Orientalism (book)

547: 532: 660: 827: 459:

reflected passively by culture, scholarship, or institutions," but rather "a distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological texts." European literature for Said carried, actualised, and propelled Orientalist notions forward and constantly reinforced them. Put differently, literature produced by Europeans made possible the domination of the people of the 'East' because of the Orientalist discourse embedded within these texts. Literature here is understood as a kind of carrier and distributor of ideology.

523:

transfer of images" is increasing media concentration in the hands of powerful, transnational conglomerates. This concentration is of such great magnitude that 'dependent societies' situated outside of the "central metropolitan zones" are greatly reliant upon these systems of representation for information about themselves - otherwise known as self-knowledge. For Said, this process of gaining self-knowledge by peripheral societies is insidious, because the system upon which they rely is presented as natural and real, such that it becomes practically unassailable.

1241:, Edward Said was more interested in making political points about the politics of the Middle East, in general, and of Palestine, in particular. Moreover, that by unduly concentrating on British and French Orientalism, Said ignored the domination of 19th century Oriental studies by German and Hungarian academics and intellectuals, whose countries did not possess colonies in the East. He frankly states that the "book seems to me to be a work of malignant charlatanry in which it is hard to distinguish honest mistakes from wilful misrepresentations." 1562:, who also had studied, reported, and interpreted the social relationship that makes the practice of imperialism intellectually, psychologically, and ethically feasible; that is, the relationship between European imperial rule and European representations of the non-European Other self, the colonised people. That, as an academic investigator, Said already had been preceded in the critical analysis of the production of Orientalist knowledge and about Western methods of Orientalist scholarship, because, in the 18th century, " 1040:," which is a field of enquiry little afflicted with the misconceptions of Russia-as-the-Other, but does display the characteristics of Orientalism—the exaggeration of difference, the presumption of Western cultural superiority, and the application of cliché in analytical models. That overcoming such intellectual malaise requires that area scholars choose to break their "mind-forg'd manacles" and deeply reflect upon the basic cultural assumptions of their area-studies scholarship. 1148: 1254:. He listed certain factual and editing errors, and noted a number of prominent Orientalists were left unmentioned, but says that he believes it to be "the most complete account of Orientalism from the emergence of its modern version in the 19th century to the present day." He also describes it as "a highly enjoyable read both for the specialist and the broadly interested reader." 519:. Towards the end of his life for instance, Said argued that while representations are essential for the function of human life and societies—as essential as language itself—what must cease are representations that are authoritatively repressive, because they do not provide any real possibilities for those being represented to intervene in this process. 1519:

residency in the U.S., a university-professor job; and categorical statements, such as: "any and all representations...are embedded, first, in the language, and then, in the culture, institutions, and political ambience of the representer... interwoven with a great many other things, besides 'the Truth', which is, itself, a representation."

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deeply ingrained tradition of broader orientalist depictions of the East stretching back to the classical era (which Said labelled "latent orientalism") played a role in creating the conditions for the launching of colonial projects. Whilst the first claim had previously been made by anti-colonial thinkers, the latter was novel.

27: 426:. The idea of the "Orient" was conceptualized by French and English Orientalists during the 18th century, and was eventually adopted in the 20th century by American Orientalists. As such, Orientalist stereotypes of the cultures of the Eastern world have served, and continue to serve, as implicit justifications for the 407:' as primitive, irrational, violent, despotic, fanatic, and essentially inferior to the westerner or native informant, and hence, 'enlightenment' can only occur when "traditional" and "reactionary" values are replaced by "contemporary" and "progressive" ideas that are either western or western-influenced. 1422:

argued that Said assumed that such projection and its harmful consequences are a purely Western phenomenon, when in reality all societies do this to each other. This was a particular issue given Said treated Western colonialism as unique, which Landlow regarded as unsatisfactory for a work of serious

1403:

says that "Said’s treatment of Orientalism, particularly the assertion of the necessary nexus with imperialism, is over-stated and unbalanced." He objected to Said's view that Western Orientalists were projecting upon the "artificial screen" called 'the East' or 'the Orient', but that such projection

502:

I doubt if it is controversial, for example, to say that an Englishman in India, or Egypt, in the later nineteenth century, took an interest in those countries, which was never far from their status, in his mind, as British colonies. To say this may seem quite different from saying that all academic

458:

Moving from the assertion that 'pure knowledge' is simply not possible (as all forms of knowledge are inevitably influenced by ideological standpoints), Said sought to explain the connection between ideology and literature. He argued that "Orientalism is not a mere political subject or field that is

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complicates Said's thesis about Orientalism as a field linked to imperial power. Not only did Europeans study Japan without any hope of colonizing it, but Japanese academics played a prominent role as informants and interlocutors in this academic discipline, providing information both on their own

607:

of Oriental languages, and the critical study of the cultures and histories of the Oriental world. In that way, by using Orientalism as the intellectual norm for cultural judgement, Europeans wrote the history of Asia, and invented the "exotic East" and the "inscrutable Orient", which are cultural

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prerequisite for colonialism - Chibber contends that economic and political factors are universally accepted as contributory causes of colonialism, that these in themselves would generate pressure for arguments to legitimise imperial projects, and therefore a case cannot be made that pre-existing

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portrayals of foreign cultures can be found in pre-colonial Eastern civilisations as well: whilst Said acknowledged that "all cultures impose corrections upon raw reality", Chibber has argued that this fact weakens the contention that such essentialism was itself a cause of colonialism, since the

1447:

argues that orientalist discourse was both a cause and an effect of colonialism - that on the one hand, orientalist scholarship (described by Said as "manifest orientalism") developed from the eighteenth century as a means of justifying the process of imperialist expansion, whilst on the other, a

1392:, and ignored the differences among Orientalists; and that he failed to acknowledge the positive contributions of Orientalists who sought kinship, between the worlds of the East and the West, rather than to create an artificial "difference" of cultural inferiority and superiority; such a man was 1467:

that was at the heart of orientalism, rather than challenging it, i.e. that the West is inherently incapable of understanding the East. Just over ten years later Ahmad raised two criticisms of Said's assertions: firstly, that according to Said orientalist views were so pervasive that he did not

378:

In other words, Said had in mind the "Occidental" (or Western) views of eastern cultures that mirrored the prejudices and ideologies that the colonial experience of Western individuals was shaded by. Said's work drew attention to the obsession of Western writers with women and their role in the

489:

One of the main themes of Said's critique is that the representations of the Orient as "different" from the West are based entirely on accounts taken from textual sources, many of them produced by Westerners. Modern on-the-ground reality is heavily discounted such that the Orient is implicitly

1518:

of the British Empire, in the Near East. Therefore, from the perspective of the Orientalist academic, Said's personal background might, arguably, exclude him from writing about the Oriental world, hindered by an upper-class birth, an Anglophone upbringing, a British-school education in Cairo,

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not only a catalogue of Western prejudices about and misrepresentations of Arabs and Muslims" ... authoritative structure of Orientalist discourse—the closed, self-evident, self-confirming character of that distinctive discourse, which is reproduced, again and again, through scholarly texts,

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Such disproportional investigation provoked criticism from opponents and embarrassment for supporters of Said, who, in "Orientalism Reconsidered" (1985), said that no single opponent provided a rationale, by which limited coverage of German Orientalism limits either the scholarly value or the

522:

The alternative to an exclusionary representational system for Said would be one that is "participatory and collaborative, non-coercive, rather than imposed," yet he recognised the extreme difficulty involved in bringing about such an alternative. Difficult because advances in the "electronic

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from supporters of imperialism, despite the role of Marxists in anti-colonial struggles across the world, and secondly that Said's suggestion of cultural causes for imperialism displaced older Marxist, nationalist and liberal analyses based on the interests of economic classes, nations and

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He underscored again and again the importance of understanding the intimate relationship between knowledge and power, declaring: "If the knowledge of Orientalism has any meaning, it is in being a reminder of the seductive degradation of knowledge, of any knowledge, anywhere, at any time."

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Western writings about the Orient, the perceptions of the East presented in Orientalism, cannot be taken at face value, because they are cultural representations based upon fictional, Western images of the Orient. The history of European colonial rule and political domination of Eastern

1463:. In 1981 Al-Azm suggested that conceiving of orientalism as "the natural product of an ancient and almost irresistible European bent of mind to misrepresent the realities of other cultures, peoples, and their languages, in favour of Occidental self-affirmation" served to reinforce the 1404:

was only a small part of the relationship. That Said failed to adequately distinguish between the genuine experiences of the Orient and the cultural projections of Westerners. He further criticized Said for using reductionist models of religion and spirituality, that are based on "

1035:

Moreover, in "A Stereotype, Wrapped in a Cliché, Inside a Caricature: Russian Foreign Policy and Orientalism" (2010), James D. J. Brown says that Western stereotypes of Russia, Russianness, and things Russian are cultural representations derived from the literature of

482:"; not an objective exercise of intellectual enquiry and the academic study of Eastern cultures. Therefore, Orientalism was a method of practical and cultural discrimination that was applied to non-European societies and peoples in order to establish European imperial 1368:(1978) Said had constructed a binary-opposite representation, a fictional European stereotype that would counter-weigh the Oriental stereotype. Being European is the only common trait among such a temporally and stylistically disparate group of literary Orientalists. 1339:

In the article, "Edward Said's Shadowy Legacy" (2008), Robert Irwin says that Said ineffectively distinguished among writers of different centuries and genres of Orientalist literature. That the disparate examples, such as the German poet

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said that, as a literary critic, "Said took a step further than any other modern scholar of his time, something I dare not do. I remain in the safety of rhetorical analysis, where criticism is the second-best thing I do."

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import of the book, saying "Everyone agrees that Said's work was a work of fiction designed to derail Western civilisation" and that "U.S. Middle Eastern Studies were taken over, by Edward Said's postcolonial studies

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In the course of empire, after the physical-and-political conquest, there followed the intellectual conquest of a people, whereby Western scholars appropriated for themselves (as European intellectual property) the

978:

describes how "the hallowed image of the Orientalist, as an austere figure, unconcerned with the world and immersed in the mystery of foreign scripts and languages, has acquired a dark hue as the murky business of

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reports post-colonial explanations of the "How?" and the "Why?" of the nature of the post-colonial world, the peoples, and their discontents; which verify the efficacy of the critical method applied in

1326:, or to people who are judged too "conservative". It has nothing to do with whether they are good or not good in their disciplines. So, "orientalism", for many people, is a word that substitutes for 498:

of even the most knowledgeable, well-meaning, and culturally sympathetic Western Orientalist; thus did the term "Orientalism" become a pejorative word regarding non–Western peoples and cultures:

1522:

Hence, in the article "Orients and Occidents: Colonial Discourse Theory and the Historiography of the British Empire", D.A. Washbrook said that Said and his academic cohort indulge in excessive

1322:

I think that there has been a tendency in the Middle East field to adopt the word "orientalism" as a generalized swear-word, essentially referring to people who take the "wrong" position on the

1131:

sleight of hand, Said appropriated the term "Orientalism", as a label for the ideological prejudice he described, thereby, neatly implicating the scholars who called themselves Orientalists."

392:

prejudice against Arab-Islamic peoples and their culture," which derives from Western images of what is Oriental (i.e., cultural representations) that reduce the Orient to the fictional

1169:, by Edward Said" (1993), says that Said's contention of Western domination of the Eastern world for more than 2,000 years was unsupportable, because, until the late 17th century, the 1330:

and enables people to dismiss certain scholars and their works. I think that is too bad. It may not have been what Edward Said meant at all, but the term has become a kind of slogan.

1537:. That Said and his followers fail to distinguish between the types and degrees of Orientalism represented by the news media and popular culture (e.g., the Orientalism of the film 371:

a worldview, representation, and "style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between 'the Orient' and (most of the time) 'the Occident';" and

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latter was practiced by a relatively small number of mostly Western European countries. Regarding a weaker interpretation of Said's thesis - that latent orientalism was a

1217:(1882–1956) were only under direct European control for a short time, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; thus they are poor examples for Said's theory of Western 2666: 3532: 2632: 546: 3506: 987:, now forms the essential and enabling background of his or her scholarship" about the Orient; without colonial imperialism, there would be no Orientalism. 3044: 2890: 3444: 1277:

predate European conferences on the Middle East described by Said, necessitating an alternative chronology of Western academic interest in the Orient.

635:. The Western world had been surprised, by the pro-active and decisive actions of non-Western peoples, whom the ideology of Orientalism had defined as 1951: 802:

as commercial enterprises constructed from colonialism, and gave perfunctory coverage, discussion, and analyses of German Orientalist scholarship.

438:

So far as the United States seems to be concerned, it is only a slight overstatement to say that Moslems and Arabs are essentially seen as either

486:. In justification of empire, the Orientalist claims to know more—essential and definitive knowledge—about the Orient than do the Orientals. 1109:, glaring historical errors, and Western guilt". Likewise, in the preface paragraphs of a book-review article "Enough Said" (2007), about 434:

endeavors of the U.S. and the European powers. In that vein, about contemporary Orientalist stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims, Said states:

3603: 3597: 3587: 446:. Very little of the detail, the human density, the passion of Arab–Moslem life has entered the awareness of even those people whose 1543:, 1984), and heavy academic Orientalism about the language and literature, history and culture of the peoples of the Eastern world. 379:

preservation (or destruction) of so-called cultural mores, viewing them as either "pristine" (redeemed) or "contaminated" (fallen).

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The idea of "Nesting Orientalisms", in Bakić-Hayden (1995), and the related concept of "Nesting balkanisms", in Todorova (1997) ...

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In "Disraeli as an Orientalist: The Polemical Errors of Edward Said" (2005), Mark Proudman noted incorrect 19th-century history in

2790: 2571: 3594: (archived July 14, 2014), by Martin Kramer, about the book's academic consequences on the field of Middle Eastern studies. 2810: 1384:

to oppose the Orientalism of Western discourse with the Eastern world, Said had failed to distinguish between the paradigms of

280:, especially with regard to how academics practice their intellectual inquiries when examining, describing, and explaining the 2991:

Steven Spielberg's Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom as Virtual Reality: The Orientalist and Colonial Legacies of Gunga Din

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Brown, James D.J. (2010). "A Stereotype, Wrapped in a Cliché, Inside a Caricature: Russian Foreign Policy and Orientalism".

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Brown, James D.J. (2010). "A Stereotype, Wrapped in a Cliché, inside a Caricature: Russian Foreign Policy and Orientalism".

1318:(1994), Keddie criticises Said's work on Orientalism, for the unfortunate consequences upon her profession as an historian: 3636: 3631: 1539: 1165:, in his book review titled "The Mightier Pen? Edward Said and the Double Standards of Inside-out Colonialism: a review of 1550:

says that Edward Said had explored fields of Orientalism already surveyed by his predecessors and contemporaries, such as

1196:—princes, rajahs, and warlords—who nonetheless often subverted the imperial and hegemonic aims of the colonialist power. 249:

created by French, British and later, American, Orientalists. Examples used in the book include critical analyses of the

583:(499–449 BC)—imperial conflict between the Greek West and the Persian East. Europe's long, military domination of Asia ( 292:, by denoting and examining the connotations of Orientalism, and the history of a given country's post-colonial period. 3656: 2836: 1567: 1214: 2136: 1797: 511:

The notion of cultural representations as a means for domination and control would remain a central feature of Said's

3641: 3452: 3426: 3408: 3379: 3364: 3349: 3319: 3304: 3280: 3272: 3243: 3228: 3091: 2972:

Washbrook, D. A. "Orients and Occidents: Colonial Discourse Theory and the Historiography of the British Empire." In

2758: 2731: 2604:

Gellner, Ernest. 1993. "The Mightier Pen? Edward Said and the Double Standards of Inside-out Colonialism" (review of

1413: 3472:

Varisco, Daniel Martin. "Reading Orientalism: Said and the Unsaid." Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007. (

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As such, Orientalism is the pivotal source of the inaccurate cultural representations that form the foundations of

257:, which conflates a people, a time, and a place into one narrative of an incident and adventure in an exotic land. 2624: 2035:

Tibawi, A.L. (1964). "English-speaking Orientalists: A Critique of Their Approach to Islam and Arab Nationalism".

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countries. Said's survey concentrated upon the British and the French varieties of Orientalism that supported the

3626: 3516: 2217:(April 1990). "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography". 1284:

was surprised by the popularity of the book in the United States, calling it a "polemic" and a "bit Stalinist".

1158:(pictured) as a threat to Europe undermined Said's argument that the West had dominated the East for 2,000 years 319:, Said wrote an Afterword (1995) and a Preface (2003) addressing discussions of the book as cultural criticism. 2874: 1766: 1409: 1396:(1746–1794), the British philologist–lexicographer who proposed that Indo–European languages are interrelated. 1498:

In the sociological article, "Review: Who is Afraid of Edward Said?" (1999) Biswamoy Pati said that in making

3681: 3661: 3394: 3086:

Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press, 2000.

3048: 2894: 2610: 1555: 1360:(1863–93)—did not constitute a comprehensive scope of investigation or critical comparison. In that vein, in 1058: 531: 659: 1515: 1486: 1192:, European colonial power in the Eastern world never was absolute, it was relative and much dependent upon 1032:,1997), which is thematically extended and theoretically derived from Bakić-Hayden's Nesting Orientalisms. 503:

knowledge about India and Egypt is somehow tinged and impressed with, violated by, the gross political fact

227: 157: 1578:, of Brown University, who criticized Said's scholarship and contested his conclusions, acknowledged that 882:("Writing Post–Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography", 1990); 2358: 1984: 1619: 1393: 1098: 419: 242: 3561: 1530:," which limits conversation exclusively to "cultural representations" and to denying the existence of 1341: 1127:

criticized what he said was the way Said turned the term "Orientalism" into a pejorative, saying "In a

1048:

Despite the book's wide-ranging influence, some have taken issue with the arguments and assumptions of

896: 831: 561:

Said said that the Western world sought to dominate the Eastern world for more than 2,000 years, since

338:

denotes the exaggeration of difference, the presumption of Western superiority, and the application of

3286:

Knight, Nathaniel. "Grigor'ev in Orenburg, 1851–1862: Russian Orientalism in the Service of Empire?",

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of the Islamic world, presented in such a way as to make that world vulnerable to military aggression.

346:". This intellectual tradition is the background for Said's presentation of Orientalism as a European 3503:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007, from Al-Bab.com, on Reflections of a Renegade blog site 1575: 1419: 1323: 859: 835: 1261: 474:(1978) proposes that much of the Western study of Islamic civilization was an exercise in political 3676: 3666: 1563: 826: 3548:"Whenever, Wherever! The Discourse of Orientalist Transnationalism in the Construction of Shakira" 2408:

Buying and Selling the Istrian Goat: Istrian Regionalism, Croatian Nationalism, and EU Enlargement

668: 38: 3390: 2431:

Milica Bakić-Hayden built on Wolff's work, incorporating the ideas of Edward Said's "Orientalism"

1810:

Marandi, S.M. (2009). "Constructing an Axis of Evil: Iranian Memoirs in the "Land of the Free"".

1507: 671:, illustrates the sensuous beauty and cultural mystery of the fiction that is "the exotic Orient" 608:

representations of peoples and things considered inferior to the peoples and things of the West.

495: 226:

societies who produced it, which makes much Orientalist work inherently political and servile to

3547: 1782:

Fleming, Katherine E. "Greece in Chains: Philhellenism to the Rescue of a Damsel in Distress".

1474: 917: 799: 312: 277: 1863: 3526: 3249: 2549: 2443: 2406: 1120: 1020: 756: 644: 814:, Said presented follow-up refutations of the criticisms that the Orientalist and historian 3646: 3418: 1641: 1592: 1389: 1218: 1000: 928: 643:

reality of their actions, of military and economic warfare, voided the fictional nature of

450:

it is to report the Arab world. What we have, instead, is a series of crude, essentialized

233:

According to Said, in the Middle East, the social, economic, and cultural practices of the

2990: 2787: 1173:(1299–1923) was a realistic military, cultural, and religious threat to (Western) Europe. 364:

Said distinguishes between at least three separate but interrelated meanings of the term:

8: 2108:

Book review of 'For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies', by Robert Irwin

1523: 1353: 1210: 1201: 1115: 1068: 1063: 562: 539: 483: 361:

and perception of the Eastern world, specifically in relation to the Middle East region.

42: 3465:

Rotter, Andrew J. "Saidism without Said: Orientalism and U.S. Diplomatic History",

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is an extended application of methods of critical analysis developed by the philosopher

396:

of "Oriental peoples" and "the places of the Orient;" such representations dominate the

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in that time intervened between those poles of empire. Moreover, at the zenith of the

623:

of imperial impotence; in the 1970s, to journalists, academics, and Orientalists, the

591:) made unreliable most Western texts about the Eastern world, because of the implicit 3473: 3448: 3422: 3404: 3375: 3360: 3345: 3330: 3315: 3300: 3276: 3268: 3239: 3224: 3162: 3154: 3112:

Biddick, Kathleen (2000). "Coming Out of Exile: Dante on the Orient(alism) Express".

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that permeates most Orientalism, which was not recognized by most Western scholars.

53: 3208: 3179: 3150: 3121: 3018: 2995: 2479: 2379: 2328: 2226: 2077: 1345: 1193: 847: 744: 684: 411: 168: 1590:

In October 2003, one month after the death of Edward Said, the Lebanese newspaper

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in studying the Oriental world, Said drew attention to his personal identity as a

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Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment

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applied Said's method of critical analysis "with uneven results." In the field of

410:

In practice, the imperial and colonial enterprises of the West are facilitated by

218:. Said argues that Orientalism, in the sense of the Western scholarship about the 3591: 3571: 3536: 3510: 3097:

Balagangadhara, S. N. "The Future of the Present: Thinking Through Orientalism",

2794: 2748: 2721: 2636: 2140: 2072: 2054:

Abdel-Malek, Anour (1963). "L'orientalisme en crise" ("Orientalism in Crisis")".

1624: 1614: 1571: 1534: 1503: 1400: 1327: 1281: 1250: 1037: 950: 736: 720: 708: 704: 696: 692: 680: 628: 512: 475: 415: 358: 289: 269: 195: 2867:

Journeys East: 20th Century Western Encounters with Eastern Religious Traditions

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to the Middle East, especially Palestine and Egypt, was a mistake, because the

1181: 1170: 1162: 1155: 1151: 1106: 1053: 1015: 996: 883: 863: 851: 795: 791: 724: 632: 624: 554: 423: 343: 246: 187: 81: 3574: 3562:

An Introduction to Edward Said, Orientalism, and Postcolonial Literary Studies

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as an "important, and, in many ways, positive" book, had changed her mind. In

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Fleming, K.E. (2000). "Orientalism, the Balkans, and Balkan Historiography".

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was not from Egypt to India in the 1880s, because the Ottoman Empire and the

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or any other visual arts, despite the book-cover featuring a detail-image of

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Essential Readings: Said’s Orientalism, Its Interlocutors, and Its Influence

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Orientalist Aesthetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa: 1880–1930

2214: 2126: 1989: 1693: 1597: 1547: 1511: 1464: 1349: 1301: 1238: 1073: 1003:(1992), based upon and derived from the work of the historian Larry Wolff ( 942: 879: 871: 787: 636: 567: 479: 393: 389: 300: 296: 234: 211: 2107: 1352:(1823–1892), whose anti-Semitism voided his work; and the British Arabist 862:" (1988) also became a foundational text of postcolonial culture studies; 388:, the principal characteristic of Orientalism is a "subtle and persistent 206:. Societies and peoples of the Orient are those who inhabit the places of 1837: 1460: 1385: 1245: 1230: 1189: 1135: 984: 980: 937:(1880), a popular, 19th-century Orientalist painting—to which the writer 640: 604: 584: 451: 447: 431: 427: 334: 281: 250: 223: 215: 191: 71: 3403:

by Holly Edwards (Editor). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000 (

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The Lions' Den: Zionism and the Left from Hannah Arendt to Noam Chomsky

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Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America

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American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945

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Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America

2238: 1917: 579:(Battle of Salamis, 480 BC) against the Persians in the course of the 3491: 1527: 1499: 1469: 1274: 1225:

should have concentrated upon noteworthy examples of imperialism and

1128: 1025: 600: 572: 397: 351: 114: 110: 3183: 3125: 3022: 2956: 2383: 2332: 1380:(1988), O. P. Kejariwal says that with the creation of a monolithic 1147: 1105:

as an "incoherent amalgam of dubious postmodern theory, sentimental

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Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961

1602: 1344:(1749–1832) who never travelled to the Orient; the French novelist 783: 588: 202:'s commonly contemptuous depiction and portrayal of The East, i.e. 3598:“Forty years on, Edward Said's 'Orientalism' still groundbreaking“ 1490:

latent orientalism was indispensable for the rise of colonialism.

1273:. Moreover, Josephson has documented that European conferences on 3421:

and Derek Penslar. Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2004 (

3401:

Noble dreams, wicked pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870–1930

1688: 1405: 1205:(2006), Robert Irwin says that Said's concentrating the scope of 688: 238: 2448:. Sofia: Prof. M. Drinov Academic Pub. House. 1995. p. 37. 2853:

The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of India's Past

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Disraeli as an Orientalist: The Polemical Errors of Edward Said

1570:, for example, had no doubt that the expedition was as much an 1378:

The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of India's Past

404: 3469:, Vol. 105, No. 4. (Oct., 2000), pp. 1205–1217. 3372:

India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalism

1967:

A Fundamental Fear: Eurocentrism and the emergence of Islamism

3496: 2191:, New York & London: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, 1990. 1480:

More recently, Chibber has pointed out that essentialist and

1348:(1821–1880) who briefly toured Egypt; the French Orientalist 1270: 1265: 810:

as a cultural study. In the Afterword to the 1995 edition of

747:, providing a framework and method of analysis to answer the 490:

disregarded as incapable or not credible to describe itself.

143: 3292:, Vol. 59, No. 1. (Spring, 2000), pp. 74–100. 2023:

The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory

1903:

Power, Politics, and Culture: Interviews with Edward W. Said

3462:, Vol. 34, No. 3. (Oct., 1995), pp. 199–212. 2829:

Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism

1726:, Vol. 29, No. 13. 12 August 1982. Accessed 4 January 2010. 1362:

Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism

439: 207: 3101:, Vol. 10, No. 2, (1998), pp. 101–23. ISSN 0921-3740. 1113:(2007), which is the American title for British-published 557:" of 16th-century Syria as part of a "romanticized" Orient 169: 2726:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 245–50. 3434:

The Progress of an Image: The east in English Literature

3199:

Halliday, Fred (1993). "'Orientalism' and Its Critics".

2753:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 192–4. 2707:"For Lust of Knowing the Orientalists and their Enemies" 2301:, pp. 6, 11 (quoted), pp. 23–25, 2008, Tate Publishing, 1707:

The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism

1673:

The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism

838:" which also is a foundational post-colonialism document 284:. Moreover, the scope of Said's scholarship established 3221:

For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies

2667:

For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and their Enemies

2519:

For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies

2150: 2132:

For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies

2025:, Third Edition, J.A. Cuddon, Editor. 1991, pp. 660–65. 1202:

For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies

1116:

For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies

1069:

For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and their Enemies

790:

in the academic, intellectual, and cultural spheres of

478:; a psychological exercise in the self-affirmation of " 400:

of Western peoples with and about non-Western peoples.

850:, the notable Indian scholars of postcolonialism were 3299:. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ( 2541: 526: 3606:

Dangerous Knowledge: Orientalism and its Discontents

1526:, which intellectual excess traps them in a "web of 1154:

argued that the political and military power of the

966:

travelogues, literary works of imagination, and the

1824:

Said, Edward. 2002. "Between Worlds." Pp. 556–57 in

1546:In the article "Orientalism Now" (1995), historian 711:; and the perspectives to Orientalism presented by 422:the fictional, and romanticized representations of 403:

These cultural representations usually depict the '

3445:Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.) 3327:Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms 3267:. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003 ( 2299:The Lure of the East, British Orientalist Painting 1985:"Orientalism today is just another form of insult" 1455:was published, Said's arguments were critiqued by 1296:says that, fifteen years after the publication of 743:(1978) is a foundational document in the field of 3359:. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995 ( 2347: 703:analysis derived from the analytic techniques of 374:as a powerful political instrument of domination. 299:, Edward Said debated historians and scholars of 3618: 2156:Said, Edward. 1985. "Orientalism Reconsidered." 730: 647:, attitudes, and opinions about the non-Western 2274:White Mythologies: Writing History and the West 1901:Said, Edward (2001). Viswanathan, Gauri (ed.). 1812:The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 1399:In the essay "The Debate About 'Orientalism'", 999:, Milica Bakić-Hayden developed the concept of 905:White Mythologies: Writing History and the West 2963:, Vol. 27. No. 9/10 (Sept.–Oct. 1999), pp. 79. 2504:Bernard Lewis, "The Question of Orientalism", 1752: 818:made against the book's first edition (1978). 565:(8th c. BC – AD 6th c.), the time of the play 3539: (archived August 8, 2010), Citizen Track 3507:"Edward Said and the Production of Knowledge" 2855:, Delhi: Oxford UP, 1988: pp. ix–xi, 221–233. 1916:W., Said, Edward (2019). "The Latest Phase". 1750: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1742: 1740: 1738: 1736: 1734: 1732: 1683: 1681: 1468:differentiate critics of colonialism such as 3513: (archived August 8, 2010), CitizenTrack 2176:In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics 2011:The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature 1950:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1661:The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought 1566:, the Egyptian chronicler, and a witness to 1364:(2007), Ibn Warraq earlier had said that in 1316:Approaches to the History of the Middle East 1269:practices and history and on the history of 856:In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics 551:The Reception of the Ambassadors in Damascus 190:, in which the author establishes the term " 31:Cover of the first edition, showing part of 3497:Brian Whitaker, "Distorting Desire", review 3236:Imperial Fictions: Europe's Myths of Orient 2075:. 1963. "Bilan des études mohammadiennes." 2053: 1237:(1721–1917), but he did not, because, as a 782:and continued dominance of Western ways of 639:weak societies and impotent countries. The 466: 3329:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992 ( 2915: 2913: 2911: 2219:Comparative Studies in Society and History 1729: 1678: 695:, by way of which originated the field of 327: 25: 3357:Orientalism: History, theory and the arts 3201:British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 2864: 2746: 2719: 2670:. London: Allen Lane. pp. 159–60, 281–82. 2285:Emory University, Department of English, 2095:Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages 1718:Oleg Grabar, Edward Said, Bernard Lewis, 1078:An Islamic Response to Imperialism, 1968) 494:civilizations, distorts the intellectual 3600:, CBC Ideas Radio Program (23 Oct 2019). 3542: 3436:. New York: Peter Lang Publishers, 1996. 3198: 2978:The Oxford History of the British Empire 2655:. Delhi: Cambridge UP. pp. 25, 143, 282. 2547: 2404: 2318: 1146: 1007:, 1994), and the ideas Said presents in 825: 658: 631:(October 1973 – March 1974) were recent 545: 530: 3374:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 ( 3169: 3111: 3009:Prakash, G. (1995). "Orientalism Now". 3008: 3002: 2957:"Review: Who Is Afraid of Edward Said?" 2919: 2908: 2538:, March 2007. Retrieved 5 January 2010. 2369: 2213: 1809: 1798:"Edward Said's "Orientalism revisited," 1582:is a major work of cultural criticism. 1292:In the article "Said's Splash" (2001), 923:In the late 1970s, the survey range of 611:The contemporary, historical impact of 288:as a foundational text in the field of 237:Arab elites indicate they are imperial 3619: 3533:"Orientalism as a tool of Colonialism" 3527:Andre Gingrich, "Frontier Orientalism" 2989:Kotwal, Kaizaad Navroze. April 2005. " 2826: 2817:, 7 May 2008. Accessed 5 January 2010. 2532:"Enough Said (review of Robert Irwin, 2370:Prakash, G (1995). "Orientalism Now". 2266: 2034: 2013:, M.C. Howatson, Editor. 1990, p. 423. 1979: 1964: 1826:Reflections on Exile, and Other Essays 1439:as a means of explaining colonialism. 542:as an East–West clash of civilisations 342:analytical models for perceiving the " 3583:(1978) 25 Years Later, by Edward Said 3517:Martin Kramer, "Edward Said's Splash" 3490:Alessandrini, Anthony, Aug 23, 2018, 3140: 2623:Proudman, Mark F. 5 December 2005. " 2572:"Dangerous Knowledge by Robert Irwin" 2469: 1896: 1894: 1892: 1890: 1888: 1886: 1502:and cultural background the tests of 821: 382:According to an article published by 3223:. London: Penguin/Allen Lane, 2006 ( 2411:. New York: Peter Lang. p. 22. 2319:Clifford, J (1980). "Orientalism ". 2287:Introduction to Postcolonial Studies 2106:Eagleton, Terry. 13 February 2006. " 1900: 1861: 1756: 1709:(3rd ed.). 1994. pp. 642–43, 581–83. 1574:as military conquest". Nonetheless, 1568:Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798 1540:Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom 1180:, that the geographic extent of the 927:(1978) did not include the genre of 675:The greatest intellectual impact of 260:Through the critical application of 3344:. White Plains, NY: Longman, 2002 ( 2595:, New York Standard, New York. 2002 2276:, New York & London: Routledge. 1800:The New Criterion January 17, 1999. 1781: 1310:, 1981) who originally had praised 1244:Irwin's book was later reviewed by 916:(1978), especially in the field of 37:(1880), an Orientalist painting by 13: 3458:Prakash, Gyan. "Orientalism Now", 3078: 2750:The Invention of Religion in Japan 2723:The Invention of Religion in Japan 2548:Thornton, Bruce (17 August 2007). 1958: 1915: 1883: 990: 527:Geopolitics and cultural hierarchy 41:(1824–1904) currently held at the 14: 3693: 3555: 2629:Journal of the Historical Society 1840:. 1999. “Reviewing Orientalism.” 1786:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 38. 1134:Nonetheless, the literary critic 974:Historian Gyan Prakash said that 3397:, 2012, retrieved: June 6, 2012. 3155:10.1111/j.1467-9256.2010.01378.x 2925:"Orientalism and Its Afterlives" 2747:Josephson, Jason Ānanda (2012). 2720:Josephson, Jason Ānanda (2012). 2484:10.1111/j.1467-9256.2010.01378.x 2263:, Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001. 1905:. New York: Vintage. p. 12. 1431:Several scholars have critiqued 1426: 1084:("The Question of Orientalism", 778:Postcolonial theory studies the 3652:History books about colonialism 3238:. London: Pandora Press, 1994 ( 3062: 3037: 2983: 2966: 2949: 2883: 2858: 2845: 2820: 2803: 2781: 2767: 2740: 2713: 2699: 2686: 2673: 2658: 2642: 2617: 2598: 2585: 2564: 2524: 2511: 2498: 2463: 2436: 2398: 2363: 2312: 2291: 2279: 2253: 2207: 2194: 2181: 2165: 2119: 2100: 2084: 2066: 2047: 2028: 2016: 2004: 1973: 1909: 1855: 1831: 1818: 1287: 1028:concept of Nesting Balkanisms ( 368:an academic tradition or field; 3467:The American Historical Review 3172:The American Historical Review 3114:The American Historical Review 3108:, U. of California Press, 2003 3045:"Edward W. Said's Orientalism" 2891:"Edward W. Said's Orientalism" 2811:"Edward Said's shadowy legacy" 1862:Said, Edward (26 April 1980). 1803: 1790: 1775: 1712: 1700: 1666: 1654: 1493: 1356:(1801–1876), who compiled the 679:(1978) was upon the fields of 663:The Eastern world depicted in 315:". For subsequent editions of 307:, who described the thesis of 268:influenced the development of 222:, is inextricably tied to the 1: 3395:Institute of European History 1647: 1585: 1371: 1334: 1059:A History of the Arab Peoples 830:The philosopher and theorist 731:Post-colonial culture studies 507:in this study of Orientalism. 2508:, London, 1993: pp. 99, 118. 2204:, New York: Oxford UP, 1990. 1864:"Islam Through Western Eyes" 1487:necessary but not sufficient 1473:individuals in favour of a " 1043: 654: 627:(6–25 October 1973) and the 7: 3637:Books of literary criticism 3632:Books about the Middle East 3484: 2831:. Prometheus. p. 556. 2521:, London: Allen Lane, 2006. 2172:Chakravorty Spivak, Gayatri 1784:Women and the Colonial Gaze 1608: 645:Orientalist representations 322: 16:1978 book by Edward W. Said 10: 3698: 2297:Tromans, Nicholas, et al. 1720:"Orientalism: An Exchange" 1435:and Said's embrace of the 1342:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1264:has argued that data from 1142: 897:Iran: A People Interrupted 852:Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak 832:Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak 699:. Edward Said's method of 245:a romanticized version of 3657:Books about civilizations 3608:(2006), by Robert Irwin. 3213:10.1080/13530199308705577 2865:Oldmeadow, Harry (2004). 2815:Times Literary Supplement 2611:Times Literary Supplement 2405:Ashbrook, John E (2008). 2355:English Historical Review 2231:10.1017/s0010417500016534 2091:Southern, Richard William 1965:Sayyid, Bobby S. (1997). 1761:. London: Penguin Books. 1093:In a review of a book by 970:of public men-of-affairs. 806:practical application of 536:The Sea Battle at Salamis 167: 155: 141: 129: 121: 105: 97: 87: 77: 67: 59: 49: 24: 3642:Islam-related literature 3415:Orientalism and the Jews 3340:Macfie, Alexander Lyon. 3258:Orientalism and the Jews 2139:18 November 2009 at the 2134:, 2006, by Robert Irwin) 2097:. Cambridge: Harvard UP. 1969:. Zed books. p. 32. 1724:New York Review of Books 1675:(3rd ed.). 1994. p. 642. 1663:(3rd ed.). 1999. p. 617. 1564:Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti 1508:intellectual objectivity 1235:Russian colonies in Asia 860:Can the Subaltern Speak? 836:Can the Subaltern Speak? 757:cultural representations 725:Richard William Southern 505:that is what I am saying 467:Thesis of representation 3672:Postcolonial literature 3570:(1978), book review by 3391:European History Online 2614:(19 February 1993):3–4. 2606:Culture and Imperialism 1300:(1978), UCLA historian 1231:British colony of India 1167:Culture and Imperialism 943:epistemological studies 788:production of knowledge 767:," as presented in the 350:reflecting a contrived 3627:1978 non-fiction books 2653:Empire and Information 1757:Said, Edward (2003) . 1475:Clash of Civilizations 1358:Arabic–English Lexicon 1332: 1304:(whom Said praised in 1262:Jason Ānanda Josephson 1159: 1097:, American classicist 1024:, 1997) presented her 972: 918:Middle Eastern studies 858:, 1987), whose essay " 839: 672: 629:OPEC petroleum embargo 615:was in explaining the 558: 543: 509: 456: 278:Middle Eastern studies 3529:, Camp Catatonia blog 3250:Kalmar, Ivan Davidson 2869:. World Wisdom, Inc. 2664:Irwin, Robert. 2006. 2272:Young, Robert. 1990. 1687:Howe, Stephen. 2008 " 1320: 1150: 1021:Imagining the Balkans 963: 829: 697:Post-colonial studies 662: 575:, which celebrates a 549: 538:(1868) envisages the 534: 500: 436: 418:Arab élites who have 303:, notably, historian 3682:Works by Edward Said 3662:Pantheon Books books 3419:Ivan Davidson Kalmar 2827:Warraq, Ibn (2007). 2445:Ethnologia Balkanica 2189:Nation and Narration 1796:Keith Windschuttle, 1642:Imagined geographies 1443:has highlighted how 1324:Arab–Israeli dispute 1280:French orientalists 1219:cultural imperialism 1211:Mandate of Palestine 1030:Ethnologia Balkanica 1014:Bulgarian historian 1001:Nesting Orientalisms 929:Orientalist painting 868:Nation and Narration 784:intellectual enquiry 553:(1511) depicts the " 444:potential terrorists 290:postcolonial studies 264:in its scholarship, 3564:, by Amardeep Singh 3439:Peltre, Christine. 3370:Murti, Kamakshi P. 3297:German Orientalisms 2694:For Lust of Knowing 2681:For Lust of Knowing 2534:Dangerous Knowledge 2147:, 13 February 2006. 1524:cultural relativism 1451:In the years after 1354:Edward William Lane 1259:scholar of religion 1239:public intellectual 1194:local collaborators 1111:Dangerous Knowledge 1064:Robert Graham Irwin 957:said that the book 563:Classical antiquity 540:Graeco-Persian Wars 297:public intellectual 276:, and the field of 43:Clark Art Institute 21: 3610:The New York Times 3460:History and Theory 3441:Orientalism in Art 3387:Oriental Despotism 3263:Klein, Christina. 3011:History and Theory 2793:2009-10-26 at the 2635:2007-06-30 at the 2593:American Criticism 2506:Islam and the West 2372:History and Theory 2321:History and Theory 2178:. London: Methuen. 1842:Oxford Art Journal 1457:Sadiq Jalal al-Azm 1160: 1087:Islam and the West 1052:. Critics include 909:Robert J. C. Young 844:literary criticism 840: 822:Literary criticism 737:cultural criticism 717:Anouar Abdel-Malek 713:Abdul Latif Tibawi 701:post-structuralist 673: 559: 544: 430:ambitions and the 274:cultural criticism 262:post-structuralism 186:is a 1978 book by 19: 3478:978-0-295-98752-1 3385:Minuti, Rolando: 3355:MacKenzie, John. 3335:978-0-8014-8195-6 3310:Little, Douglas. 3099:Cultural Dynamics 3071:, 20 October 2003 2980:, vol. 5. p. 607. 2608:by Edward Said). 2418:978-90-5201-391-6 2307:978-1-85437-733-3 2259:Dirks, Nicholas. 2162:1(Autumn). p. 96. 2159:Cultural Critique 2125:Eagleton, Terry. 2037:Islamic Quarterly 1929:978-0-14-118742-6 1922:. Penguin Books. 1560:Anwar Abdel Malek 1227:cultural hegemony 953:. Anthropologist 934:The Snake Charmer 842:In the fields of 834:wrote the essay " 786:, as well as the 765:The Eastern world 759:of "Orientals," " 665:The Snake Charmer 513:critical approach 480:European identity 385:The New Criterion 179: 178: 136:978-0-394-42814-7 98:Publication place 34:The Snake Charmer 3689: 3551: 3499:, Joseph Abbad, 3314:. (2nd ed. 2002 3216: 3195: 3178:(4): 1218–1233. 3166: 3137: 3120:(4): 1234–1249. 3104:Benjamin, Roger 3072: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3057: 3056: 3047:. Archived from 3041: 3035: 3034: 3006: 3000: 2996:The Film Journal 2987: 2981: 2970: 2964: 2961:Social Scientist 2953: 2947: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2917: 2906: 2905: 2903: 2902: 2893:. Archived from 2887: 2881: 2880: 2862: 2856: 2851:O.P. 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Kiernan 1549: 1544: 1542: 1541: 1536: 1531: 1529: 1525: 1520: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1491: 1488: 1483: 1478: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1449: 1446: 1442: 1441:Vivek Chibber 1438: 1437:cultural turn 1434: 1427:Cultural turn 1424: 1423:scholarship. 1421: 1417: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1395: 1394:William Jones 1391: 1390:Enlightenment 1387: 1383: 1382:Occidentalism 1379: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1319: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1294:Martin Kramer 1285: 1283: 1278: 1276: 1272: 1267: 1263: 1260: 1255: 1253: 1252: 1248:, writing in 1247: 1242: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1215:British Egypt 1212: 1208: 1204: 1203: 1197: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1140: 1137: 1132: 1130: 1126: 1125:Martin Kramer 1122: 1118: 1117: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1089: 1088: 1083: 1082:Bernard Lewis 1079: 1075: 1071: 1070: 1065: 1061: 1060: 1055: 1051: 1041: 1039: 1033: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 988: 986: 982: 977: 971: 969: 962: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 939:Linda Nochlin 936: 935: 930: 926: 921: 919: 915: 910: 906: 901: 899: 898: 893: 892:Hamid Dabashi 890:, 2001); and 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 837: 833: 828: 819: 817: 816:Bernard Lewis 813: 809: 803: 801: 800:French Empire 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 776: 774: 773:Western world 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 735:As a work of 728: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 670: 666: 661: 652: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 609: 606: 602: 596: 594: 593:cultural bias 590: 586: 582: 578: 577:Greek victory 574: 571:(472 BC), by 570: 569: 564: 556: 552: 548: 541: 537: 533: 524: 520: 518: 514: 508: 504: 499: 497: 491: 487: 485: 481: 477: 473: 464: 460: 455: 453: 449: 445: 441: 440:oil suppliers 435: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 412:collaborating 408: 406: 401: 399: 395: 391: 387: 386: 380: 373: 370: 367: 366: 365: 362: 360: 355: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 336: 328:"Orientalism" 320: 318: 314: 310: 306: 305:Bernard Lewis 302: 298: 293: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 258: 256: 255:Joseph Conrad 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 231: 229: 225: 221: 220:Eastern World 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 184: 174: 172: 170:LC Class 166: 162: 159: 158:Dewey Decimal 154: 151: 148: 146: 140: 137: 134: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 101:United States 100: 96: 92: 86: 83: 80: 76: 73: 70: 66: 62: 58: 55: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 35: 28: 23: 3609: 3605: 3580: 3567: 3520: 3500: 3466: 3459: 3443:. New York: 3440: 3433: 3417:, edited by 3414: 3400: 3386: 3371: 3356: 3341: 3326: 3325:Lowe, Lisa. 3311: 3296: 3287: 3264: 3257: 3235: 3220: 3204: 3200: 3175: 3171: 3146: 3142: 3117: 3113: 3105: 3098: 3085: 3084:Ankerl, Guy 3068: 3064: 3053:. Retrieved 3049:the original 3039: 3014: 3010: 3004: 2994: 2985: 2973: 2968: 2960: 2951: 2939:. Retrieved 2934: 2928: 2899:. Retrieved 2895:the original 2885: 2866: 2860: 2852: 2847: 2828: 2822: 2814: 2805: 2797: 2783: 2774: 2769: 2749: 2742: 2722: 2715: 2701: 2693: 2688: 2680: 2675: 2665: 2660: 2652: 2649:Bayly, C. A. 2644: 2628: 2619: 2609: 2605: 2600: 2592: 2591:Nosal, K R. 2587: 2576:. Retrieved 2566: 2554:. 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