Mitochondrion - Knowledge

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flux through the citric acid cycle. However, once Ca signaling in the mitochondria passes a certain threshold, it stimulates the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis in part by collapsing the mitochondrial membrane potential required for metabolism. Studies examining the role of pro- and anti-apoptotic factors support this model; for example, the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-2 has been shown to interact with IP3Rs to reduce Ca filling of the ER, leading to reduced efflux at the MAM and preventing collapse of the mitochondrial membrane potential post-apoptotic stimuli. Given the need for such fine regulation of Ca signaling, it is perhaps unsurprising that dysregulated mitochondrial Ca has been implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases, while the catalogue of tumor suppressors includes a few that are enriched at the MAM.

3138: 3560:. For example, a single mitochondrion may divide synchronously with the nucleus. This division and segregation process must be tightly controlled so that each daughter cell receives at least one mitochondrion. In other eukaryotes (in mammals for example), mitochondria may replicate their DNA and divide mainly in response to the energy needs of the cell, rather than in phase with the cell cycle. When the energy needs of a cell are high, mitochondria grow and divide. When energy use is low, mitochondria are destroyed or become inactive. In such examples mitochondria are apparently randomly distributed to the daughter cells during the division of the 2673:

significant implications for mitochondrial-associated cellular phenomena, as discussed below. Not only has the MAM provided insight into the mechanistic basis underlying such physiological processes as intrinsic apoptosis and the propagation of calcium signaling, but it also favors a more refined view of the mitochondria. Though often seen as static, isolated 'powerhouses' hijacked for cellular metabolism through an ancient endosymbiotic event, the evolution of the MAM underscores the extent to which mitochondria have been integrated into overall cellular physiology, with intimate physical and functional coupling to the endomembrane system.

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mitochondria are uncoupled. Less ATP availability ultimately results in an energy deficit presenting as reduced cardiac efficiency and contractile dysfunction. To compound the problem, impaired sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release and reduced mitochondrial reuptake limits peak cytosolic levels of the important signaling ion during muscle contraction. Decreased intra-mitochondrial calcium concentration increases dehydrogenase activation and ATP synthesis. So in addition to lower ATP synthesis due to fatty acid oxidation, ATP synthesis is impaired by poor calcium signaling as well, causing cardiac problems for diabetics.

1061:, which expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its ability to produce ATP. For typical liver mitochondria, the area of the inner membrane is about five times as large as that of the outer membrane. This ratio is variable and mitochondria from cells that have a greater demand for ATP, such as muscle cells, contain even more cristae. Mitochondria within the same cell can have substantially different crista-density, with the ones that are required to produce more energy having much more crista-membrane surface. These folds are studded with small round bodies known as 3218: 55: 4003:, a decreased mitochondria function can lead to inflammation, resulting in premature ovarian failure and accelerated ovarian aging. The resulting dysfunction is then reflected in quantitative (such as mtDNA copy number and mtDNA deletions), qualitative (such as mutations and strand breaks) and oxidative damage (such as dysfunctional mitochondria due to ROS), which are not only relevant in ovarian aging, but perturb oocyte-cumulus crosstalk in the ovary, are linked to genetic disorders (such as Fragile X) and can interfere with embryo selection. 67: 2616:. The population of all the mitochondria of a given cell constitutes the chondriome. Mitochondria vary in number and location according to cell type. A single mitochondrion is often found in unicellular organisms, while human liver cells have about 1000–2000 mitochondria per cell, making up 1/5 of the cell volume. The mitochondrial content of otherwise similar cells can vary substantially in size and membrane potential, with differences arising from sources including uneven partitioning at cell division, leading to 2814:. The MAM thus offers a perspective on mitochondria that diverges from the traditional view of this organelle as a static, isolated unit appropriated for its metabolic capacity by the cell. Instead, this mitochondrial-ER interface emphasizes the integration of the mitochondria, the product of an endosymbiotic event, into diverse cellular processes. Recently it has also been shown, that mitochondria and MAM-s in neurons are anchored to specialised intercellular communication sites (so called somatic-junctions). 912:. Disruption of the outer membrane permits proteins in the intermembrane space to leak into the cytosol, leading to cell death. The outer mitochondrial membrane can associate with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane, in a structure called MAM (mitochondria-associated ER-membrane). This is important in the ER-mitochondria calcium signaling and is involved in the transfer of lipids between the ER and mitochondria. Outside the outer membrane are small (diameter: 60 Å) particles named sub-units of Parson. 3267:. mtDNA has one long non-coding stretch known as the non-coding region (NCR), which contains the heavy strand promoter (HSP) and light strand promoter (LSP) for RNA transcription, the origin of replication for the H strand (OriH) localized on the L strand, three conserved sequence boxes (CSBs 1–3), and a termination-associated sequence (TAS). The origin of replication for the L strand (OriL) is localized on the H strand 11,000 bp downstream of OriH, located within a cluster of genes coding for tRNA. 1401: 603: 2219: 2584: 14308:( ... very faint round granules, which are embedded in the contractile substance in long linear trains. These granules are located in the whole thickness of the muscle fiber, on the surface as in the interior, and are so numerous that they appear as a not unimportant element of the muscle fibers, once one has become alert to them.) Kölliker said (p. 321) that he had found mitochondria in the muscles of other animals. In Figure 3 of 1040: 3950:(MRT) has been developed. This form of in vitro fertilization uses donor mitochondria, which avoids the transmission of diseases caused by mutations of mitochondrial DNA. However, this therapy is still being researched and can introduce genetic modification, as well as safety concerns. These diseases are rare but can be extremely debilitating and progressive diseases, thus posing complex ethical questions for public policy. 2665:. Once considered a technical snag in cell fractionation techniques, the alleged ER vesicle contaminants that invariably appeared in the mitochondrial fraction have been re-identified as membranous structures derived from the MAM—the interface between mitochondria and the ER. Physical coupling between these two organelles had previously been observed in electron micrographs and has more recently been probed with 232: 3263:(12S and 16S rRNA). One mitochondrion can contain two to ten copies of its DNA. One of the two mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) strands has a disproportionately higher ratio of the heavier nucleotides adenine and guanine, and this is termed the heavy strand (or H strand), whereas the other strand is termed the light strand (or L strand). The weight difference allows the two strands to be separated by 2639:. The association with the cytoskeleton determines mitochondrial shape, which can affect the function as well: different structures of the mitochondrial network may afford the population a variety of physical, chemical, and signalling advantages or disadvantages. Mitochondria in cells are always distributed along microtubules and the distribution of these organelles is also correlated with the 14877: 2244:, a contributing process for the cell's homeostasis of calcium. Their ability to rapidly take in calcium for later release makes them good "cytosolic buffers" for calcium. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the most significant storage site of calcium, and there is a significant interplay between the mitochondrion and ER with regard to calcium. The calcium is taken up into the 2725:

intracellular Ca flux. But the presence of the MAM resolves this apparent contradiction: the close physical association between the two organelles results in Ca microdomains at contact points that facilitate efficient Ca transmission from the ER to the mitochondria. Transmission occurs in response to so-called "Ca puffs" generated by spontaneous clustering and activation of

1183:, a process that is independent of the mitochondria. The production of ATP from glucose and oxygen has an approximately 13-times higher yield during aerobic respiration compared to fermentation. Plant mitochondria can also produce a limited amount of ATP either by breaking the sugar produced during photosynthesis or without oxygen by using the alternate substrate 3579:(TEM). The resolution of fluorescence microscopy (≈200 nm) is insufficient to distinguish structural details, such as double mitochondrial membrane in mitochondrial division or even to distinguish individual mitochondria when several are close together. Conventional TEM has also some technical limitations in verifying mitochondrial division. 3926:. Increased fatty acid delivery to the heart increases fatty acid uptake by cardiomyocytes, resulting in increased fatty acid oxidation in these cells. This process increases the reducing equivalents available to the electron transport chain of the mitochondria, ultimately increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. ROS increases 3599:. The egg cell contains relatively few mitochondria, but these mitochondria divide to populate the cells of the adult organism. This mode is seen in most organisms, including the majority of animals. However, mitochondria in some species can sometimes be inherited paternally. This is the norm among certain 13798:

Committee on the Ethical and Social Policy Considerations of Novel Techniques for Prevention of Maternal Transmission of Mitochondrial DNA Diseases; Board on Health Sciences Policy; Institute of Medicine; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (March 17, 2016), Claiborne A, English

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Of the several DNA repair process in mitochondria, the base excision repair pathway has been most comprehensively studied. Base excision repair is carried out by a sequence of enzyme-catalyzed steps that include recognition and excision of a damaged DNA base, removal of the resulting abasic site, end

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that is also done by bacteria although the process is tightly regulated by the host eukaryotic cell and involves communication between and contact with several other organelles. The regulation of this division differs between eukaryotes. In many single-celled eukaryotes, their growth and division are

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to the IP3R clusters on the ER membrane and enriched at the MAM. The ability of mitochondria to serve as a Ca sink is a result of the electrochemical gradient generated during oxidative phosphorylation, which makes tunneling of the cation an exergonic process. Normal, mild calcium influx from cytosol

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The fate of these puffs—in particular, whether they remain restricted to isolated locales or integrated into Ca waves for propagation throughout the cell—is determined in large part by MAM dynamics. Although reuptake of Ca by the ER (concomitant with its release) modulates the intensity of the puffs,

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between the mitochondrial and ER membranes suggest that the scaffolding function of the molecular elements involved is secondary to other, non-structural functions. In yeast, ERMES, a multiprotein complex of interacting ER- and mitochondrial-resident membrane proteins, is required for lipid transfer

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appeared in 1952, replacing the Janus Green stains as the preferred way to visualize mitochondria. This led to a more detailed analysis of the structure of the mitochondria, including confirmation that they were surrounded by a membrane. It also showed a second membrane inside the mitochondria that

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living inside the eukaryote. In the autogenous hypothesis, mitochondria were born by splitting off a portion of DNA from the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell at the time of divergence with the prokaryotes; this DNA portion would have been enclosed by membranes, which could not be crossed by proteins.

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events, they require a constant and well-regulated supply of phospholipids for membrane integrity. But mitochondria are not only a destination for the phospholipids they finish synthesis of; rather, this organelle also plays a role in inter-organelle trafficking of the intermediates and products of

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sensitive to changes in the availability of mitochondrial derived ATP. The variation in ATP levels at different stages of the cell cycle support the hypothesis that mitochondria play an important role in cell cycle regulation. Although the specific mechanisms between mitochondria and the cell cycle

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The matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane. It contains about 2/3 of the total proteins in a mitochondrion. The matrix is important in the production of ATP with the aid of the ATP synthase contained in the inner membrane. The matrix contains a highly concentrated mixture of hundreds of

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between different lineages of mitochondria, although a single mitochondrion can contain 2–10 copies of its DNA. What recombination does take place maintains genetic integrity rather than maintaining diversity. However, there are studies showing evidence of recombination in mitochondrial DNA. It is

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is likewise affected by mitochondrial feedback: uptake of Ca by the MAM stimulates ATP production, thus providing energy that enables SERCA to reload the ER with Ca for continued Ca efflux at the MAM. Thus, the MAM is not a passive buffer for Ca puffs; rather it helps modulate further Ca signaling

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and oxaloacetate) are regenerated during each turn of the cycle. Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that the additional amount is retained within the cycle, increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other. Hence, the addition of

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hearts in 1942, and is usually characteristic of mitochondrial and bacterial plasma membranes. Cardiolipin contains four fatty acids rather than two, and may help to make the inner membrane impermeable, and its disruption can lead to multiple clinical disorders including neurological disorders and

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A number of changes can occur to mitochondria during the aging process. Tissues from elderly humans show a decrease in enzymatic activity of the proteins of the respiratory chain. However, mutated mtDNA can only be found in about 0.2% of very old cells. Large deletions in the mitochondrial genome

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as an organism develops: a single egg cell with some proportion of mutant mtDNA thus produces an embryo where different cells have different mutant loads. Cell-level selection may then act to remove those cells with more mutant mtDNA, leading to a stabilization or reduction in mutant load between

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Regulating ER release of Ca at the MAM is especially critical because only a certain window of Ca uptake sustains the mitochondria, and consequently the cell, at homeostasis. Sufficient intraorganelle Ca signaling is required to stimulate metabolism by activating dehydrogenase enzymes critical to

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in the blood. Here, the addition of oxaloacetate to the mitochondrion does not have a net anaplerotic effect, as another citric acid cycle intermediate (malate) is immediately removed from the mitochondrion to be converted to cytosolic oxaloacetate, and ultimately to glucose, in a process that is

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A critical role for the ER in calcium signaling was acknowledged before such a role for the mitochondria was widely accepted, in part because the low affinity of Ca channels localized to the outer mitochondrial membrane seemed to contradict this organelle's purported responsiveness to changes in

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Such trafficking capacity depends on the MAM, which has been shown to facilitate transfer of lipid intermediates between organelles. In contrast to the standard vesicular mechanism of lipid transfer, evidence indicates that the physical proximity of the ER and mitochondrial membranes at the MAM

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determined that they used an alternative code. Nonetheless, the mitochondria of many other eukaryotes, including most plants, use the standard code. Many slight variants have been discovered since, including various alternative mitochondrial codes. Further, the AUA, AUC, and AUU codons are all

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of the ERMES complex has not yet been identified in mammalian cells. Other proteins implicated in scaffolding likewise have functions independent of structural tethering at the MAM; for example, ER-resident and mitochondrial-resident mitofusins form heterocomplexes that regulate the number of

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Normally, these mitochondrial components are sequestered from the rest of the cell but are released following mitochondrial membrane permeabilization during apoptosis or passively after mitochondrial damage. However, mitochondria also play an active role in innate immunity, releasing mtDNA in

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Purified MAM from subcellular fractionation is enriched in enzymes involved in phospholipid exchange, in addition to channels associated with Ca signaling. These hints of a prominent role for the MAM in the regulation of cellular lipid stores and signal transduction have been borne out, with

14423:"Da auch sonst mancherlei Umstände dafür sprechen, dass Mikroorganismen und Granula einander gleichwerthig sind und Elementarorganismen vorstellen, welche sich überall finden, wo lebendige Kräfte ausgelöst werden, so wollen wir sie mit dem gemeinschaftlichen Namen der Bioblasten bezeichnen." 3938:

the mitochondria. Uncoupling then increases oxygen consumption by the mitochondria, compounding the increase in fatty acid oxidation. This creates a vicious cycle of uncoupling; furthermore, even though oxygen consumption increases, ATP synthesis does not increase proportionally because the

1312:, is the only fuel to enter the citric acid cycle. With each turn of the cycle one molecule of acetyl-CoA is consumed for every molecule of oxaloacetate present in the mitochondrial matrix, and is never regenerated. It is the oxidation of the acetate portion of acetyl-CoA that produces CO 924:

is the space between the outer membrane and the inner membrane. It is also known as perimitochondrial space. Because the outer membrane is freely permeable to small molecules, the concentrations of small molecules, such as ions and sugars, in the intermembrane space is the same as in the

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thus insulating mitochondria to a certain degree from high Ca exposure, the MAM often serves as a firewall that essentially buffers Ca puffs by acting as a sink into which free ions released into the cytosol can be funneled. This Ca tunneling occurs through the low-affinity Ca receptor

998:, and has a very high protein-to-phospholipid ratio (more than 3:1 by weight, which is about 1 protein for 15 phospholipids). The inner membrane is home to around 1/5 of the total protein in a mitochondrion. Additionally, the inner membrane is rich in an unusual phospholipid, 2260:. Release of this calcium back into the cell's interior can occur via a sodium-calcium exchange protein or via "calcium-induced-calcium-release" pathways. This can initiate calcium spikes or calcium waves with large changes in the membrane potential. These can activate a series of 2745:

But transmission of Ca is not unidirectional; rather, it is a two-way street. The properties of the Ca pump SERCA and the channel IP3R present on the ER membrane facilitate feedback regulation coordinated by MAM function. In particular, the clearance of Ca by the MAM allows for

2789:-related protein 75 (grp75) is another dual-function protein. In addition to the matrix pool of grp75, a portion serves as a chaperone that physically links the mitochondrial and ER Ca channels VDAC and IP3R for efficient Ca transmission at the MAM. Another potential tether is 2809:

The MAM is a critical signaling, metabolic, and trafficking hub in the cell that allows for the integration of ER and mitochondrial physiology. Coupling between these organelles is not simply structural but functional as well and critical for overall cellular physiology and

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Mitochondria also modulate processes such as testicular somatic cell development, spermatogonial stem cell differentiation, luminal acidification, testosterone production in testes, and more. Thus, dysfunction of mitochondria in spermatozoa can be a cause for infertility.

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Mitochondrial biogenesis is therefore defined as the process via which cells increase their individual mitochondrial mass . ... Mitochondrial biogenesis occurs by growth and division of pre-existing organelles and is temporally coordinated with cell cycle events

2283:. In neurons, concomitant increases in cytosolic and mitochondrial calcium act to synchronize neuronal activity with mitochondrial energy metabolism. Mitochondrial matrix calcium levels can reach the tens of micromolar levels, which is necessary for the activation of 1007:

cancer. Unlike the outer membrane, the inner membrane does not contain porins, and is highly impermeable to all molecules. Almost all ions and molecules require special membrane transporters to enter or exit the matrix. Proteins are ferried into the matrix via the

14425:(Since otherwise some circumstances indicate that microorganisms and granula are equivalent to each other and suggest elementary organisms, which are to be found wherever living forces are unleashed, we will designate them with the collective name of "bioblasts".) 3646:

generations. The mechanism underlying the bottleneck is debated, with a recent mathematical and experimental metastudy providing evidence for a combination of random partitioning of mtDNAs at cell divisions and random turnover of mtDNA molecules within the cell.

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clear that the enzymes necessary for recombination are present in mammalian cells. Further, evidence suggests that animal mitochondria can undergo recombination. The data are more controversial in humans, although indirect evidence of recombination exists.

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is fertilized by a sperm, the mitochondria, and therefore the mitochondrial DNA, usually come from the egg only. The sperm's mitochondria enter the egg, but do not contribute genetic information to the embryo. Instead, paternal mitochondria are marked with

2327:, and cellular architecture. ATP levels differ at various stages of the cell cycle suggesting that there is a relationship between the abundance of ATP and the cell's ability to enter a new cell cycle. ATP's role in the basic functions of the cell make the 2154:, or brown fat, and is responsible for non-shivering thermogenesis. Brown adipose tissue is found in mammals, and is at its highest levels in early life and in hibernating animals. In humans, brown adipose tissue is present at birth and decreases with age. 3312:

In animals, the mitochondrial genome is typically a single circular chromosome that is approximately 16 kb long and has 37 genes. The genes, while highly conserved, may vary in location. Curiously, this pattern is not found in the human body louse

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Pavón N, Martínez-Abundis E, Hernández L, Gallardo-Pérez JC, Alvarez-Delgado C, Cerbón M, et al. (October 2012). "Sexual hormones: effects on cardiac and mitochondrial activity after ischemia-reperfusion in adult rats. Gender difference".

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tethering structure termed the ER-mitochondria encounter structure, or ERMES, although it remains unclear whether this structure directly mediates lipid transfer or is required to keep the membranes in sufficiently close proximity to lower the

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The MAM is enriched in enzymes involved in lipid biosynthesis, such as phosphatidylserine synthase on the ER face and phosphatidylserine decarboxylase on the mitochondrial face. Because mitochondria are dynamic organelles constantly undergoing

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The MAM may also be part of the secretory pathway, in addition to its role in intracellular lipid trafficking. In particular, the MAM appears to be an intermediate destination between the rough ER and the Golgi in the pathway that leads to

3309:. Between protein-coding regions, tRNAs are present. Mitochondrial tRNA genes have different sequences from the nuclear tRNAs, but lookalikes of mitochondrial tRNAs have been found in the nuclear chromosomes with high sequence similarity. 3400:

for mitochondrial DNA reported a value of 1 mutation every 7884 years dating back to the most recent common ancestor of humans and apes, which is consistent with estimates of mutation rates of autosomal DNA (10 per base per generation).

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Hormonal signaling – mitochondria are sensitive and responsive to hormones, in part by the action of mitochondrial estrogen receptors (mtERs). These receptors have been found in various tissues and cell types, including brain and

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While the reactions are controlled by an electron transport chain, free electrons are not amongst the reactants or products in the three reactions shown and therefore do not affect the free energy released, which is used to pump

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bones. The relatively large evolutionary distance between the mitochondrial DNA sequences of Neanderthals and living humans has been interpreted as evidence for the lack of interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans.

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Hajnóczky G, Csordás G, Yi M (2011). "Old players in a new role: mitochondria-associated membranes, VDAC, and ryanodine receptors as contributors to calcium signal propagation from endoplasmic reticulum to the mitochondria".

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Damage and subsequent dysfunction in mitochondria is an important factor in a range of human diseases due to their influence in cell metabolism. Mitochondrial disorders often present as neurological disorders, including

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at the MAM and exemplifies this principle. One of its components, for example, is also a constituent of the protein complex required for insertion of transmembrane beta-barrel proteins into the lipid bilayer. However, a

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allows for lipid flipping between opposed bilayers. Despite this unusual and seemingly energetically unfavorable mechanism, such transport does not require ATP. Instead, in yeast, it has been shown to be dependent on a

2669:. Such studies estimate that at the MAM, which may comprise up to 20% of the mitochondrial outer membrane, the ER and mitochondria are separated by a mere 10–25 nm and held together by protein tethering complexes. 12510:

Cree LM, Samuels DC, de Sousa Lopes SC, Rajasimha HK, Wonnapinij P, Mann JR, et al. (February 2008). "A reduction of mitochondrial DNA molecules during embryogenesis explains the rapid segregation of genotypes".

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Wehbe Z, Behringer S, Alatibi K, Watkins D, Rosenblatt D, Spiekerkoetter U, et al. (November 2019). "The emerging role of the mitochondrial fatty-acid synthase (mtFASII) in the regulation of energy metabolism".

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Alvarez-Delgado C, Mendoza-Rodríguez CA, Picazo O, Cerbón M (August 2010). "Different expression of alpha and beta mitochondrial estrogen receptors in the aging rat brain: interaction with respiratory complex V".

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Cai N, Gomez-Duran A, Yonova-Doing E, Kundu K, Burgess AI, Golder ZJ, et al. (September 2021). "Mitochondrial DNA variants modulate N-formylmethionine, proteostasis and risk of late-onset human diseases".

1359:, which is bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane as part of Complex II. The citric acid cycle oxidizes the acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide, and, in the process, produces reduced cofactors (three molecules of 564:- that free-living prokaryotic ancestors of modern mitochondria permanently fused with eukaryotic cells in the distant past, evolving such that modern animals, plants, fungi, and other eukaryotes are able to 2003: 6768:

Brighton CT, Hunt RM (May 1974). "Mitochondrial calcium and its role in calcification. Histochemical localization of calcium in electron micrographs of the epiphyseal growth plate with K-pyroantimonate".

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reactions will, during the course of the cycle, increase or decrease the amount of oxaloacetate available to combine with acetyl-CoA to form citric acid. This in turn increases or decreases the rate of

2058: 1906: 929:. However, large proteins must have a specific signaling sequence to be transported across the outer membrane, so the protein composition of this space is different from the protein composition of the 9050:

Lebiedzinska M, Szabadkai G, Jones AW, Duszynski J, Wieckowski MR (October 2009). "Interactions between the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, plasma membrane and other subcellular organelles".

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Bender A, Krishnan KJ, Morris CM, Taylor GA, Reeve AK, Perry RH, et al. (May 2006). "High levels of mitochondrial DNA deletions in substantia nigra neurons in aging and Parkinson disease".

4073:, suggested that they contain proteins and lipids. Benjamin F. Kingsbury, in 1912, first related them with cell respiration, but almost exclusively based on morphological observations. In 1913, 7670:

Krysko DV, Agostinis P, Krysko O, Garg AD, Bachert C, Lambrecht BN, et al. (April 2011). "Emerging role of damage-associated molecular patterns derived from mitochondria in inflammation".

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in the mitochondria with high mutation rates of mitochondrial DNA. Hypothesized links between aging and oxidative stress are not new and were proposed in 1956, which was later refined into the

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A dominant role for the mitochondria is the production of ATP, as reflected by the large number of proteins in the inner membrane for this task. This is done by oxidizing the major products of

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Fan L, Wu D, Goremykin V, Xiao J, Xu Y, Garg S, et al. (September 2020). "Phylogenetic analyses with systematic taxon sampling show that mitochondria branch within Alphaproteobacteria".

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Kopach O, Kruglikov I, Pivneva T, Voitenko N, Fedirko N (May 2008). "Functional coupling between ryanodine receptors, mitochondria and Ca(2+) ATPases in rat submandibular acinar cells".

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Mitochondrial proteins (proteins transcribed from mitochondrial DNA) vary depending on the tissue and the species. In humans, 615 distinct types of proteins have been identified from

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Sweet S, Singh G (July 1999). "Changes in mitochondrial mass, membrane potential, and cellular adenosine triphosphate content during the cell cycle of human leukemic (HL-60) cells".

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It has also been reported that drug tolerant cancer cells have an increased number and size of mitochondria which suggested an increase in mitochondrial biogenesis. A 2022 study in

9253:"A unique mitochondria-associated membrane fraction from rat liver has a high capacity for lipid synthesis and contains pre-Golgi secretory proteins including nascent lipoproteins" 4444: 16333: 6443:

Kastaniotis AJ, Autio KJ, Kerätär JM, Monteuuis G, Mäkelä AM, Nair RR, et al. (January 2017). "Mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis, fatty acids and mitochondrial physiology".

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Cao L, Shitara H, Horii T, Nagao Y, Imai H, Abe K, et al. (March 2007). "The mitochondrial bottleneck occurs without reduction of mtDNA content in female mouse germ cells".

12808:"8-Oxoguanine accumulation in mitochondrial DNA causes mitochondrial dysfunction and impairs neuritogenesis in cultured adult mouse cortical neurons under oxidative conditions" 10597: 7756:

Seth RB, Sun L, Ea CK, Chen ZJ (September 2005). "Identification and characterization of MAVS, a mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein that activates NF-kappaB and IRF 3".

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regulation is not well understood, studies have shown that low energy cell cycle checkpoints monitor the energy capability before committing to another round of cell division.

3319:). Instead, this mitochondrial genome is arranged in 18 minicircular chromosomes, each of which is 3–4 kb long and has one to three genes. This pattern is also found in other 779:

Mitochondria have folding to increase surface area, which in turn increases ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production. Mitochondria stripped of their outer membrane are called

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Lim YA, Rhein V, Baysang G, Meier F, Poljak A, Raftery MJ, et al. (April 2010). "Abeta and human amylin share a common toxicity pathway via mitochondrial dysfunction".

2177: 12207:"The fate of paternal mitochondrial DNA in developing female mussels, Mytilus edulis: implications for the mechanism of doubly uniparental inheritance of mitochondrial DNA" 8817:

Soltys BJ, Gupta RS (1992). "Interrelationships of endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, intermediate filaments, and microtubules--a quadruple fluorescence labeling study".

3633:, the accumulation of deleterious mutations until functionality is lost. Animal populations of mitochondria avoid this buildup through a developmental process known as the 3533:

for tryptophan. Of note, the arthropod mitochondrial genetic code has undergone parallel evolution within a phylum, with some organisms uniquely translating AGG to lysine.

3980:. A vicious cycle was thought to occur, as oxidative stress leads to mitochondrial DNA mutations, which can lead to enzymatic abnormalities and further oxidative stress. 3385:

However, mitochondrial DNA reflects only the history of the females in a population. This can be partially overcome by the use of paternal genetic sequences, such as the

16326: 6480:"Altering the Mitochondrial Fatty Acid Synthesis (mtFASII) Pathway Modulates Cellular Metabolic States and Bioactive Lipid Profiles as Revealed by Metabolomic Profiling" 4936:

Lesnefsky EJ, Moghaddas S, Tandler B, Kerner J, Hoppel CL (June 2001). "Mitochondrial dysfunction in cardiac disease: ischemia--reperfusion, aging, and heart failure".

13106:"Veritable powerhouse – even without DNA: Parasitic algae from the dinoflagellate lineage have organized their genetic material in an unprecedented way" 525:

can have more than 2000. The mitochondrion is composed of compartments that carry out specialized functions. These compartments or regions include the outer membrane,

15020: 15004: 4108:. In the following years, the mechanism behind cellular respiration was further elaborated, although its link to the mitochondria was not known. The introduction of 13698:"The Role of Mitochondria in Human Fertility and Early Embryo Development: What Can We Learn for Clinical Application of Assessing and Improving Mitochondrial DNA?" 10786:

Wiesner RJ, Rüegg JC, Morano I (March 1992). "Counting target molecules by exponential polymerase chain reaction: copy number of mitochondrial DNA in rat tissues".

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Mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis (mtFASII) is essential for cellular respiration and mitochondrial biogenesis. It is also thought to play a role as a mediator in

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Sanchis-Gomar F, García-Giménez JL, Gómez-Cabrera MC, Pallardó FV (2014). "Mitochondrial biogenesis in health and disease. Molecular and therapeutic approaches".

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Anderson S, Bankier AT, Barrell BG, de Bruijn MH, Coulson AR, Drouin J, et al. (April 1981). "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome".

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The relationship between cellular proliferation and mitochondria has been investigated. Tumor cells require ample ATP to synthesize bioactive compounds such as

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Boffoli D, Scacco SC, Vergari R, Solarino G, Santacroce G, Papa S (April 1994). "Decline with age of the respiratory chain activity in human skeletal muscle".

185: 2927:. Some papers describe mitochondria as sister to the alphaproteobactera, together forming the sister the marineproteo1 group, together forming the sister to 2661:

The mitochondria-associated ER membrane (MAM) is another structural element that is increasingly recognized for its critical role in cellular physiology and

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Some organisms have lost mitochondrial DNA altogether. In these cases, genes encoded by the mitochondrial DNA have been lost or transferred to the nucleus.

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processes monitor and protect neuronal functions at these sites, and MAM-s are supposed to have an important role in this type of cellular quality-control.

2349:(PCD) is crucial for various physiological functions , including organ development and cellular homeostasis. It serves as an intrinsic mechanism to prevent 6212: 2193: 14445: 9372:

Decuypere JP, Monaco G, Bultynck G, Missiaen L, De Smedt H, Parys JB (May 2011). "The IP(3) receptor-mitochondria connection in apoptosis and autophagy".

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Pattappa G, Heywood HK, de Bruijn JD, Lee DA (October 2011). "The metabolism of human mesenchymal stem cells during proliferation and differentiation".

1476: 4158:. In 1968, methods were developed for mapping the mitochondrial genes, with the genetic and physical map of yeast mitochondrial DNA completed in 1976. 3908: 3209:

appear to have lost their mitochondria completely and at least some of the mitochondrial functions seem to be carried out by cytoplasmic proteins now.

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Neuronal mitochondria also contribute to cellular quality control by reporting neuronal status towards microglia through specialised somatic-junctions.

1712: 498:

is in turn temporally coordinated with these cellular processes. Mitochondria have been implicated in several human disorders and conditions, such as

16961: 4059: 3863:, as applies to most other genetic diseases. A variety of disorders can be caused by nuclear mutations of oxidative phosphorylation enzymes, such as 14983: 5398:

Hoogenboom BW, Suda K, Engel A, Fotiadis D (July 2007). "The supramolecular assemblies of voltage-dependent anion channels in the native membrane".

4132:

in eukaryotes. Over time, the fractionation method was further developed, improving the quality of the mitochondria isolated, and other elements of

2279:

by allowing the electrochemical potential across the membrane to transiently "pulse" from ΔΨ-dominated to pH-dominated, facilitating a reduction of

15106: 8429:

Taylor SW, Fahy E, Zhang B, Glenn GM, Warnock DE, Wiley S, et al. (March 2003). "Characterization of the human heart mitochondrial proteome".

3705:. Although there is evidence for the repair processes of direct reversal and mismatch repair in mtDNA, these processes are not well characterized. 2911:

and whether the mitochondrion was formed at the same time or after the nucleus, remains controversial. For example, it has been suggested that the

15051: 14958: 12597:

Wai T, Teoli D, Shoubridge EA (December 2008). "The mitochondrial DNA genetic bottleneck results from replication of a subpopulation of genomes".

3871:. Environmental influences may interact with hereditary predispositions and cause mitochondrial disease. For example, there may be a link between 4116:

allowed mitochondria to be isolated from other cell fractions and biochemical analysis to be conducted on them alone. In 1946, he concluded that

2997: 3999:

Since mitochondria cover a pivotal role in the ovarian function, by providing ATP necessary for the development from germinal vesicle to mature

2608:). Although commonly depicted as bean-like structures they form a highly dynamic network in the majority of cells where they constantly undergo 751:. The two membranes have different properties. Because of this double-membraned organization, there are five distinct parts to a mitochondrion: 14767: 14518: 14499:"Ich möchte vorläufig vorschlagen, ihnen als Mitochondria eine besondere Stellung vorzubehalten, die ich in weiteren Arbeiten begründen werde." 14480: 13013:

Henriquez FL, Richards TA, Roberts F, McLeod R, Roberts CW (February 2005). "The unusual mitochondrial compartment of Cryptosporidium parvum".

10151:

Esposti MD, Geiger O, Sanchez-Flores A (May 16, 2022). "On the bacterial ancestry of mitochondria: New insights with triangulated approaches".

7794:"Novel role for endogenous mitochondrial formylated peptide-driven formyl peptide receptor 1 signalling in acute respiratory distress syndrome" 3829:

are thought to be due to large-scale mtDNA rearrangements, whereas other diseases such as MELAS syndrome, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy,

3084:

The ribosomes coded for by the mitochondrial DNA are similar to those from bacteria in size and structure. They closely resemble the bacterial

1293: 14575: 14312: 14291: 12036: 3294:, as is the case in the human mitochondrial genome; however, introns have been observed in some eukaryotic mitochondrial DNA, such as that of 15911: 14731: 13113: 6112:

King A, Selak MA, Gottlieb E (August 2006). "Succinate dehydrogenase and fumarate hydratase: linking mitochondrial dysfunction and cancer".

5990:

Stoimenova M, Igamberdiev AU, Gupta KJ, Hill RD (July 2007). "Nitrite-driven anaerobic ATP synthesis in barley and rice root mitochondria".

2793:, a non-opioid receptor whose stabilization of ER-resident IP3R may preserve communication at the MAM during the metabolic stress response. 16954: 15079: 11416:

Krings M, Stone A, Schmitz RW, Krainitzki H, Stoneking M, Pääbo S (July 1997). "Neandertal DNA sequences and the origin of modern humans".

7011:"Pulsing of membrane potential in individual mitochondria: a stress-induced mechanism to regulate respiratory bioenergetics in Arabidopsis" 2423: 17: 14932: 6375: 16896: 10230: 9819:

Müller M, Martin W (May 1999). "The genome of Rickettsia prowazekii and some thoughts on the origin of mitochondria and hydrogenosomes".

4436: 4081:, who had also postulated a similar particle mechanism, disagreed on the chemical nature of the respiration. It was not until 1925, when 4019:, in 1890, established them as cell organelles and called them "bioblasts." In 1898, Carl Benda coined the term "mitochondria" from the 3583:

was recently used to visualize mitochondrial division in frozen hydrated intact cells. It revealed that mitochondria divide by budding.

3165:

information, which once suggested that they appeared before the origin of mitochondria. However, this is now known to be an artifact of

2126:

Under certain conditions, protons can re-enter the mitochondrial matrix without contributing to ATP synthesis. This process is known as

2067:(H) into the intermembrane space. This process is efficient, but a small percentage of electrons may prematurely reduce oxygen, forming 15587: 11210:"The single mitochondrial chromosome typical of animals has evolved into 18 minichromosomes in the human body louse, Pediculus humanus" 4178: 4104:(ATP) molecules, and in 1941, the concept of the phosphate bonds of ATP being a form of energy in cellular metabolism was developed by 14501:(I would like to suggest provisionally reserving for them, as "mitochondria", a special status which I will justify in further work.) 9832: 7426: 4011:

The first observations of intracellular structures that probably represented mitochondria were published in 1857, by the physiologist

3134:

would have provided a considerable evolutionary advantage. This symbiotic relationship probably developed 1.7 to 2 billion years ago.

12260: 11701: 10707: 10587: 2459: 816: 14306:" ... sehr blasse rundliche Körnchen, welche in langen linienförmigen Zügen wenn man einmal auf dieselben aufmerksam geworden ist." 7214:"ROS-mediated PI3K activation drives mitochondrial transfer from stromal cells to hematopoietic stem cells in response to infection" 6400:

Mozo J, Emre Y, Bouillaud F, Ricquier D, Criscuolo F (November 2005). "Thermoregulation: what role for UCPs in mammals and birds?".

3615:, paternal inheritance only occurs within males of the species. It has been suggested that it occurs at a very low level in humans. 420:

is known to have retained mitochondrion-related organelles despite a complete loss of their mitochondrial genome. A large number of

15582: 14977: 14760:

Pflügers Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere (Pfluger's Archive for All Physiology of Humans and Animals)

14172:"Mitochondrial bioenergetic deficits in C9orf72 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis motor neurons cause dysfunctional axonal homeostasis" 12064:

Sutovsky P, Moreno RD, Ramalho-Santos J, Dominko T, Simerly C, Schatten G (November 1999). "Ubiquitin tag for sperm mitochondria".

11621: 9486:"σ-1 receptor at the mitochondrial-associated endoplasmic reticulum membrane is responsible for mitochondrial metabolic regulation" 5025:"Evidence of Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Autism: Biochemical Links, Genetic-Based Associations, and Non-Energy-Related Mechanisms" 1923: 851: 14886: 6844:

Santulli G, Marks AR (2015). "Essential Roles of Intracellular Calcium Release Channels in Muscle, Brain, Metabolism, and Aging".

3137: 1695:

from the reactants without breaking bonds of an organic fuel. The free energy put in to remove an electron from Fe is released at

15673: 15255: 8852:

Tang HL, Lung HL, Wu KC, Le AH, Tang HM, Fung MC (February 2008). "Vimentin supports mitochondrial morphology and organization".

4077:

linked respiration to particles which he had obtained from extracts of guinea-pig liver and which he called "grana". Warburg and

6804:

Brighton CT, Hunt RM (July 1978). "The role of mitochondria in growth plate calcification as demonstrated in a rachitic model".

1444: 1256:) to form oxaloacetate. This latter reaction "fills up" the amount of oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle and is therefore an 15341: 6091:(Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 509–527, 569–579, 614–616, 638–641, 732–735, 739–748, 770–773. 4317: 3814: 3361:. Patterns in these gene trees can be used to infer the evolutionary history of populations. The classic example of this is in 16463: 13976: 12467:

Awadalla P, Eyre-Walker A, Smith JM (December 1999). "Linkage disequilibrium and recombination in hominid mitochondrial DNA".

11599: 9330:

Csordás G, Hajnóczky G (April 2001). "Sorting of calcium signals at the junctions of endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria".

8018:"Mitochondrial calcium signalling and cell death: approaches for assessing the role of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake in apoptosis" 12963:"Microhomology-mediated end joining is the principal mediator of double-strand break repair during mitochondrial DNA lesions" 6195: 6167: 5509: 4233: 3757:, has functional mitochondria that lack a genome. In related species, the mitochondrial genome still has three genes, but in 3286:

and the corresponding proteins are imported into the mitochondrion. The exact number of genes encoded by the nucleus and the

2411: 2323:

and differentiation in infection in addition to basic functions in the cell including the regulation of cell volume, solute

4144:

folded up in ridges dividing up the inner chamber and that the size and shape of the mitochondria varied from cell to cell.

1636: 15150: 15099: 15017: 15001: 3575:

The hypothesis of mitochondrial binary fission has relied on the visualization by fluorescence microscopy and conventional

2007: 1855: 12112: 10184:"Site-and-branch-heterogeneous analyses of an expanded dataset favour mitochondria as sister to known Alphaproteobacteria" 16829: 15066: 14756:"Über sauerstoffatmende Körnchen aus Leberzellen und über Sauerstoffatmung in Berkefeld-Filtraten wässriger Leberextrake" 12642:"Stochastic modelling, Bayesian inference, and new in vivo measurements elucidate the debated mtDNA bottleneck mechanism" 9018:

Vance JE, Shiao YJ (1996). "Intracellular trafficking of phospholipids: import of phosphatidylserine into mitochondria".

8770:"What is the function of mitochondrial networks? A theoretical assessment of hypotheses and proposal for future research" 2403: 1452: 9681: 7169:

Moreno-Sánchez R, Rodríguez-Enríquez S, Marín-Hernández A, Saavedra E (March 2007). "Energy metabolism in tumor cells".

2716:, or VLDL, assembly and secretion. The MAM thus serves as a critical metabolic and trafficking hub in lipid metabolism. 15441: 15376: 14920: 11871: 9747: 6879:

Pizzo P, Pozzan T (October 2007). "Mitochondria-endoplasmic reticulum choreography: structure and signaling dynamics".

6714: 5205: 5151: 4287: 4281: 3702: 2189: 14758:[On respiring granules from liver cells and on respiration in Berkefeld filtrates of aqueous liver extracts]. 14398: 11335:

Torroni A, Achilli A, Macaulay V, Richards M, Bandelt HJ (June 2006). "Harvesting the fruit of the human mtDNA tree".

7627:

Murphy MP, O'Neill LA (February 2024). "A break in mitochondrial endosymbiosis as a basis for inflammatory diseases".

2319:

arrest suggesting that mitochondria play a role in cell proliferation. Mitochondrial ATP production is also vital for

16886: 15904: 15386: 15211: 3947: 2656: 2376:

of mitochondria distinguishes them from other cellular components, and the exposure of mitochondrial elements to the

1008: 855: 14671: 8474:"Systematic characterization of the murine mitochondrial proteome using functionally validated cardiac mitochondria" 8350: 3270:

As in prokaryotes, there is a very high proportion of coding DNA and an absence of repeats. Mitochondrial genes are

474:, they are not visible. In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in other tasks, such as 16891: 15712: 15510: 15145: 14789:

Milane L, Trivedi M, Singh A, Talekar M, Amiji M (June 2015). "Mitochondrial biology, targets, and drug delivery".

5327: 3655: 3576: 2222: 2204: 743:

Mitochondria may have a number of different shapes. A mitochondrion contains outer and inner membranes composed of

192: 12922:"Involvement of mitochondrial-targeted RecA in the repair of mitochondrial DNA in the moss, Physcomitrella patens" 15973: 15879: 15707: 15371: 15092: 10668:

Karnkowska A, Treitli SC, Brzoň O, Novák L, Vacek V, Soukal P, et al. (October 2019). Battistuzzi FU (ed.).

3959: 3931: 3629:

Entities undergoing uniparental inheritance and with little to no recombination may be expected to be subject to

3586:

An individual's mitochondrial genes are inherited only from the mother, with rare exceptions. In humans, when an

3374: 2556:, a waste product of protein metabolism. A mutation in the genes regulating any of these functions can result in 2249: 1448: 812: 255: 59:

Two mitochondria from mammalian lung tissue displaying their matrix and membranes as shown by electron microscopy

11257:

Castro JA, Picornell A, Ramon M (December 1998). "Mitochondrial DNA: a tool for populational genetics studies".

6251: 2430:(dsRNA), produced due to bidirectional mitochondrial transcription, can activate viral sensing pathways through 17622: 17217: 16814: 15702: 15488: 15446: 15046: 14627: 14435: 10390:

Emelyanov VV (February 2001). "Rickettsiaceae, rickettsia-like endosymbionts, and the origin of mitochondria".

6096: 4660:

Novák LV, Treitli SC, Pyrih J, Hałakuc P, Pipaliya SV, Vacek V, et al. (December 2023). Dutcher SK (ed.).

3977: 3847:

In other diseases, defects in nuclear genes lead to dysfunction of mitochondrial proteins. This is the case in

3844:

has reported that cancer cells can hijack the mitochondria from immune cells via physical tunneling nanotubes.

3762: 2341: 2185: 2180:(C8) is considered to be the most important end product of mtFASII, which also forms the starting substrate of 2210:

Furthermore, with the help of mtFASII and acylated ACP, acetyl-CoA regulates its consumption in mitochondria.

17791: 17786: 17758: 16802: 16075: 14469:"Ueber die Spermatogenese der Vertebraten und höherer Evertebraten. II. Theil: Die Histiogenese der Spermien" 14113:"Targeting mitochondrial dysfunction in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 4168: 3993: 3852: 2846:

cells, capable of implementing oxidative mechanisms that were not possible for eukaryotic cells; they became

180: 14497:( ... I have already found in many types of cells of all possible classes of animals, ... ), he suggests: 7929:

Pourcelot M, Arnoult D (September 2014). "Mitochondrial dynamics and the innate antiviral immune response".

3517:

Some of these differences should be regarded as pseudo-changes in the genetic code due to the phenomenon of

3222: 2863: 17406: 17087: 15897: 15292: 15234: 15124: 14971: 14471:[On spermatogenesis in vertebrates and higher invertebrates. Part II: The histogenesis of sperm.]. 9535:"Sigma-1 receptor chaperones at the ER-mitochondrion interface regulate Ca(2+) signaling and cell survival" 7792:

Dorward DA, Lucas CD, Doherty MK, Chapman GB, Scholefield EJ, Conway Morris A, et al. (October 2017).

7060:"Mitochondrial free Ca²⁺ levels and their effects on energy metabolism in Drosophila motor nerve terminals" 3686:

processing, gap filling and ligation. A common damage in mtDNA that is repaired by base excision repair is

3529:; however, the codon in the processed RNA was discovered to be the UGG codon, consistent with the standard 3510: 3336: 3240: 2713: 2439: 2407: 2253: 950: 669: 614: 530: 276: 17092: 15033: 14995: 8725:

Rappaport L, Oliviero P, Samuel JL (July 1998). "Cytoskeleton and mitochondrial morphology and function".

7365:

Agarwal B (June 2011). "A role for anions in ATP synthesis and its molecular mechanistic interpretation".

4897:

Mitochondrial biogenesis (MB) is the essential mechanism by which cells control the number of mitochondria

4713:"Quantification of mitochondrial morphology in neurites of dopaminergic neurons using multiple parameters" 3719:

have mitochondria that lack any DNA, presumably because all their genes have been lost or transferred. In

2691:

phospholipid biosynthetic pathways, ceramide and cholesterol metabolism, and glycosphingolipid anabolism.

2275:

Ca influx to the mitochondrial matrix has recently been implicated as a mechanism to regulate respiratory

17326: 17082: 15346: 14440: 12865:"Homologous recombination-mediated repair of DNA double-strand breaks operates in mammalian mitochondria" 4203: 4173: 3362: 3131: 2548:

Some mitochondrial functions are performed only in specific types of cells. For example, mitochondria in

2184:

biosynthesis. Since lipoic acid is the cofactor of important mitochondrial enzyme complexes, such as the

1180: 260: 13393:

Sherer TB, Betarbet R, Greenamyre JT (June 2002). "Environment, mitochondria, and Parkinson's disease".

7967:"Targeting mitochondrial reactive oxygen species as novel therapy for inflammatory diseases and cancers" 6733:

Rossier MF (August 2006). "T channels and steroid biosynthesis: in search of a link with mitochondria".

2742:

into the mitochondrial matrix causes transient depolarization that is corrected by pumping out protons.

2647:, one of the components of the cytoskeleton, is also critical to the association with the cytoskeleton. 390:

in 1898. The mitochondrion is popularly nicknamed the "powerhouse of the cell", a phrase popularized by

15520: 15515: 15319: 15185: 15074: 14955: 13612:

Pieczenik SR, Neustadt J (August 2007). "Mitochondrial dysfunction and molecular pathways of disease".

2414:(PAMPs) during infections. For example, mitochondrial mtDNA resembles bacterial DNA due to its lack of 2368:, a form of PCD. In recent decades, they have also been identified as a signalling hub for much of the 2236:

The concentrations of free calcium in the cell can regulate an array of reactions and is important for

2079:

in the mitochondria and may contribute to the decline in mitochondrial function associated with aging.

1443:

The major energy-releasing reactions that make the mitochondrion the "powerhouse of the cell" occur at

1437: 980: 13050:"An aerobic eukaryotic parasite with functional mitochondria that likely lacks a mitochondrial genome" 3701:

repair in both mammalian mtDNA and plant mtDNA. Double-strand breaks in mtDNA can also be repaired by

3290:

differs between species. Most mitochondrial genomes are circular. In general, mitochondrial DNA lacks

17627: 16318: 15245: 11766:

Hiesel R, Wissinger B, Schuster W, Brennicke A (December 1989). "RNA editing in plant mitochondria".

4213: 4129: 3806: 2312: 1391: 1144: 804: 14945: 14755: 14506: 14468: 14282:[Some remarks about the terminations of the cutaneous nerves and the structure of muscles]. 13898: 11936:

Hu GB (August 2014). "Whole cell cryo-electron tomography suggests mitochondria divide by budding".

11638:

Barrell BG, Bankier AT, Drouin J (November 1979). "A different genetic code in human mitochondria".

8372:

Cserép C, Schwarcz AD, Pósfai B, László ZI, Kellermayer A, Környei Z, et al. (September 2022).

3821:

derives its mitochondria and hence its mtDNA from the ovum. Diseases such as Kearns-Sayre syndrome,

3817:. In the vast majority of cases, these diseases are transmitted by a female to her children, as the 3634: 1355:

The enzymes of the citric acid cycle are located in the mitochondrial matrix, with the exception of

1260:, increasing the cycle's capacity to metabolize acetyl-CoA when the tissue's energy needs (e.g., in 1015:. In addition, there is a membrane potential across the inner membrane, formed by the action of the 17474: 17375: 17292: 16873: 16819: 16070: 15436: 15314: 14543: 14309: 14279: 3965: 3698: 3580: 3271: 3145:

A few groups of unicellular eukaryotes have only vestigial mitochondria or derived structures: The

2451: 2350: 2284: 2131: 2107: 2083: 1429: 1395: 1371: 1020: 960: 843: 495: 479: 168: 14703: 8968:"An intimate liaison: spatial organization of the endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria relationship" 8605:

das Neves RP, Jones NS, Andreu L, Gupta R, Enver T, Iborra FJ (December 2010). Weissman JS (ed.).

8307:"Microglia monitor and protect neuronal function through specialized somatic purinergic junctions" 7212:

Mistry JJ, Marlein CR, Moore JA, Hellmich C, Wojtowicz EE, Smith JG, et al. (December 2019).

7009:

Schwarzländer M, Logan DC, Johnston IG, Jones NS, Meyer AJ, Fricker MD, et al. (March 2012).

5722:

Bautista JS, Falabella M, Flannery PJ, Hanna MG, Heales SJ, Pope SA, et al. (December 2022).

2474:). These proteins are modulated by the mitochondrial metabolic status and mitochondrial dynamics. 2138:

of protons into the matrix. The process results in the unharnessed potential energy of the proton

17501: 17277: 16908: 15483: 15270: 15037: 13232:"Targeting tumor phenotypic plasticity and metabolic remodeling in adaptive cross-drug tolerance" 13105: 10182:

Muñoz-Gómez SA, Susko E, Williamson K, Eme L, Slamovits CH, Moreira D, et al. (March 2022).

9194:

Kornmann B, Currie E, Collins SR, Schuldiner M, Nunnari J, Weissman JS, et al. (July 2009).

5539:"Mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization during apoptosis: the innocent bystander scenario" 4469:

Yahalomi D, Atkinson SD, Neuhof M, Chang ES, Philippe H, Cartwright P, et al. (March 2020).

4244: 3969: 3618: 3357:, the relationships between mitochondrial DNA from different individuals can be represented as a 2747: 2666: 2491: 2455: 2443: 2357:

by aiding in antiviral defense, pathogen elimination, inflammation, and immune cell recruitment.

2261: 2197: 2068: 1356: 1276: 1188: 1047:

liver mitochondrion to demonstrate the likely 3D structure and relationship to the inner membrane

13438:"Pesticides and impairment of mitochondrial function in relation with the parkinsonian syndrome" 10670:"The Oxymonad Genome Displays Canonical Eukaryotic Complexity in the Absence of a Mitochondrion" 5197: 5191: 4096:

In 1939, experiments using minced muscle cells demonstrated that cellular respiration using one

3171:: They are derived groups and retain genes or organelles derived from mitochondria (e. g., 17729: 17045: 16035: 16010: 15478: 15135: 15028: 15012: 14929: 13893: 12267:

by Donald T. Stewart, Carlos Saavedra, Rebecca R. Stanwood, Amy 0. Ball, and Eleftherios Zouros

8914:

Rizzuto R, Marchi S, Bonora M, Aguiari P, Bononi A, De Stefani D, et al. (November 2009).

8065:

Oh-hama T (August 1997). "Evolutionary consideration on 5-aminolevulinate synthase in nature".

6371: 4101: 4062:

made the first recorded observation of mitochondria in plants in cells of the white waterlily,

3989: 3904: 3892: 3876: 3860: 3848: 3724: 3167: 2620:

in ATP levels and downstream cellular processes. The mitochondria can be found nestled between

2091: 1375: 1298: 1261: 1124: 973: 659: 569: 404: 371: 12640:

Johnston IG, Burgstaller JP, Havlicek V, Kolbe T, Rülicke T, Brem G, et al. (June 2015).

11861: 11615:

p. 344: It is a little surprising that organisms with somewhat different codes do not coexist.

11073:

Gray MW, Lang BF, Cedergren R, Golding GB, Lemieux C, Sankoff D, et al. (February 1998).

10183: 6186:

Atkins P, de Paula J (2006). "Impact on biochemistry: Energy conversion in biological cells".

4012: 3805:, and a variety of other systemic disorders. Diseases caused by mutation in the mtDNA include 379: 17796: 17489: 17462: 17077: 16274: 16060: 15953: 15852: 15592: 15468: 15304: 15282: 14987: 14642:

Meves F (1904). "Über das Vorkommen von Mitochondrien bezw. Chondromiten in Pflanzenzellen".

13230:

Goldman A, Khiste S, Freinkman E, Dhawan A, Majumder B, Mondal J, et al. (August 2019).

12277:

Johns DR (October 2003). "Paternal transmission of mitochondrial DNA is (fortunately) rare".

9739: 9733: 4386:

Karnkowska A, Vacek V, Zubáčová Z, Treitli SC, Petrželková R, Eme L, et al. (May 2016).

4078: 4074: 3783: 3682:. Alternatively, DNA damage may be bypassed, rather than repaired, by translesion synthesis. 3622: 3569: 3548: 3542: 3386: 3342: 2778: 2768: 2738: 2683: 2640: 2609: 2557: 2346: 2135: 1289: 1196: 1128: 499: 17065: 14111:

Mehta AR, Walters R, Waldron FM, Pal S, Selvaraj BT, Macleod MR, et al. (August 2019).

14033:

de Grey AD (2004). "Mitochondrial mutations in mammalian aging: an over-hasty about-turn?".

9087:"Fission and selective fusion govern mitochondrial segregation and elimination by autophagy" 6478:

Clay HB, Parl AK, Mitchell SL, Singh L, Bell LN, Murdock DG (March 2016). Peterson J (ed.).

6268:

Mitchell P, Moyle J (January 1967). "Chemiosmotic hypothesis of oxidative phosphorylation".

1147:. However, the mitochondrion has many other functions in addition to the production of ATP. 17433: 17428: 17304: 16918: 16307: 15693: 15599: 15456: 15405: 15351: 13838: 13292: 13281:"Intercellular nanotubes mediate mitochondrial trafficking between cancer and immune cells" 13061: 12819: 12374: 12073: 12000: 11945: 11775: 11693: 11647: 11583: 11373:

Garrigan D, Hammer MF (September 2006). "Reconstructing human origins in the genomic era".

11293: 11135: 10982: 10882: 10636: 10501: 10446: 10356: 10198: 10107: 10050: 10042: 9981: 9924: 9867: 9207: 9085:

Twig G, Elorza A, Molina AJ, Mohamed H, Wikstrom JD, Walzer G, et al. (January 2008).

8679: 8318: 8074: 8016:

Hajnóczky G, Csordás G, Das S, Garcia-Perez C, Saotome M, Sinha Roy S, et al. (2006).

7636: 7280: 7225: 7124: 7071: 6656: 6555: 6491: 6328: 6277: 5999: 5792: 4778: 4662:"Genomics of Preaxostyla Flagellates Illuminates the Path Towards the Loss of Mitochondria" 4613: 4548: 4486: 4399: 4353: 4133: 4120:

and other enzymes responsible for the respiratory chain were isolated to the mitochondria.

4105: 3912: 3675: 3565: 3350: 3123: 3111: 2835: 2782: 2777:

inter-organelle contact sites, although mitofusins were first identified for their role in

2687: 2613: 2419: 2369: 2245: 2151: 2086:

is established across the inner membrane. The protons can return to the matrix through the

1456: 1420:

molecules are produced within the matrix via the citric acid cycle and in the cytoplasm by

1257: 1253: 1168: 1078: 1024: 988: 772: 744: 694: 565: 538: 421: 37: 12253: 11438: 10669: 9649: 9632: 5885:

Mannella CA (2006). "Structure and dynamics of the mitochondrial inner membrane cristae".

5435:"Structure and evolution of mitochondrial outer membrane proteins of beta-barrel topology" 8: 17669: 17511: 17467: 17423: 17161: 16493: 15933: 14966: 14221:

Chiang JL, Shukla P, Pagidas K, Ahmed NS, Karri S, Gunn DD, et al. (November 2020).

11284:

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10924:

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9911:

Thrash JC, Boyd A, Huggett MJ, Grote J, Carini P, Yoder RJ, et al. (June 14, 2011).

5838:"Mitochondrial Ultrastructure Is Coupled to Synaptic Performance at Axonal Release Sites" 5221: 4592:

Leger MM, Kolisko M, Kamikawa R, Stairs CW, Kume K, Čepička I, et al. (April 2017).

4344: 4125: 3927: 3856: 3679: 3630: 3521:, which is common in mitochondria. In higher plants, it was thought that CGG encoded for 3346: 3195: 3034: 2962: 2924: 2908: 2898: 2839: 2431: 2237: 1425: 1172: 1123:

The most prominent roles of mitochondria are to produce the energy currency of the cell,

634: 526: 416: 396: 367: 33: 14830:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

14170:

Mehta AR, Gregory JM, Dando O, Carter RN, Burr K, Nanda J, et al. (February 2021).

13842: 13522:"Molecular basis of substrate recognition and degradation by human presequence protease" 13313: 13296: 13280: 13279:

Saha T, Dash C, Jayabalan R, Khiste S, Kulkarni A, Kurmi K, et al. (January 2022).

13065: 12889: 12864: 12823: 12774: 12378: 12077: 12004: 11949: 11779: 11723:

Jukes TH, Osawa S (December 1990). "The genetic code in mitochondria and chloroplasts".

11651: 11618: 11587: 11297: 10986: 10886: 10505: 10450: 10360: 10202: 10111: 10046: 9985: 9928: 9871: 9211: 8683: 8322: 8078: 7640: 7284: 7229: 7128: 7075: 6660: 6559: 6495: 6332: 6281: 6003: 5796: 5293: 5234:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

4782: 4688: 4661: 4617: 4552: 4490: 4403: 4357: 3259:(for the 20 standard amino acids, plus an extra gene for leucine and serine), and 2 for 3217: 1416:) and hydrogen (protons) in several steps via an electron transport chain. NADH and FADH 1135:. The central set of reactions involved in ATP production are collectively known as the 17719: 16787: 16709: 15623: 15391: 15265: 14896: 14850: 14825: 14723: 14659: 14655: 14619: 14567: 14495:" ... ich bereits in vielen Zellarten aller möglichen Thierclassen gefunden habe, ... " 14374: 14349: 14260: 14247: 14222: 14198: 14171: 14152: 14139: 14112: 14093: 13972: 13954: 13942: 13884:

Harman D (July 1956). "Aging: a theory based on free radical and radiation chemistry".

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Gardner A, Boles RG (2005). "Is a 'Mitochondrial Psychiatry' in the Future? A Review".

4804: 4737: 4712: 4634: 4593: 4574: 4509: 4470: 4365: 4117: 4109: 3158: 2773: 2497: 2361: 2257: 16946: 15889: 14600:"Die Chondriosomen als Träger erblicher Anlagen. Cytologische Studien am Hühnerembryo" 13861: 13826: 13582: 11889:"New insights into the role of mitochondria in aging: mitochondrial dynamics and more" 11429: 11099: 11074: 11050: 11025: 10950: 10925: 9269: 9252: 8253:

Breda CN, Davanzo GG, Basso PJ, Saraiva Câmara NO, Moraes-Vieira PM (September 2019).

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generation system that renders the parasite resistant to many classical mitochondrial

3509:

had been predicted earlier, none was discovered until 1979, when researchers studying

2203:

Other products of mtFASII play a role in the regulation of mitochondrial translation,

1228:

across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix where they can either be

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On p. 316, Kölliker described mitochondria which he observed in fresh frog muscles:

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John U, Lu Y, Wohlrab S, Groth M, Janouškovec J, Kohli GS, et al. (April 2019).

13030: 12992: 12943: 12894: 12845: 12788: 12734: 12683: 12614: 12571: 12540: 12528: 12484: 12449: 12392: 12343: 12294: 12236: 12187: 12101: 12089: 12018: 11961: 11918: 11867: 11842: 11791: 11740: 11663: 11595: 11549: 11500: 11471:"Correcting for purifying selection: an improved human mitochondrial molecular clock" 11443: 11390: 11352: 11309: 11266: 11239: 11190: 11139: 11104: 11055: 10998: 10955: 10898: 10852: 10803: 10799: 10757: 10699: 10650: 10568: 10517: 10513: 10474: 10469: 10434: 10407: 10372: 10368: 10321: 10286: 10226: 10214: 10168: 10133: 10080: 10068: 10007: 9950: 9893: 9836: 9801: 9796: 9779: 9743: 9703: 9666: 9654: 9613: 9584:"Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondrial Contactology: Structure and Signaling Functions" 9556: 9515: 9466: 9430: 9389: 9347: 9312: 9274: 9233: 9176: 9116: 9067: 9027: 8997: 8945: 8869: 8834: 8799: 8742: 8707: 8638: 8587: 8552: 8503: 8446: 8415: 8403: 8346: 8334: 8284: 8227: 8183: 8147: 8090: 8047: 7998: 7946: 7910: 7860: 7823: 7773: 7737: 7687: 7652: 7598: 7528: 7487: 7430: 7382: 7339: 7296: 7253: 7186: 7182: 7140: 7136: 7097: 7040: 6991: 6934: 6896: 6861: 6821: 6817: 6786: 6782: 6750: 6710: 6684: 6629: 6617: 6581: 6519: 6460: 6417: 6344: 6293: 6235: 6191: 6163: 6129: 6092: 6058: 6054: 6015: 5972: 5937: 5902: 5867: 5818: 5765: 5753: 5704: 5669: 5618: 5560: 5501: 5456: 5415: 5372: 5309: 5297: 5259: 5201: 5147: 5105: 5056: 5002: 4953: 4888: 4849: 4835: 4796: 4742: 4693: 4639: 4566: 4514: 4417: 4277: 4121: 4090: 3916: 3663: 3370: 3358: 3315: 3287: 3234: 3202: 2859: 2701: 2604: 2167: 2103: 1692: 1212: 1200: 1136: 1108: 1093: 894: 863: 713: 553: 449: 382:

in 1857 in the voluntary muscles of insects. Meaning a thread-like granule, the term

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Danovaro R, Dell'Anno A, Pusceddu A, Gambi C, Heiner I, Kristensen RM (April 2010).

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Johnston IG, Gaal B, Neves RP, Enver T, Iborra FJ, Jones NS (2012). Haugh JM (ed.).

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6141: 5384: 4808: 4309: 3572:, is an important factor in pathologies associated with several disease conditions. 2915:

of bacteria shares a relatively recent common ancestor with the mitochondria, while

2142:

gradient being released as heat. The process is mediated by a proton channel called

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Mogensen HL (1996). "The Hows and Whys of Cytoplasmic Inheritance in Seed Plants".

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11433: 11425: 11382: 11344: 11321: 11301: 11229: 11221: 11180: 11170: 11131: 11094: 11086: 11045: 11037: 11010: 10990: 10945: 10937: 10926:"Linear mitochondrial DNAs of yeasts: frequency of occurrence and general features" 10910: 10890: 10842: 10834: 10795: 10769: 10747: 10689: 10681: 10640: 10632: 10558: 10548: 10509: 10464: 10454: 10399: 10364: 10313: 10276: 10268: 10206: 10156: 10123: 10115: 10060: 9999: 9989: 9940: 9932: 9883: 9875: 9828: 9791: 9689: 9644: 9603: 9595: 9546: 9505: 9497: 9458: 9420: 9381: 9339: 9304: 9264: 9223: 9215: 9166: 9158: 9106: 9098: 9059: 8987: 8979: 8935: 8927: 8861: 8826: 8789: 8781: 8734: 8697: 8687: 8628: 8618: 8579: 8542: 8534: 8493: 8485: 8438: 8393: 8385: 8326: 8274: 8266: 8219: 8175: 8137: 8129: 8082: 8037: 8029: 7988: 7978: 7938: 7900: 7892: 7852: 7813: 7805: 7765: 7727: 7719: 7679: 7644: 7588: 7578: 7518: 7477: 7469: 7422: 7374: 7331: 7288: 7243: 7233: 7198: 7178: 7132: 7087: 7079: 7030: 7022: 6981: 6973: 6946: 6926: 6888: 6853: 6813: 6778: 6742: 6674: 6664: 6609: 6571: 6563: 6509: 6499: 6452: 6409: 6356: 6336: 6305: 6285: 6247: 6227: 6121: 6050: 6027: 6007: 5964: 5929: 5894: 5857: 5849: 5808: 5800: 5743: 5735: 5696: 5659: 5649: 5608: 5600: 5550: 5493: 5446: 5407: 5362: 5289: 5249: 5241: 5095: 5087: 5046: 5036: 4992: 4984: 4945: 4918: 4880: 4839: 4831: 4786: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4683: 4673: 4629: 4621: 4556: 4504: 4494: 4407: 4361: 4148: 4055: 4047: 3985: 3973: 3923: 3884: 3826: 3822: 3728: 2877:

proposes that this co-location is required for redox regulation. The mitochondrial

2790: 2280: 2265: 2139: 2076: 1627:{\displaystyle {\ce {O2{}+4H+(aq){}+4Fe^{2+}(cyt\,c)->2H2O{}+4Fe^{3+}(cyt\,c)}}} 1225: 1140: 859: 518: 470:

in cross section, but vary considerably in size and structure. Unless specifically

391: 87: 14802: 13958: 12626: 12480: 11402: 11026:"A maturase-encoding group IIA intron of yeast mitochondria self-splices in vitro" 9879: 8607:"Connecting variability in global transcription rate to mitochondrial variability" 8570:

Logan DC (June 2010). "Mitochondrial fusion, division and positioning in plants".

7809: 6429: 5955:

Rich PR (December 2003). "The molecular machinery of Keilin's respiratory chain".

5478: 4578: 3373:. This is often interpreted as strong support for a recent modern human expansion 2544:, which communication is indispensable for proper regulation of brain development. 955:

The inner mitochondrial membrane contains proteins with three types of functions:

66: 17707: 17401: 17380: 17309: 17112: 16625: 15958: 15331: 15224: 15070: 15058: 15024: 15008: 14962: 14949: 14936: 14316: 13520:

King JV, Liang WG, Scherpelz KP, Schilling AB, Meredith SC, Tang WJ (July 2014).

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Tadi SK, Sebastian R, Dahal S, Babu RK, Choudhary B, Raghavan SC (January 2016).

12703:"Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA repair in selected eukaryotic aging model systems" 12306: 12264: 12222: 12116: 12043: 11827: 11625: 11535: 10973:

Bernardi G (December 1978). "Intervening sequences in the mitochondrial genome".

10317: 9913:"Phylogenomic evidence for a common ancestor of mitochondria and the SAR11 clade" 9425: 9408: 9385: 9063: 8931: 8692: 8623: 8389: 6613: 6504: 6456: 5933: 5898: 5451: 5434: 5225: 5091: 4678: 4248: 4070: 4016: 3715: 3397: 3366: 3282:. Most proteins necessary for mitochondrial function are encoded by genes in the 3275: 3252: 3114:

suggests that mitochondria descended from aerobic bacteria that somehow survived

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Mitochondria of developing neurons contribute to intercellular signaling towards

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for rapid proliferation. The majority of ATP in tumor cells is generated via the

2241: 1846:{\displaystyle {\ce {2Fe^{3+}(cyt\,c){}+QH2->2Fe^{2+}(cyt\,c){}+Q{}+2H+(aq)}}} 1328: 1192: 1057:

The inner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into numerous folds called

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From p. 47: " ... the mitochondria are the structural expression thereof , ... "

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Mitochondrial Replacement Techniques: Ethical, Social, and Policy Considerations

13800: 13625: 13406: 8270: 8223: 8179: 6962:"Calcium release channel RyR2 regulates insulin release and glucose homeostasis" 5853: 5280:

Gabaldón T (October 2021). "Origin and Early Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell".

4870: 2855:, the endosymbiotic hypothesis is the more widely accepted of the two accounts. 17697: 17584: 17455: 17314: 17297: 17102: 17032: 16674: 16639: 16632: 16611: 16590: 16567: 16447: 15921: 14511:

Archiv für Physiologie: Verhandlungen der Berliner Physiologischen Gesellschaft

14280:"Einige Bemerkungen über die Endigungen der Hautnerven und den Bau der Muskeln" 14188: 13831: