Assessment of human pancreatic islet architecture and composition by laser scanning confocal microscopy"
616:
612:
1279:"Biophysical properties of gap junctions between freshly dispersed pairs of mouse pancreatic beta cells"
2630:
2172:
594:. Different cell types are colour-coded. Rodent islets, unlike the human ones, show the characteristic
560:
374:
1976:
455:
Because the beta cells in the pancreatic islets are selectively destroyed by an autoimmune process in
2866:
2493:
2393:
803:
Sleisenger & Fordtran's gastrointestinal and liver disease pathophysiology, diagnosis, management
949:
2413:
1186:
Marques, Joana
Moreira; Nunes, Rute; Florindo, Helena; Ferreira, Domingos; Sarmento, Bruno (2021).
460:
109:
2082:
2602:
2513:
2271:
2256:
2150:
993:"The unique cytoarchitecture of human pancreatic islets has implications for islet cell function"
2625:
2165:
2130:
944:
720:
366:
255:
133:
121:
832:
2217:
2160:
712:
2828:
2818:
2177:
1700:
1292:
1004:
660:
608:
490:
1593:
Chatenoud L (2008). "Chemical immunosuppression in islet transplantationâfriend or foe?".
635:
8:
2607:
2560:
2552:
2288:
2077:
1283:
464:
1977:"Cannabinoid receptors regulate Ca2+ signals and insulin secretion in pancreatic ÎČ-cell"
1752:"Virgin Beta Cells Persist throughout Life at a Neogenic Niche within Pancreatic Islets"
1704:
1296:
1008:
2525:
2475:
2283:
2140:
2048:
2023:
1974:
1957:
1835:
1802:
1778:
1732:
1671:
1570:
1537:
1449:
1364:
1337:
1313:
1278:
1217:
1203:
1122:"Role of islet structure and cellular interactions in the control of insulin secretion"
1097:
1064:
1035:
992:
970:
867:
854:
820:
780:
643:
2073:
1536:
Gamble, Anissa; Pepper, Andrew R.; Bruni, Antonio; Shapiro, A. M. James (2018-03-04).
1304:
893:
Brissova M, Fowler MJ, Nicholson WE, Chu A, Hirshberg B, Harlan DM, Powers AC (2005).
696:
Langerhans P (1869). "Beitrage zur mikroscopischen anatomie der bauchspeichel druse".
2617:
2530:
2503:
2408:
2321:
2278:
2053:
2004:
1996:
1949:
1941:
1902:
1894:
1840:
1822:
1783:
1724:
1716:
1663:
1655:
1620:
1612:
1575:
1557:
1510:
1500:
1454:
1413:
1369:
1318:
1259:
1255:
1221:
1207:
1166:
1143:
1102:
1084:
1040:
1022:
962:
958:
916:
872:
806:
772:
724:
713:
486:
212:
1961:
1736:
1675:
784:
362:
Glycogen/Glucagon: activates alpha cells which activates beta cells and delta cells.
2802:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2542:
2535:
2508:
2458:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2316:
2311:
2266:
2261:
2199:
2187:
2043:
2035:
1988:
1933:
1884:
1830:
1814:
1773:
1763:
1708:
1647:
1604:
1565:
1549:
1492:
1444:
1403:
1359:
1349:
1308:
1300:
1251:
1199:
1133:
1092:
1076:
1030:
1012:
954:
906:
862:
764:
623:
468:
283:
85:
2426:
1553:
1080:
974:
482:
organ loss. Another advantage is that patients do not require general anesthesia.
365:
Somatostatin: inhibits alpha cells and beta cells. Also inhibits the secretion of
2685:
2677:
2570:
2565:
2483:
2466:
2388:
1937:
1651:
1480:
522:
518:
475:
456:
195:
114:
20:
500:, which is then implanted in the liver. There is a risk of portal venous branch
35:
2734:
2649:
2580:
2498:
2488:
2331:
2182:
2155:
1992:
1818:
1768:
1751:
997:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
677:
517:
An alternative source of beta cells, such insulin-producing cells derived from
2039:
1889:
1872:
2860:
2739:
2729:
2640:
2520:
2239:
2204:
2145:
2000:
1945:
1898:
1858:
1826:
1720:
1659:
1616:
1561:
1160:
1088:
1026:
138:
1922:"Islet Cannabinoid Receptors: Cellular Distribution and Biological Function"
1712:
1608:
1017:
911:
894:
2823:
2789:
2779:
2717:
2222:
2194:
2135:
2057:
2008:
1953:
1906:
1844:
1787:
1728:
1667:
1624:
1579:
1514:
1458:
1417:
1373:
1263:
1147:
1106:
1044:
991:
Cabrera O, Berman DM, Kenyon NS, Ricordi C, Berggren PO, Caicedo A (2006).
966:
920:
855:"An immunocytochemical and morphometric study of the rat pancreatic islets"
776:
271:
265:
80:
1873:"Presence of functional cannabinoid receptors in human endocrine pancreas"
1322:
1138:
1121:
876:
852:
514:) immunosuppression, biomarkers of islet damage or islet donor shortage.
2797:
2712:
2306:
2298:
655:
631:
627:
511:
497:
424:
54:
1354:
2774:
2759:
2212:
501:
485:
Islet transplantation for type 1 diabetes (as of 2008) requires potent
261:
227:
1496:
1113:
768:
355:
feedback system of the pancreatic islets has the following structure:
163:
2764:
2575:
2248:
441:
352:
302:
298:
237:
187:
1432:
2835:
2707:
2347:
2112:
620:
591:
551:
449:
231:
183:
73:
41:
1538:"The journey of islet cell transplantation and future development"
1165:. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 391.
1120:
Kelly, Catriona; McClenaghan, Neville H.; Flatt, Peter R. (2011).
2594:
1749:
1408:
1391:
639:
595:
445:
275:
251:
241:
199:
191:
45:
1869:
1688:
1481:"Beta-Cell Replacement: Pancreas and Islet Cell Transplantation"
805:(10th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
423:
Electrical activity of pancreatic islets has been studied using
1276:
583:
544:
359:
Glucose/Insulin: activates beta cells and inhibits alpha cells.
245:
19:"Islets of Langerhans" redirects here. Not to be confused with
1800:
1433:"25 Years of the Ricordi Automated Method for Islet Isolation"
1188:"A demanding path from iPSCs toward pancreatic ÎČ- and α-cells"
2724:
2699:
2122:
1919:
548:
97:
1478:
1185:
452:. It is thought that they are destroyed by immune assaults.
933:
506:
1424:
1161:
Wang, Michael B.; Bullock, John; Boyle, Joseph R. (2001).
990:
892:
711:
Barrett KE, Boitano S, Barman SM, Brooks HL (2009-07-22).
710:
1241:
853:
Elayat AA; el-Naggar MM; Tahir M; Bassam dahrouj (1995).
579:
1535:
1277:
PĂ©rez-Armendariz M, Roy C, Spray DC, Bennett MV (1991).
543:
Pancreatic islets, the lighter tissue among the darker,
1637:
40:
Pancreatic islets are groups of cells found within the
1338:"Transplantation for the treatment of type 1 diabetes"
1062:
1119:
287:
relationship with each other throughout the cluster.
389:
Mouse islet immunostained for pancreatic polypeptide
2456:
1389:
638:function, proliferation, and survival, as well as
1154:
1065:"Pancreatic islet blood flow and its measurement"
190:(hormone-producing) cells, discovered in 1869 by
2858:
796:
794:
754:
1430:
1385:
1383:
590:part (left) and the dorsal part (right) of the
986:
984:
888:
886:
2442:
2098:
791:
1682:
1586:
1380:
1329:
744:Functional Anatomy of the Endocrine Pancreas
719:(23 ed.). McGraw Hill Medical. p.
698:Inaugural-dissertation. Berlin: Gustav Lange
695:
1592:
1270:
981:
927:
899:Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry
883:
2846:List of human endocrine organs and actions
2449:
2435:
2105:
2091:
1859:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01718-1
1692:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1335:
1192:Recent Advances in IPSC-Derived Cell Types
846:
800:
53:
34:
2047:
2021:
1888:
1834:
1777:
1767:
1569:
1448:
1407:
1363:
1353:
1312:
1137:
1096:
1034:
1016:
948:
910:
866:
838:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1640:Current Opinion in Organ Transplantation
672:Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans
626:functions, where they play an important
430:
297:Islets can influence each other through
341:A pancreatic islet, showing beta cells.
329:A pancreatic islet, showing alpha cells
2859:
1390:Hogan A, Pileggi A, Ricordi C (2008).
418:
413:Mouse islet immunostained for glucagon
2430:
2086:
1531:
1529:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1058:
1056:
1054:
715:Ganong's review of medical physiology
401:Mouse islet immunostained for insulin
529:
448:, and so play a significant role in
937:American Journal of Transplantation
748:
566:Illustration of dog pancreas. 250x.
496:The islets are transplanted into a
254:(gamma cells or F cells) producing
13:
1526:
1465:
1204:10.1016/B978-0-12-822230-0.00002-8
1069:Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences
1051:
14:
2878:
2228:Liver sinusoidal endothelial cell
2067:
1342:World Journal of Gastroenterology
1194:. Advances in Stem Cell Biology.
444:of the pancreatic islets secrete
2115:liver, pancreas and biliary tree
1256:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.05.004
959:10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.00913.x
571:
559:
536:
406:
394:
382:
334:
322:
310:
282:It has been recognized that the
158:Anatomical terms of microanatomy
2022:Farokhnia, Mehdi (2020-02-19).
2015:
1968:
1913:
1863:
1851:
1794:
1743:
1631:
1596:New England Journal of Medicine
1235:
1179:
666:Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor
586:islets (bottom) as well as the
578:Structural differences between
218:
1431:Piemonti L, Pileggi A (2013).
861:. 186. (Pt 3) (Pt 3): 629â37.
737:
704:
689:
1:
1554:10.1080/19382014.2018.1428511
1305:10.1016/S0006-3495(91)82200-7
1081:10.3109/03009734.2016.1164769
683:
1938:10.1097/MPA.0b013e31828fd32d
1652:10.1097/MOT.0000000000000448
317:A pancreatic islet, stained.
205:
7:
649:
642:production, secretion, and
603:
547:pancreatic tissue, hemalum-
435:
375:G protein-coupled receptors
346:
10:
2883:
2173:Fibrous capsule of Glisson
1993:10.1016/j.ceca.2005.10.005
1819:10.1016/j.cell.2018.12.003
1769:10.1016/j.cmet.2017.03.017
234:(20% of total islet cells)
18:
2811:
2788:
2750:
2698:
2676:
2648:
2639:
2616:
2593:
2551:
2474:
2465:
2346:
2297:
2247:
2238:
2121:
2040:10.1038/s41398-020-0756-3
1890:10.1007/s00125-007-0890-y
1491:, S. Karger AG: 146â162,
156:
144:
132:
120:
108:
96:
91:
79:
69:
64:
52:
33:
28:
469:unstable type 1 diabetes
2514:Somatomammotrophic cell
2257:Intrahepatic bile ducts
1713:10.1196/annals.1375.059
1609:10.1056/NEJMcibr0708067
1396:Frontiers in Bioscience
1018:10.1073/pnas.0510790103
912:10.1369/jhc.5C6684.2005
194:pathological anatomist
182:are the regions of the
16:Regions of the pancreas
367:pancreatic polypeptide
256:pancreatic polypeptide
2218:Hepatic stellate cell
1485:Endocrine Development
1139:10.4161/isl.3.2.14805
609:Cannabinoid receptors
512:calcineurin-inhibitor
431:Clinical significance
2829:Organ of Zuckerkandl
2819:Enteroendocrine cell
2178:Perisinusoidal space
661:Neuroendocrine tumor
180:islets of Langerhans
103:insulae pancreaticae
2608:Parafollicular cell
2289:Common hepatic duct
2078:Human Protein Atlas
1705:2006NYASA1079..383P
1355:10.3748/wjg.13.6347
1336:Meloche RM (2007).
1297:1991BpJ....59...76P
1284:Biophysical Journal
1009:2006PNAS..103.2334C
465:artificial pancreas
461:pancreas transplant
419:Electrical activity
2752:Islets of pancreas
2526:Corticotropic cell
2284:Right hepatic duct
2141:Ligamentum venosum
1813:(4): 790â804.e13.
859:Journal of Anatomy
831:has generic name (
636:pancreatic ÎČ-cells
373:A large number of
2854:
2853:
2694:
2693:
2618:Parathyroid gland
2589:
2588:
2531:Gonadotropic cell
2504:Somatotropic cell
2424:
2423:
2409:Centroacinar cell
2404:Pancreatic islets
2342:
2341:
2322:Sphincter of Oddi
2279:Left hepatic duct
2028:Transl Psychiatry
1506:978-3-318-05638-9
1497:10.1159/000439412
1172:978-0-683-30603-3
812:978-1-4557-4989-8
769:10.1159/000064718
730:978-0-07-160568-7
582:islets (top) and
530:Additional images
493:of donor islets.
487:immunosuppression
474:People with high
213:connective tissue
186:that contain its
176:pancreatic islets
172:
171:
167:
29:Pancreatic islets
2874:
2867:Pancreas anatomy
2803:Corpora arenacea
2668:Zona reticularis
2663:Zona fasciculata
2658:Zona glomerulosa
2646:
2645:
2543:Chromophobe cell
2536:Thyrotropic cell
2472:
2471:
2459:endocrine system
2451:
2444:
2437:
2428:
2427:
2378:Uncinate process
2317:Ampulla of Vater
2312:Common bile duct
2267:Canals of Hering
2262:Bile canaliculus
2245:
2244:
2200:Lobules of liver
2188:Periportal space
2107:
2100:
2093:
2084:
2083:
2062:
2061:
2051:
2019:
2013:
2012:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1932:(7): 1085â1092.
1917:
1911:
1910:
1892:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1838:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1781:
1771:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1573:
1533:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1521:
1476:
1463:
1462:
1452:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1411:
1402:(13): 1192â205.
1387:
1378:
1377:
1367:
1357:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1316:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1141:
1117:
1111:
1110:
1100:
1060:
1049:
1048:
1038:
1020:
988:
979:
978:
952:
931:
925:
924:
914:
890:
881:
880:
870:
850:
844:
843:
836:
830:
826:
824:
816:
798:
789:
788:
752:
746:
741:
735:
734:
718:
708:
702:
701:
693:
632:endocannabinoids
575:
563:
540:
523:progenitor cells
519:adult stem cells
489:to prevent host
410:
398:
386:
338:
326:
314:
284:cytoarchitecture
164:edit on Wikidata
161:
57:
38:
26:
25:
2882:
2881:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2850:
2807:
2784:
2746:
2690:
2686:Chromaffin cell
2672:
2635:
2612:
2603:Follicular cell
2585:
2566:Median eminence
2547:
2484:Pars intermedia
2467:Pituitary gland
2461:
2457:Anatomy of the
2455:
2425:
2420:
2338:
2293:
2234:
2117:
2113:Anatomy of the
2111:
2070:
2065:
2020:
2016:
1973:
1969:
1918:
1914:
1868:
1864:
1856:
1852:
1799:
1795:
1756:Cell Metabolism
1748:
1744:
1687:
1683:
1636:
1632:
1591:
1587:
1534:
1527:
1519:
1517:
1507:
1477:
1466:
1429:
1425:
1388:
1381:
1348:(47): 6347â55.
1334:
1330:
1275:
1271:
1240:
1236:
1226:
1224:
1214:
1184:
1180:
1173:
1159:
1155:
1118:
1114:
1061:
1052:
989:
982:
950:10.1.1.578.5893
932:
928:
891:
884:
851:
847:
837:
828:
827:
818:
817:
813:
799:
792:
753:
749:
742:
738:
731:
709:
705:
694:
690:
686:
676:a novelette by
652:
619:in relation to
606:
599:
576:
567:
564:
555:
541:
532:
476:body mass index
457:type 1 diabetes
438:
433:
421:
414:
411:
402:
399:
390:
387:
349:
342:
339:
330:
327:
318:
315:
221:
208:
196:Paul Langerhans
168:
60:
48:
24:
21:Langerhans cell
17:
12:
11:
5:
2880:
2870:
2869:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2832:
2831:
2821:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2794:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2756:
2754:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2737:
2735:Granulosa cell
2732:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2704:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2688:
2682:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2654:
2652:
2643:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2622:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2610:
2605:
2599:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2583:
2581:Herring bodies
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2557:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2518:
2517:
2516:
2511:
2509:Prolactin cell
2506:
2499:Acidophil cell
2496:
2491:
2489:Pars tuberalis
2486:
2480:
2478:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2454:
2453:
2446:
2439:
2431:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2391:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2352:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2334:
2332:Cholecystocyte
2326:
2325:
2324:
2314:
2309:
2303:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2253:
2251:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2183:Liver sinusoid
2180:
2175:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2163:
2156:Lobes of liver
2153:
2151:Round ligament
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2127:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2110:
2109:
2102:
2095:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2069:
2068:External links
2066:
2064:
2063:
2014:
1987:(2): 155â162.
1967:
1912:
1883:(3): 476â487.
1862:
1850:
1793:
1762:(4): 911â926.
1742:
1681:
1646:(5): 437â443.
1630:
1603:(11): 1192â3.
1585:
1525:
1505:
1464:
1423:
1379:
1328:
1269:
1244:Pharmacol Ther
1234:
1212:
1178:
1171:
1153:
1112:
1050:
980:
943:(7): 1635â45.
926:
905:(9): 1087â97.
882:
845:
811:
790:
763:(5): 440â448.
747:
736:
729:
703:
687:
685:
682:
681:
680:
678:Harlan Ellison
668:
663:
658:
651:
648:
605:
602:
601:
600:
577:
570:
568:
565:
558:
556:
542:
535:
531:
528:
437:
434:
432:
429:
420:
417:
416:
415:
412:
405:
403:
400:
393:
391:
388:
381:
371:
370:
363:
360:
348:
345:
344:
343:
340:
333:
331:
328:
321:
319:
316:
309:
291:neural cells.
280:
279:
269:
259:
249:
235:
220:
217:
207:
204:
170:
169:
160:
154:
153:
148:
142:
141:
136:
130:
129:
124:
118:
117:
112:
106:
105:
100:
94:
93:
89:
88:
83:
77:
76:
71:
67:
66:
62:
61:
58:
50:
49:
39:
31:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2879:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2741:
2740:Corpus luteum
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2730:Theca interna
2728:
2727:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2675:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2641:Adrenal gland
2638:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2615:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2592:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2544:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2521:Basophil cell
2519:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2494:Pars distalis
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2452:
2447:
2445:
2440:
2438:
2433:
2432:
2429:
2415:
2414:Stellate cell
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2400:Microanatomy
2399:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2379:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2345:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2296:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2258:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2250:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2240:Biliary tract
2237:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2209:Microanatomy
2208:
2206:
2205:Liver segment
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2189:
2186:
2185:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2146:Porta hepatis
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2108:
2103:
2101:
2096:
2094:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2079:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1866:
1860:
1854:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1699:(1): 383â98.
1698:
1694:
1693:
1685:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1597:
1589:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1532:
1530:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1460:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1427:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1386:
1384:
1375:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1285:
1280:
1273:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1250:(3): 359â91.
1249:
1245:
1238:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1213:9780128222300
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1182:
1174:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1116:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1003:(7): 2334â9.
1002:
998:
994:
987:
985:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
951:
946:
942:
938:
930:
922:
918:
913:
908:
904:
900:
896:
889:
887:
878:
874:
869:
864:
860:
856:
849:
841:
834:
822:
814:
808:
804:
797:
795:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
757:Pancreatology
751:
745:
740:
732:
726:
722:
717:
716:
707:
699:
692:
688:
679:
675:
673:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
653:
647:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
622:
618:
617:CB2 receptors
614:
610:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
574:
569:
562:
557:
553:
550:
546:
539:
534:
533:
527:
524:
520:
515:
513:
508:
503:
499:
494:
492:
488:
483:
479:
477:
472:
470:
466:
462:
458:
453:
451:
447:
443:
428:
426:
409:
404:
397:
392:
385:
380:
379:
378:
376:
368:
364:
361:
358:
357:
356:
354:
337:
332:
325:
320:
313:
308:
307:
306:
304:
300:
295:
292:
288:
285:
277:
273:
272:Epsilon cells
270:
267:
263:
260:
257:
253:
250:
247:
243:
239:
236:
233:
229:
226:
225:
224:
216:
214:
203:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
165:
159:
155:
152:
149:
147:
143:
140:
137:
135:
131:
128:
125:
123:
119:
116:
113:
111:
107:
104:
101:
99:
95:
90:
87:
84:
82:
78:
75:
72:
68:
63:
56:
51:
47:
44:that release
43:
37:
32:
27:
22:
2790:Pineal gland
2780:Epsilon cell
2751:
2718:Sertoli cell
2631:Oxyphil cell
2561:Pars nervosa
2403:
2272:Interlobular
2223:Kupffer cell
2195:Portal triad
2136:Cantlie line
2031:
2027:
2017:
1984:
1981:Cell Calcium
1980:
1970:
1929:
1925:
1915:
1880:
1877:Diabetologia
1876:
1865:
1853:
1810:
1806:
1796:
1759:
1755:
1745:
1696:
1690:
1684:
1643:
1639:
1633:
1600:
1594:
1588:
1548:(2): 80â94.
1545:
1541:
1518:, retrieved
1488:
1484:
1440:
1436:
1426:
1409:10.2741/2755
1399:
1395:
1345:
1341:
1331:
1291:(1): 76â92.
1288:
1282:
1272:
1247:
1243:
1237:
1225:. Retrieved
1195:
1191:
1181:
1162:
1156:
1132:(2): 41â47.
1129:
1125:
1115:
1075:(2): 81â95.
1072:
1068:
1000:
996:
940:
936:
929:
902:
898:
858:
848:
829:|first=
802:
760:
756:
750:
739:
714:
706:
697:
691:
670:
607:
516:
495:
484:
480:
473:
454:
439:
422:
372:
350:
296:
293:
289:
281:
266:somatostatin
222:
219:Microanatomy
209:
179:
175:
173:
127:A05.9.01.019
102:
2841:Development
2824:Paraganglia
2798:Pinealocyte
2713:Leydig cell
2307:Cystic duct
2299:Gallbladder
1443:(1): 8â22.
1198:: 227â256.
656:Betatrophin
628:homeostatic
498:portal vein
425:patch clamp
262:Delta cells
228:Alpha cells
92:Identifiers
2775:Delta cell
2760:Alpha cell
2626:Chief cell
2249:Bile ducts
2213:Hepatocyte
2034:(71): 71.
1520:2020-09-11
1227:18 January
1163:Physiology
684:References
644:resistance
621:pancreatic
510:CNI-free (
502:thrombosis
442:beta cells
274:producing
264:producing
240:producing
238:Beta cells
230:producing
2765:Beta cell
2576:Pituicyte
2553:Posterior
2394:accessory
2131:Bare area
2001:0143-4160
1946:0885-3177
1899:1432-0428
1827:0092-8674
1721:0077-8923
1660:1087-2418
1617:0028-4793
1562:1938-2014
1222:234135648
1089:0300-9734
1027:1091-6490
945:CiteSeerX
821:cite book
634:modulate
630:role, as
624:endocrine
491:rejection
353:paracrine
303:autocrine
299:paracrine
268:(<10%)
206:Structure
188:endocrine
86:Endocrine
2861:Category
2836:Placenta
2708:Testicle
2476:Anterior
2348:Pancreas
2166:Quadrate
2074:Pancreas
2058:32075958
2009:16321437
1962:36905885
1954:24005231
1926:Pancreas
1907:18092149
1845:30661759
1788:28380380
1737:33009393
1729:17130583
1676:37483032
1668:28692442
1625:18337609
1580:29394145
1515:26824893
1459:30505878
1418:17981623
1374:18081223
1264:23694765
1148:21372635
1107:27124642
1045:16461897
967:15943621
921:15923354
785:37257345
777:12378111
650:See also
604:Research
592:pancreas
450:diabetes
436:Diabetes
347:Function
278:(<1%)
258:(<5%)
252:PP cells
232:glucagon
184:pancreas
74:Pancreas
46:hormones
42:pancreas
2770:PP cell
2678:Medulla
2595:Thyroid
2161:Caudate
2076:at the
2049:7031261
1836:6705176
1779:8586897
1701:Bibcode
1571:5895174
1450:6267808
1365:4205453
1323:2015391
1314:1281120
1293:Bibcode
1098:4900068
1036:1413730
1005:Bibcode
877:7559135
868:1167020
640:insulin
615:versus
596:insulin
588:ventral
446:insulin
276:ghrelin
242:insulin
200:glucose
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