36:
299:
11881:
8048:
367:). The latter has the virtue of being an original inscription, whereas the oldest surviving manuscripts of all the other texts are the results of centuries of copying, with the attendant risk of scribal errors. Prose texts are more limited but are thought to reflect the syntax of Old Japanese more accurately than verse texts do. The most important are the 27
6566:
Old
Japanese verbs are classified into eight conjugation classes that were originally defined for the classical Japanese of the late Heian period. In each class, the inflected forms showed a different pattern of rows of a kana table. These rows correspond to the five vowels of later Japanese, but the
6493:
This form was used as the main verb concluding a declarative sentence. It was used also before modal extensions, final particles, and some conjunctional particles. The conclusive form merged with the attributive form by about 1600, but the distinction is preserved in the
Ryukyuan languages and the
5366:
consistently appended to the main verb. Japanese at all stages has used prefixes with both nouns and verbs, but Old
Japanese also used prefixes for grammatical functions later expressed using suffixes. This is atypical of SOV languages, and may suggest that the language was in the final stage of a
289:
word order, adjectives and adverbs preceding the nouns and verbs they modified and auxiliary verbs and particles appended to the main verb. Unlike in later periods, Old
Japanese adjectives could be used uninflected to modify following nouns. Old Japanese verbs had a rich system of tense and aspect
487:
Chinese and
Koreans had long used Chinese characters to write non-Chinese terms and proper names phonetically by selecting characters for Chinese words that sounded similar to each syllable. Koreans also used the characters phonetically to write Korean particles and inflections that were added to
6551:
This system has been criticized because the six forms are not equivalent, with one being solely a combinatory stem, three solely word forms, and two being both. It also fails to capture some inflected forms. However, five of the forms are basic inflected verb forms, and the system also describes
274:. It featured a few phonemic differences from later forms, such as a simpler syllable structure and distinctions between several pairs of syllables that have been pronounced identically since Early Middle Japanese. The phonetic realization of these distinctions is uncertain.
3235:
in 1938, is that there were eight pure vowels, with the type B vowels being more central than their type A counterparts. Others, beginning in the 1930s but more commonly since the work of Roland Lange in 1968, have attributed the type A/B distinction to medial or final
7594:
Old
Japanese had a rich system of auxiliary elements that could be suffixed to verb stems and were themselves inflected, usually following the regular consonant-stem or vowel-stem paradigms, but never including the full range of stems found with full verbs.
690:, each Old Japanese syllable was represented by a Chinese character. Although any of several characters could be used for a given syllable, a careful analysis reveals that 88 syllables were distinguished in early Old Japanese, typified by the
459:
Artifacts inscribed with
Chinese characters dated as early as the 1st century AD have been found in Japan, but detailed knowledge of the script seems not to have reached the islands until the early 5th century. According to the
4379:
Adjacent vowels belonging to different morphemes, or pairs of vowels for which none of the above fusions applied, were reduced by deleting one or other of the vowels. Most often, the first of the adjacent vowels was deleted:
2555:
typically did not distinguish voiced from voiceless consonants, and wrote some syllables with characters that had fewer strokes and were based on older
Chinese pronunciations imported via the Korean peninsula. For example,
5308:< *əi, but others reconstruct two central vowels *ə and *ɨ, which merged everywhere except before *i. Other authors attribute the variation to different reflexes in different dialects and note that *əi yields
5386:
of uncertain etymology. If the pronoun occurred in isolation, the longer form was used. The short form was used with genitive particles or in nominal compounds, but in other situations either form was possible.
441:) dating from the late 7th and early 8th century have been unearthed. The tablets bear short texts, often in Old Japanese of a more colloquial style than the polished poems and liturgies of the primary corpus.
5247:
Thus the above independent forms of nouns can be derived from the bound form and a suffix *-i. The origin of this suffix is debated, with one proposal being the ancestor of the obsolescent particle
4591:
Internal reconstruction suggests that the Old
Japanese voiced obstruents, which always occurred in medial position, arose from the weakening of earlier nasal syllables before voiceless obstruents:
406:(3rd century AD), but the transcriptions by Chinese scholars are unreliable. The oldest surviving inscriptions from Japan, dating from the 5th or early 6th centuries, include those on the
6588:
table, corresponding to four vowels. However, the discovery of the A/B distinction revealed that this class actually involved five different vowels in Old
Japanese, with distinct vowels
8151:
for both the adnominal and the conclusive forms. A similar difference is preserved in Ryukyuan languages, suggesting that central Old Japanese had innovated by merging those endings.
6226:, the other ordinal numerals had the same form as cardinals, and this may also have been the case for Old Japanese, though there are no textual occurrences to settle the question.
6671:
expressing completion of an action. They are often described as a "hybrid" conjugation because the adnominal and exclamatory forms followed a similar pattern to vowel-base verbs.
3802:
Two adjacent vowels fused to form a new vowel when a consonant was lost within a morpheme, or a compound was lexicalized as a single morpheme. The following fusions occurred:
6582:
This class of regular consonant-base verbs includes approximately 75% of verbs. The class is so named because the inflections in later forms of Japanese span four rows of a
4843:
Some supporters of *b and *d also add *z and *g, which both disappeared in Old Japanese, for reasons of symmetry. However, there is very little Japonic evidence for them.
5358:
As in later forms of Japanese, Old Japanese word order was predominantly subject–object–verb, with adjectives and adverbs preceding the nouns and verbs they modify and
6463:
This form never occurs in isolation but only as a stem to which several particles and auxiliaries are attached. This stem originated from resegmentation of an initial
7781:
Old Japanese adjectives were originally nominals and, unlike in later periods, could be used uninflected to modify following nouns. They could also be conjugated as
2018:
did not occur at the start of a word. Conversely, syllables consisting of a single vowel were restricted to word-initial position, with a few exceptions such as
6431:
As in later forms of Japanese, Old Japanese verbs had a large number of inflected forms. In traditional Japanese grammar, they are represented by six forms (
5802:, numerals were sometimes written using Chinese logographs, which give no indication of pronunciation. The following numerals are attested phonographically:
3108:) and is found in some Modern Japanese and Ryukyuan dialects, but it has disappeared in modern Japanese except for the intervocalic nasal stop allophone of
8175:
There was a group of distinctive negative auxiliaries, but they do not seem to be the source of the different negatives in the modern eastern and western
13325:
10914:
8215:
Described as "The ancestor of modern Japanese. 7th–10th centuries AD." The more usual date for the boundary between Old Japanese to Middle Japanese is
6234:
Old Japanese nominals had suffixes or particles to mark diminutives, plural number and case. When multiple suffixes occurred, case markers came last.
5329:
are difficult to analyse as fusions, and some authors postulate *e and *o to account for such cases. A few alternations, as well as comparisons with
13407:
5333:
and Ryukyuan languages, suggest that *e and *o also occurred in non-word-final positions at an earlier stage but were raised in such positions to
4840:
However, many linguists, especially in Japan, argue that the Southern Ryukyuan voiced stops are local innovations, adducing a variety of reasons.
13176:
6520:
This form was used as the main verb in an exclamatory sentence or as the verb in an adverbial clause. It also served as a stem for the particles
7934:. Adjectives of this class tended to express more subjective qualities. Many of them were formed from a verbal stem by the addition of a suffix
7502:-bigrade verbs tend to be intransitive. Some bigrade bases also appear to reflect pre-Old-Japanese adjectives with vowel stems combined with an
13437:
11331:
Whitman, John (2008). "The source of the bigrade conjugation and stem shape in pre-Old-Japanese". In Frellesvig, Bjarke; Whitman, John (eds.).
422:
but contain several Japanese names that were transcribed phonetically using Chinese characters. Such inscriptions became more common from the
396:
A limited number of Japanese words, mostly personal names and place names, are recorded phonetically in ancient Chinese texts, such as the "
13372:
8232:
6509:
This form was used as the verb in a nominalized clause or a clause modifying a noun. It was also used before most conjunctional particles.
12119:
11835:
3701:, a dictionary that was compiled in the late 11th century. In that section, a low-pitch syllable was represented by a character with the
2877:
pronunciations of the characters used are also disputed, and since the reconstruction of their phonetic values is partly based on later
13171:
11700:
8097:
They record Eastern Old Japanese dialects, with several differences from central Old Japanese (also known as Western Old Japanese):
4440:
The exception to this rule occurred when the first of the adjacent vowels was the sole vowel of a monosyllabic morpheme (usually a
6602:
in the exclamatory and imperative forms respectively. The bases are almost all of the form (C)VC-, with the final consonant being
7074:
7049:
6675:
6638:
12798:
11665:
Old Japanese poems, in original script and transcription, with morphological and syntactic analysis, and a linked dictionary.
11635:
11608:
11582:
11549:
11397:
11370:
11340:
11321:
11302:
11283:
11264:
11210:
11191:
11153:
11126:
11095:
11065:
11024:
10998:
10951:
10932:
10886:
10867:
4729:'knee', there is no evidence for a preceding vowel, which leads some scholars to posit final nasals at the earlier stage.
12793:
11163:
Russell, Kerri (2003). "Contraction and Monophthongization in Old Japanese". In Vovin, Alexander; Osada, Toshiki (eds.).
3073:
200:
13422:
7097:
7022:
7000:
6978:
3175:
before various vowels. In medial position, it became in Early Middle Japanese and has since disappeared except before
8093:(recorded 714–718, but the oldest extant manuscripts date from the late 17th century and show significant corruption).
3251:
proposals are often connected to hypotheses about pre-Old Japanese, but all exhibit an uneven distribution of glides.
12277:
12678:
11922:
5253:(whose function is also uncertain), and another being a weakened consonant (suggested by proposed Korean cognates).
13412:
13384:
13103:
6561:
3695:, the Chinese characters appeared to have been chosen to represent a pitch pattern similar to that recorded in the
13057:
13052:
12578:
12112:
11828:
10901:
7045:-bigrade verbs had already shifted to this class by Old Japanese, and the rest followed in Early Middle Japanese.
500:, a complete script for the language that used Chinese characters phonetically, which was the ancestor of modern
190:
11622:. Historical Linguistics: Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. Vol. 320. John Benjamins. pp. 107–128.
13226:
11693:
6237:
Unmarked nouns (but not pronouns) were neutral as to number. The main plural markers were the general-purpose
13067:
12783:
11620:
Historical Linguistics 2009: Selected papers from the 19th International Conference on Historical Linguistics
11618:
Yanagida, Yuko (2012). "The Syntactic Reconstruction of Alignment and Word Order: The Case of Old Japanese".
6575:
402:
11109:
Perspective on Some Issues in Japanese Historical Phonology". In Vovin, Alexander; McClure, William (eds.).
164:
13198:
13037:
12596:
12284:
3144:
2964:
6464:
6391:
Old Japanese had a richer system of verbal suffixes than later forms of Japanese. Old Japanese verbs used
5772:
forms were reinterpreted as hearer-based (medial), and the speaker-based forms were divided into proximal
4765:
4757:
4700:
4673:
4642:
4598:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3244:
3240:
3219:
3215:
3204:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3099:
3095:
3055:
3013:
3005:
2999:
2993:
2606:
2575:
13432:
12931:
12911:
12715:
12668:
11977:
11900:
8196:
4741:
3706:
407:
286:
13442:
13427:
13047:
12105:
11937:
11821:
8012:
3083:
2956:
2948:
251:, but the precise delimitation of the stages is controversial. Old Japanese was an early member of the
12921:
11223:(2000). "Reconciling Comparative and Internal Reconstruction: The Case of Old Japanese /ti, ri, ni/".
5206:
reflect earlier *a, *u, *i and *ə respectively, and the other vowels reflect fusions of these vowels:
4740:
derive, respectively, from *b and *d at some point before the oldest inscriptions in the 6th century.
3764:
proposed a set of phonological restrictions permitted in a single morpheme. Arisaka's Law states that
3717:.) Thus, it appears that the Old Japanese accent system was similar to that of Early Middle Japanese.
454:
13332:
13310:
13098:
11686:
11574:
11362:
8172:
used in central Old Japanese. This difference has persisted into modern eastern and western dialects.
7943:
Towards the end of the Old Japanese period, a more expressive conjugation emerged by adding the verb
13367:
13305:
13295:
13259:
13157:
13108:
13032:
13007:
12616:
11537:
6536:
6513:
6502:
6486:
6471:
6456:
6199:
3212:
2878:
12673:
11917:
11671:– collection of materials at Cornell University, including drafts of the Old Japanese chapters of
4883:
arise from fusion of more common vowels. Similarly, many nouns having independent forms ending in
12751:
12007:
11797:
11668:
7598:
Tense and aspect were indicated by suffixes attached to the infinitive. The tense suffixes were:
4580:
4503:
Cases where both outcomes are found are attributed to different analyses of morpheme boundaries:
3231:. The issue is hotly debated, and there is no consensus. The traditional view, first advanced by
3136:
2974:
2624:
Several different notations for the type A/B distinction are found in the literature, including:
323:). That is the period of the earliest connected texts in Japanese, the 112 songs included in the
275:
6495:
4897:
also have bound forms ending in a different vowel, which are believed to be older. For example,
3187:
had already lenited to by the Old Japanese period, but Miyake argues that it was still a stop.
13417:
12768:
3612:
and vanished afterwards. The distribution of syllables suggests that there may have once been *
3102:. Prenasalization was still present in the late 17th century (according to the Korean textbook
2986:
282:
12952:
11408:
8015:
of Early Middle Japanese were based on Old Japanese adjectives that were formed with suffixes
13249:
13138:
12611:
12157:
12147:
12086:
12069:
11792:
11787:
6400:
5489:
3148:
3104:
3066:
3035:
3027:
244:
13300:
13123:
13027:
12901:
12703:
12638:
12152:
12081:
12062:
11932:
8042:
7699:
6298:
5363:
5330:
5184:
The widely accepted analysis of this situation is that the most common Old Japanese vowels
3232:
2889:, subsequent developments in the Japanese pronunciation, and the comparative study of the
8:
13349:
13231:
13203:
13118:
12698:
6396:
3756:
A bare vowel did not occur except for word-initially: vowel sequences were not permitted.
3697:
3180:
2886:
1965:. These are denoted by subscripts 1 and 2 respectively in the above table. The syllables
1912:
12643:
11870:
10985:(wooden documents) can tell us about ancient Japanese language". In Frellesvig, Bjarke;
3705:
level tone, and a high pitch was represented by a character with one of the other three
657:
This method of writing Japanese syllables by using characters for their Chinese sounds (
329:(712). The other major literary sources of the period are the 128 songs included in the
13379:
13320:
13241:
13128:
13062:
12947:
12660:
12402:
12074:
12049:
11891:
11738:
11733:
11728:
11445:
11240:
6412:
6223:
5449:
5417:
2890:
2882:
415:
263:
54:
12648:
12484:
12433:
7486:
The bigrade verbs seem to belong to a later layer than the consonant-base verbs. Many
180:
13208:
13143:
13113:
12916:
12735:
12720:
12693:
12688:
12626:
12564:
12539:
12474:
12348:
12186:
12176:
12167:
12128:
12020:
11992:
11963:
11958:
11863:
11858:
11844:
11743:
11631:
11604:
11578:
11545:
11393:
11366:
11336:
11317:
11298:
11279:
11260:
11220:
11206:
11187:
11149:
11122:
11091:
11061:
11053:
11020:
10994:
10947:
10928:
10882:
10863:
8176:
7495:
6408:
5439:
5390:
5344:, respectively, in central Old Japanese. The mid vowels are also found in some early
4753:
3678:
2983:
2922:
2917:
665:
473:
433:, only two, dating from about 762, are in Old Japanese. Over 150,000 wooden tablets (
419:
337:
304:
252:
236:
88:
12392:
12191:
11167:. Vol. 31. Kyoto: International Center for Japanese Studies. pp. 511–539.
5432:, were used for the singular and plural respectively, though with some overlap. The
196:
13337:
13315:
13093:
12889:
12730:
12532:
12522:
12517:
12505:
12358:
12294:
12250:
12015:
11723:
11709:
11623:
11523:
11472:
11424:
11232:
11168:
11114:
11039:
10918:
6416:
4749:
3791:
3047:
2912:
477:
356:
42:
12858:
12453:
12397:
12235:
11477:
11460:
5790:
forms, yielding the three-way distinction that is still found in Modern Japanese.
1995:. All of these pairs had merged in the Early Middle Japanese of the Heian period.
699:
495:
450:
259:
127:
13362:
13022:
13017:
13012:
12725:
12498:
12409:
12309:
12270:
12265:
12226:
12206:
11997:
11909:
11252:
10897:
7503:
7491:
6544:
6444:
6404:
6372:
6308:
6269:
5513:
often distinguished proximal (to the speaker) and non-proximal forms marked with
5380:
Many Old Japanese pronouns had both a short form and a longer form with attached
5359:
4745:
3020:
2927:
2065:
1987:, reducing the syllable count to 87. Some authors also believe that two forms of
411:
80:
12491:
11111:
Studies in Japanese and Korean Historical and Theoretical Linguistics and Beyond
10962:
10184:
6567:
discovery of the A/B distinction in Old Japanese showed a more refined picture.
4583:
suggests that the stage preceding Old Japanese had fewer consonants and vowels.
3895:
Further examples are provided by verbs ending with the retrospective auxiliary -
3790:, but it is very different from patterns that are observed in, for example, the
35:
13357:
12708:
12683:
12606:
12586:
12559:
12510:
12462:
12426:
12380:
12324:
12319:
12299:
11942:
11927:
11779:
11350:
Yamaguchi, Akiho; Suzuki, Hideo; Sakanashi, Ryūzō; Tsukimoto, Masayuki (1997).
11141:
10986:
6420:
3761:
3702:
2874:
568:
316:
255:
language family. No genetic links to other language families have been proven.
119:
11436:
Bentley, John R. (2011). "Triangulating the early language history of Japan".
11118:
7674:. The tense and aspect suffixes were replaced with a single past-tense suffix
3225:
Several hypotheses have been advanced to explain the A/B distinctions made in
13401:
13148:
12894:
12873:
12591:
12443:
12387:
12255:
12245:
12221:
12211:
12201:
12044:
11802:
11428:
10896:
Erickson, Blaine (2003). "Old Japanese and Proto-Japonic word structure". In
8183:
6324:
6280:
6114:
There is a single example of a phonographically recorded compound number, in
5510:
5394:
3787:
3726:
3195:
The Chinese characters chosen to write syllables with the Old Japanese vowel
2940:
2867:
There is no consensus on the pronunciation of the syllables distinguished by
389:
157:
109:
11559:
663:) was supplemented with indirect methods in the complex mixed script of the
476:, probably by immigrant scribes. Later "hybrid" texts show the influence of
13133:
12962:
12527:
12421:
12365:
12334:
12329:
11627:
11461:"The liquid and stem-final vowel alternations of verbs in ancient Japanese"
7782:
3714:
3710:
3682:
430:
423:
248:
11084:
Comprehensive dictionary of Japanese by historical period: ancient edition
426:(592–628). Those fragments are usually considered a form of Old Japanese.
348:), a compilation of over 4,500 poems. Shorter samples are 25 poems in the
148:
13188:
12416:
10877:——— (2012). "Old Japanese". In Tranter, Nicolas (ed.).
8051:
The capital (Nara) and the eastern provinces (hatched) in the 8th century
6314:
2579:
512:
331:
312:
267:
240:
11449:
11044:
3131:
Comparative evidence from Ryukyuan languages suggests that Old Japanese
472:(southwestern Korea). The earliest texts found in Japan were written in
13217:
13183:
12992:
12987:
12982:
12977:
12972:
12863:
11880:
11764:
11759:
11528:
9960:
8056:
6482:. It also served as a stem for auxiliaries expressing tense and aspect.
6479:
6443:) from which all the others may be derived in a similar fashion to the
6392:
3200:
489:
481:
387:(literally 'announced order', meaning imperial edicts) recorded in the
320:
11244:
11173:
10923:
7620:(exclamatory). The variation may indicate an origin in multiple forms.
6277:
marked objects (as in later Japanese) but also adverbials of duration.
5301:'bud'. Some authors believe that they belong to an earlier layer than
504:
syllabaries. This system was already in use in the verse parts of the
12997:
12926:
12906:
12848:
10835:
8047:
7931:
3713:
of Chinese poetry, which were emulated by Japanese poets in the late
3248:
3237:
3172:
2934:
2519:
almost always occurred at the end of a morpheme. Most occurrences of
377:
278:
points to a pre-Old Japanese phase with fewer consonants and vowels.
173:
141:
12868:
12853:
12097:
11813:
11678:
11652:
Frellesvig, Bjarke; Horn, Stephen Wright; et al., eds. (2023).
11137:
10961:
Frellesvig, Bjarke; Horn, Stephen Wright; et al., eds. (2023).
10721:
10196:
298:
13162:
12843:
12838:
12833:
12760:
12601:
11236:
11087:
9948:
9897:
9660:
271:
208:
13277:
8055:
Although most Old Japanese writing represents the language of the
281:
As is typical of Japonic languages, Old Japanese was primarily an
13254:
13193:
12810:
11349:
10709:
10424:
10388:
10190:
10162:
10160:
10135:
10133:
9938:
9936:
9459:
2610:
2583:
601:
594:
587:
580:
573:
204:
9507:
5476:
was much less commonly used than the non-proximal demonstrative
13272:
12805:
12773:
11008:
Kondō, Yasuhiro; Tsukimoto, Masayuki; Sugiura, Katsumi (2005).
10453:
10451:
10035:
5533:
respectively. Many forms had corresponding interrogative forms
4441:
506:
469:
436:
370:
350:
325:
11653:
10763:
10579:
10577:
10364:
10340:
10232:
10172:
10157:
10130:
10118:
10047:
10011:
9933:
9885:
9873:
9807:
9636:
9624:
9582:
8835:
8516:
8059:
court in central Japan, some sources come from eastern Japan:
3786:. Some scholars have interpreted that as a vestige of earlier
13267:
12815:
12778:
11295:
A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese
10753:
10751:
10064:
10062:
9797:
9795:
9614:
9612:
9599:
9597:
8922:
6696:'be, exist' and other verbs that incorporated it, as well as
6448:
11138:"Ryukyuan and the reconstruction of proto-Japanese-Ryukyuan"
10562:
10516:
10514:
10487:
10448:
10292:
10096:
10094:
10092:
10079:
10077:
10001:
9999:
9972:
9921:
9851:
9849:
9836:
9834:
9560:
9558:
9543:
9447:
7111:'kick', which reflected the Old Japanese lower bigrade verb
4918:'sake cup'. The following alternations are the most common:
12825:
11019:] (in Japanese). Tokyo: Hōsō Daigaku Kyōiku Shinkōkai.
10574:
9495:
9471:
9410:
9408:
9376:
9374:
9372:
9370:
9368:
9366:
9364:
9362:
9360:
9273:
9249:
9203:
9201:
9055:
9053:
9051:
9001:
8999:
8997:
8801:
8799:
8797:
8707:
8705:
8644:
8642:
8615:
8603:
8576:
8564:
8528:
7924:, which differed only in the conclusive form, whose suffix
501:
11257:
Korea-Japonica: A Re-evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin
11113:. Languages of Asia. Vol. 16. Brill. pp. 45–55.
10811:
10799:
10787:
10748:
10661:
10328:
10268:
10220:
10145:
10106:
10059:
10023:
9984:
9819:
9792:
9672:
9648:
9609:
9594:
9531:
9120:
9118:
9116:
9084:
8886:
8741:
8593:
8591:
8350:
8348:
8280:
8164:
8155:
8028:
8022:
8016:
7998:
7991:
7984:
7956:
7950:
7944:
7935:
7925:
7919:
7905:
7895:
7888:
7881:
7874:
7867:
7855:
7845:
7838:
7831:
7824:
7817:
7768:
7760:
7752:
7744:
7736:
7730:
7722:
7716:
7710:
7693:
7687:
7681:
7669:
7663:
7653:
7652:, a fusion of the simple past with the conjectural suffix
7643:
7634:
7624:
7615:
7609:
7603:
7580:
7570:
7554:
7544:
7528:
7518:
7469:
7462:
7455:
7448:
7441:
7434:
7413:
7406:
7399:
7392:
7382:
7371:
7345:
7334:
7323:
7312:
7302:
7291:
7268:
7261:
7254:
7247:
7237:
7226:
7200:
7193:
7186:
7179:
7169:
7158:
7112:
7106:
7086:
7061:
6897:
6890:
6883:
6876:
6869:
6862:
6844:
6837:
6830:
6823:
6816:
6809:
6788:
6778:
6771:
6764:
6754:
6747:
6697:
6691:
6666:
6660:
6654:
6527:
6521:
6467:
of several suffixes (auxiliary verbs) as part of the stem.
6375:
6358:
6352:
6346:
6337:
6327:
6317:
6292:
6283:
6272:
6257:
6244:
6238:
6217:
6208:
6202:
6085:
6071:
6060:
6052:
6032:
6024:
6006:
5992:
5980:
5972:
5949:
5938:
5915:
5904:
5888:
5880:
5862:
5854:
5839:
5827:
5812:
5785:
5779:
5773:
5767:
5756:
5738:
5731:
5724:
5712:
5705:
5693:
5682:
5671:
5659:
5648:
5637:
5625:
5611:
5597:
5585:
5575:
5564:
5534:
5524:
5514:
5498:
5492:
5477:
5471:
5462:
5453:
5443:
5433:
5427:
5421:
5404:
5398:
5381:
5292:
5283:
5273:
5264:
5248:
5175:
5166:
5160:
5151:
5145:
5136:
5130:
5121:
5115:
5106:
5100:
5091:
5085:
5076:
5053:
5044:
5034:
5025:
5002:
4993:
4987:
4978:
4972:
4963:
4957:
4948:
4942:
4933:
4913:
4907:
4898:
4832:
4826:
4820:
4794:
4788:
4720:
4714:
4708:
4689:
4683:
4677:
4662:
4652:
4646:
4624:
4611:
4602:
4563:
4554:
4543:
4537:
4522:
4513:
4507:
4490:
4484:
4475:
4463:
4457:
4448:
4431:
4425:
4419:
4403:
4397:
4384:
4364:
4358:
4352:
4315:
4306:
4300:
4263:
4254:
4248:
4214:
4208:
4202:
4169:
4163:
4157:
4120:
4114:
4108:
4093:
4084:
4078:
4041:
4032:
4026:
3986:
3980:
3959:
3947:
3941:
3919:
3911:
3905:
3896:
3875:
3863:
3854:
3842:
3836:
3827:
2591:
2560:
2538:
2529:
2520:
2511:
2059:
2053:
2047:
2041:
2035:
2025:
2019:
1915:
discovered in 1917 that many syllables that have a modern
1885:
1870:
1855:
1840:
1825:
1810:
1795:
1780:
1765:
1750:
1736:
1721:
1706:
1691:
1679:
1667:
1652:
1637:
1622:
1607:
1592:
1577:
1562:
1550:
1533:
1518:
1503:
1488:
1473:
1459:
1447:
1435:
1420:
1405:
1390:
1378:
1366:
1354:
1342:
1330:
1315:
1300:
1288:
1272:
1260:
1248:
1236:
1224:
1212:
1200:
1188:
1176:
1164:
1152:
1140:
1128:
1111:
1096:
1081:
1066:
1051:
1037:
1025:
1008:
993:
978:
966:
954:
942:
930:
918:
903:
888:
876:
862:
850:
838:
826:
814:
802:
790:
778:
766:
754:
742:
730:
718:
706:
623:
613:
207:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
10673:
10637:
10625:
10601:
10550:
10538:
10526:
10511:
10499:
10475:
10463:
10436:
10412:
10400:
10376:
10352:
10316:
10304:
10208:
10089:
10074:
9996:
9861:
9846:
9831:
9732:
9696:
9684:
9555:
9103:
9101:
9099:
9038:
9036:
9034:
9032:
9030:
9028:
9026:
8946:
8934:
8765:
8235:, omitting marking of tones, which are not relevant here.
6111:
The forms for 50 and 70 are known only from Heian texts.
5806:
Phonographically attested Old Japanese cardinal numerals
1903:
As in later forms of Japanese, the system has gaps where
10738:
10736:
9435:
9405:
9357:
9321:
9297:
9198:
9130:
9048:
9011:
8994:
8898:
8864:
8862:
8794:
8753:
8702:
8690:
8678:
8639:
8540:
8492:
8456:
2901:
Miyake reconstructed the following consonant inventory:
2076:
in these cases should be read as Old Japanese syllables
10823:
10775:
10685:
10649:
10613:
10589:
10280:
10244:
9780:
9395:
9393:
9391:
9389:
9345:
9285:
9161:
9159:
9157:
9113:
9074:
9072:
9070:
9068:
8982:
8970:
8874:
8847:
8784:
8782:
8780:
8588:
8552:
8504:
8480:
8444:
8408:
8345:
8309:
2885:. Additional evidence has been drawn from phonological
484:(for example, the verb being placed after the object).
311:
Old Japanese is usually defined as the language of the
10697:
9519:
9425:
9423:
9309:
9237:
9225:
9213:
9186:
9176:
9174:
9142:
9096:
9023:
8729:
8717:
8360:
8077:
8064:
7705:
Other auxiliaries were attached to the irrealis stem:
7675:
6703:
6583:
6432:
6364:
6302:
5345:
4814:
4808:
4802:
4764:, but only Yonaguni (at the far end of the chain) has
3729:
of the form (C)V, subject to additional restrictions:
3686:
3226:
2868:
2550:
685:
658:
493:
434:
382:
368:
11007:
10733:
10256:
10202:
9909:
9768:
9756:
9744:
9720:
9708:
9570:
8859:
8468:
6570:
Three of the classes are grouped as consonant bases:
4782:
4776:
3255:
Examples of reconstructions of type A/B distinctions
519:
For example, the first line of the first poem in the
12052:
11165:
Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese Language
10911:
Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese Language
9483:
9386:
9333:
9261:
9154:
9065:
8958:
8910:
8777:
8666:
8654:
8627:
8432:
8420:
8384:
8140:
The adnominal form of consonant-base verbs ended in
11516:
University of Hawai'i Working Papers in Linguistics
11486:Kupchik, John E. (2007). "A comprehensive study of
11311:
10841:
10727:
9420:
9171:
8823:
8811:
8396:
8372:
8333:
7498:counterparts of consonant-base verbs. In contrast,
3640:. If that was true, a distinction was made between
10915:International Research Center for Japanese Studies
8321:
7105:-monograde) category, consisting of a single verb
7033:This class contains about 10 verbs of the form (C)
3167:. In Modern Standard Japanese, it is romanized as
1893:
1878:
1863:
1848:
1833:
1818:
1803:
1788:
1773:
1758:
1741:
1729:
1714:
1699:
1684:
1672:
1660:
1645:
1630:
1615:
1600:
1585:
1570:
1555:
1541:
1526:
1511:
1496:
1481:
1464:
1452:
1440:
1428:
1413:
1398:
1383:
1371:
1359:
1347:
1335:
1323:
1308:
1293:
1277:
1265:
1253:
1241:
1229:
1217:
1205:
1193:
1181:
1169:
1157:
1145:
1133:
1119:
1104:
1089:
1074:
1059:
1042:
1030:
1016:
1001:
986:
971:
959:
947:
935:
923:
911:
896:
881:
867:
855:
843:
831:
819:
807:
795:
783:
771:
759:
747:
735:
723:
711:
559:
552:
545:
538:
531:
488:Chinese texts to allow them to be read as Korean (
11514:syllables in the Eastern Old Japanese dialects".
10860:A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose
8154:The imperative form of vowel-base verbs attached
8101:There is no type A/B distinction on front vowels
3139:*p. There is general agreement that word-initial
13399:
11601:Gakken new Chinese-Japanese character dictionary
11388:Frellesvig, Bjarke; Whitman, John, eds. (2008).
11312:Vovin, Alexander; Ishisaki-Vovin, Sambi (2022).
6973:There were five vowel-base conjugation classes:
6702:'be sitting', which became the existential verb
3771:was generally not found in the same morpheme as
11603:] (in Japanese). Tokyo: Gakushū Kenkyūsha.
10993:. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 463–472.
1958:
1939:
228:
11314:The Eastern Old Japanese Corpus and Dictionary
11036:A grammar of the Eastern Old Japanese dialects
10960:
8747:
6989:The largest regular vowel-base class ended in
6438:
4444:), in which case the other vowel was deleted:
2628:Common notations for the type A/B distinction
1952:
1933:
222:
16:Oldest attested stage of the Japanese language
12113:
11829:
11694:
11409:"Bjarke Frellesvig & John Whitman (2008)
11148:. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 39–68.
6243:and two markers restricted to animate nouns,
2600:
2569:
2088:Frequencies of Old Japanese syllables in the
698:Syllables in early Old Japanese, with common
492:). In Japan, the practice was developed into
10967:Oxford-NINJAL Corpus of Old Japanese (ONCOJ)
8182:A significant number of words borrowed from
8130:in the east, where central Old Japanese has
8069:'eastern songs', making up volume 14 of the
6419:, were expressed by using optional suffixed
3725:Old Japanese words consisted of one or more
3518:Unger (1977), Frellesvig and Whitman (2008)
1979:are not distinguished in the slightly later
11146:Handbook of Japanese Historical Linguistics
10991:Handbook of Japanese Historical Linguistics
5766:In Early Middle Japanese, the non-proximal
12120:
12106:
11836:
11822:
11701:
11687:
11672:
11411:Proto-Japanese : Issues and prospects
10941:
10817:
10805:
10793:
10769:
10757:
10715:
10667:
10643:
10631:
10607:
10568:
10520:
10493:
10457:
10430:
10418:
10394:
10370:
10346:
10334:
10310:
10298:
10274:
10238:
10226:
10178:
10166:
10151:
10139:
10124:
10112:
10100:
10083:
10068:
10053:
10041:
10029:
10017:
10005:
9990:
9978:
9954:
9942:
9927:
9903:
9891:
9879:
9867:
9855:
9825:
9813:
9801:
9678:
9666:
9654:
9642:
9630:
9618:
9603:
9588:
9564:
9513:
9501:
9477:
9465:
9453:
9380:
9279:
9207:
9136:
9059:
9017:
9005:
8805:
8759:
8711:
8696:
8684:
8648:
8621:
8609:
8582:
8546:
8462:
8354:
8244:These are the characters most used in the
7949:'be' to the infinitive, with the sequence
468:, the script was brought by scholars from
34:
11527:
11476:
11205:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11200:
11172:
11104:
11043:
10946:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10922:
9966:
9840:
9549:
9537:
9441:
9414:
9303:
8904:
8498:
8315:
8233:Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese
4819:'mountain' corresponding to Old Japanese
4732:Some linguists suggest that Old Japanese
302:11th-century annotated manuscript of the
11592:Tōdō, Akiyasu; Kanō, Yoshimitsu (2005).
10895:
9124:
8082:'borderguard songs' in volume 20 of the
8046:
7965:Innovative conjugation of stative verbs
6996:and included approximately 20% of verbs.
6552:almost all extended forms consistently.
4787:'stomach' corresponding to Old Japanese
3753:, with the exception of a few loanwords.
3685:systems, they were usually not shown in
297:
13408:Languages attested from the 8th century
11330:
11297:(2nd ed.). Leiden, Boston: Brill.
11162:
11135:
11074:
11058:Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction
11033:
10876:
10857:
10781:
10742:
10655:
10619:
10595:
10583:
10286:
10250:
10214:
9786:
9327:
9243:
9231:
9219:
9192:
9148:
9107:
9090:
9042:
8378:
7085:This class consists of the single verb
7060:This class consists of the single verb
6653:-base verbs form a class of their own:
5256:There are also alternations suggesting
3151:, as suggested by its transcription as
201:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
13400:
11654:"Oxford-NINJAL Corpus of Old Japanese"
11571:The Formation of the Japanese Language
11417:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale
11181:
11052:
10980:
10703:
9399:
9351:
9291:
9267:
9255:
9078:
8988:
8976:
8964:
8952:
8940:
8928:
8916:
8892:
8880:
8868:
8853:
8841:
8829:
8788:
8771:
8672:
8660:
8633:
8597:
8570:
8558:
8534:
8522:
8510:
8486:
8474:
8450:
8438:
8426:
8414:
8402:
8390:
8366:
8339:
8327:
6555:
5350:and in some modern Japanese dialects.
4855:, many occurrences of the rare vowels
3709:. (A similar division was used in the
2068:argues that the non-initial syllables
12127:
12101:
11843:
11817:
11708:
11682:
11292:
11273:
11251:
11219:
11060:. London; New York: RoutledgeCurzon.
11038:(PhD thesis). University of Hawai'i.
10829:
10691:
10679:
10556:
10544:
10532:
10505:
10481:
10469:
10442:
10406:
10382:
10358:
10322:
10262:
9915:
9774:
9762:
9750:
9738:
9726:
9714:
9702:
9690:
9576:
9525:
9489:
9429:
9339:
9315:
9180:
9165:
8817:
8735:
8723:
7918:The second class had stems ending in
7589:
6216:The only attested ordinal numeral is
6166:
3098:had voiced prenasalized counterparts
2881:pronunciations, there is a danger of
293:
11544:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
11390:Proto-Japanese: Issues and Prospects
11335:. John Benjamins. pp. 160–173.
11333:Proto-Japanese: Issues and Prospects
11077:Jidaibetsu Kokugo Daijiten: Jōdaihen
8147:, but central Old Japanese ended in
6713:Conjugation of consonant-base verbs
6403:purposes. Other categories, such as
6191:thirty-CL exceed-INF two-CL GEN mark
5412:used with demonstratives and nouns.
4852:
2546:were also at the end of a morpheme.
1927:occurred in two forms, termed types
429:Of the 10,000 paper records kept at
418:. Those inscriptions are written in
235:is the oldest attested stage of the
10203:Kondō, Tsukimoto & Sugiura 2005
8076:93 (101 according to some authors)
7785:and were divided into two classes:
7633:, a fusion of the simple past with
4575:
4357:'ancient type of native weaving' +
13:
11879:
11542:The Japanese Language Through Time
11381:
11359:A history of the Japanese language
11017:A history of the Japanese language
10944:A History of the Japanese Language
6517:(realis, exclamatory, subjunctive)
6426:
6369:survived in Early Middle Japanese.
6207:(used with tens and hundreds) and
6153:
6142:
6131:
3797:
3658:. Some take that as evidence that
523:was written with five characters:
14:
13454:
11645:
8292:, obtained by deleting the vowel
7095:Early Middle Japanese also had a
6213:(used with digits and hundreds).
5393:were distinguished by taking the
3155:in later Portuguese works and as
3120:may have been palatalized before
3082:
3072:
3034:
3026:
2973:
2963:
2955:
2947:
2058:, the adnominal form of the verb
638:
444:
239:, recorded in documents from the
10879:The Languages of Japan and Korea
7623:the modal past or retrospective
7121:Conjugation of vowel-base verbs
6562:Japanese godan and ichidan verbs
5367:transition from a SVO typology.
3654:for all consonants C except for
3378:Kindaichi (1938), Miller (1967)
2619:
315:(710–794), when the capital was
11669:Japanese Historical Linguistics
11438:The Journal of Japanese Studies
11075:Omodaka, Hisataka, ed. (1967).
10881:. Routledge. pp. 189–211.
10842:Vovin & Ishisaki-Vovin 2022
10728:Vovin & Ishisaki-Vovin 2022
8273:
8238:
8225:
4586:
3720:
2599:was written with the character
2568:was written with the character
1894:
1879:
1864:
1849:
1834:
1819:
1804:
1789:
1774:
1759:
1742:
1730:
1715:
1700:
1685:
1673:
1661:
1646:
1631:
1616:
1601:
1586:
1571:
1556:
1542:
1527:
1512:
1497:
1482:
1465:
1453:
1441:
1429:
1414:
1399:
1384:
1372:
1360:
1348:
1336:
1324:
1309:
1294:
1278:
1266:
1254:
1242:
1230:
1218:
1206:
1194:
1182:
1170:
1158:
1146:
1134:
1120:
1105:
1090:
1075:
1060:
1043:
1031:
1017:
1002:
987:
972:
960:
948:
936:
924:
912:
897:
882:
868:
856:
844:
832:
820:
808:
796:
784:
772:
760:
748:
736:
724:
712:
560:
553:
546:
539:
532:
258:Old Japanese was written using
53:, recording Old Japanese using
11293:——— (2020).
11274:——— (2014).
11259:. University of Hawaii Press.
10981:Inukai, Takashi (2024). "What
10850:
8209:
6363:'after(wards)'. Only the form
5461:The second-person pronoun was
4760:corresponding to Old Japanese
4262:'term of veneration (male)' →
3691:. However, in one part of the
2826:Unger, Frellesvig and Whitman
375:('liturgies') recorded in the
354:(720) and the 21 poems of the
1:
13438:Subject–object–verb languages
11478:10.11435/gengo1939.2000.118_5
11201:Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990).
11184:A History of Writing in Japan
9969:, pp. 195, 207, 223–224.
8303:
8216:
8126:Pre-Old Japanese *ia yielded
7789:Conjugation of stative verbs
7776:
7759:the conjectural or tentative
7662:The perfective suffixes were
7011:This class of bases ended in
6423:, which were also inflected.
6265:The main case particles were
5315:Some instances of word-final
3222:of Modern Standard Japanese.
2896:
2873:. One difficulty is that the
2040:'to regret' (with conclusive
670:
403:Records of the Three Kingdoms
381:(compiled in 927) and the 62
361:
342:
47:
13264:Kanji pronunciation sources
13038:Katakana Phonetic Extensions
11959:Kunigami (Northern Okinawan)
11573:] (in Japanese). Tokyo:
11361:] (in Japanese). Tokyo:
11182:Seeley, Christopher (1991).
11086:] (in Japanese). Tokyo:
8281:
8165:
8156:
8029:
8023:
8017:
7999:
7992:
7985:
7957:
7951:
7945:
7936:
7926:
7920:
7906:
7896:
7889:
7882:
7875:
7868:
7856:
7846:
7839:
7832:
7825:
7818:
7769:
7761:
7753:
7745:
7737:
7731:
7723:
7717:
7711:
7694:
7688:
7682:
7670:
7664:
7654:
7644:
7635:
7625:
7616:
7610:
7604:
7581:
7571:
7555:
7545:
7529:
7519:
7470:
7463:
7456:
7449:
7442:
7435:
7414:
7407:
7400:
7393:
7383:
7372:
7346:
7335:
7324:
7313:
7303:
7292:
7269:
7262:
7255:
7248:
7238:
7227:
7201:
7194:
7187:
7180:
7170:
7159:
7113:
7107:
7087:
7062:
7018:and included about 30 verbs.
6898:
6891:
6884:
6877:
6870:
6863:
6845:
6838:
6831:
6824:
6817:
6810:
6789:
6779:
6772:
6765:
6755:
6748:
6698:
6692:
6667:
6661:
6655:
6528:
6522:
6376:
6359:
6353:
6347:
6338:
6328:
6318:
6293:
6284:
6273:
6258:
6256:(limited to five words) and
6245:
6239:
6218:
6209:
6203:
6086:
6072:
6061:
6053:
6033:
6025:
6007:
5993:
5981:
5973:
5950:
5939:
5916:
5905:
5889:
5881:
5863:
5855:
5840:
5828:
5813:
5798:In later texts, such as the
5786:
5780:
5774:
5768:
5757:
5739:
5732:
5725:
5713:
5706:
5694:
5683:
5672:
5660:
5649:
5638:
5626:
5612:
5598:
5586:
5576:
5565:
5543:Old Japanese demonstratives
5535:
5525:
5515:
5499:
5493:
5478:
5472:
5463:
5454:
5444:
5434:
5428:
5422:
5405:
5403:, in contrast to the marker
5399:
5382:
5293:
5284:
5274:
5265:
5249:
5176:
5167:
5161:
5152:
5146:
5137:
5131:
5122:
5116:
5107:
5101:
5092:
5086:
5077:
5054:
5045:
5035:
5026:
5003:
4994:
4988:
4979:
4973:
4964:
4958:
4949:
4943:
4934:
4914:
4908:
4899:
4833:
4827:
4821:
4815:
4809:
4803:
4795:
4789:
4783:
4777:
4721:
4715:
4709:
4690:
4684:
4678:
4663:
4653:
4647:
4625:
4612:
4603:
4564:
4555:
4544:
4538:
4523:
4514:
4508:
4491:
4485:
4476:
4464:
4458:
4449:
4432:
4426:
4420:
4404:
4398:
4385:
4365:
4359:
4353:
4316:
4307:
4301:
4264:
4255:
4249:
4215:
4209:
4203:
4170:
4164:
4158:
4121:
4115:
4109:
4094:
4085:
4079:
4042:
4033:
4027:
3987:
3981:
3960:
3948:
3942:
3920:
3912:
3906:
3897:
3876:
3864:
3855:
3843:
3837:
3828:
3145:voiceless bilabial fricative
2862:
2611:
2592:
2584:
2561:
2539:
2530:
2521:
2512:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2026:
2020:
1886:
1871:
1856:
1841:
1826:
1811:
1796:
1781:
1766:
1751:
1737:
1722:
1707:
1692:
1680:
1668:
1653:
1638:
1623:
1608:
1593:
1578:
1563:
1551:
1534:
1519:
1504:
1489:
1474:
1460:
1448:
1436:
1421:
1406:
1391:
1379:
1367:
1355:
1343:
1331:
1316:
1301:
1289:
1273:
1261:
1249:
1237:
1225:
1213:
1201:
1189:
1177:
1165:
1153:
1141:
1129:
1112:
1097:
1082:
1067:
1052:
1038:
1026:
1009:
994:
979:
967:
955:
943:
931:
919:
904:
889:
877:
863:
851:
839:
827:
815:
803:
791:
779:
767:
755:
743:
731:
719:
707:
679:
624:
614:
602:
595:
588:
581:
574:
7:
13373:Speculative fiction writers
12932:Transcription into Japanese
11594:Gakken Shin Kan-Wa Daijiten
11105:Osterkamp, Sven (2017). "A
10942:Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010).
8262:(which do not occur in the
8197:Classical Japanese language
8190:
8078:
8065:
8036:
7676:
6708:in later forms of Japanese.
6704:
6665:'depart' and the auxiliary
6584:
6433:
6365:
6303:
6297:(restricted to people). In
6229:
5793:
5375:
5370:
5346:
4846:
4742:Southern Ryukyuan varieties
4416:'eternal rock; everlasting'
3687:
3227:
3179:. Many scholars, following
2869:
2551:
1959:
1940:
686:
659:
525:
494:
435:
408:Suda Hachiman Shrine Mirror
383:
369:
229:
10:
13459:
12291:Nagano-Yamanashi-Shizuoka
10903:Nihongo keitōron no genzai
8748:Frellesvig & Horn 2023
8040:
6559:
6478:This form was used as the
5485:from which it was derived.
5353:
4676:< *-mVs-, *-nVs-: e.g.
4645:< *-mVt-, *-nVt-: e.g.
4601:< *-mVp-, *-nVp-: e.g.
1991:were distinguished in the
448:
13423:Archaic Japanese language
13348:
13288:
13240:
13082:
12940:
12882:
12824:
12759:
12750:
12659:
12634:
12625:
12577:
12550:
12473:
12347:
12175:
12166:
12135:
12037:
12006:
11985:
11976:
11951:
11908:
11899:
11890:
11877:
11851:
11778:
11752:
11716:
11459:Hayata, Teruhiro (2000).
11363:University of Tokyo Press
11316:. Leiden, Boston: Brill.
11140:. In Frellesvig, Bjarke;
11119:10.1163/9789004351134_006
11034:Kupchik, John E. (2011).
10900:; Osada, Toshiki (eds.).
10858:Bentley, John R. (2001).
7146:
7143:
7140:
7137:
7134:
7131:
7128:
7125:
6910:The distinctions between
6855:
6802:
6743:
6738:
6735:
6732:
6729:
6726:
6723:
6720:
6717:
6490:(conclusive, predicative)
6439:
5701:
5470:The third-person pronoun
4906:'rice wine' has the form
3737:or the voiced obstruents
3733:Words did not begin with
3672:
3190:
3094:The voiceless obstruents
3078:
3065:
3053:
3046:
3032:
3019:
2933:
2916:
2909:
2601:
2570:
2466:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2427:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2350:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2226:
1953:
1934:
1735:
1678:
1666:
1549:
1458:
1446:
1434:
1377:
1365:
1353:
1341:
1329:
1287:
1036:
1024:
1022:
965:
953:
941:
929:
917:
875:
650:
636:
633:
622:
612:
243:(8th century). It became
223:
187:
171:
155:
139:
134:
116:
102:
77:
69:
61:
33:
28:
23:
13158:Sino-Japanese vocabulary
12617:Yokohama Pidgin Japanese
11596:
11566:
11429:10.1163/1960602810x00089
11407:Pellard, Thomas (2010).
11354:
11136:Pellard, Thomas (2024).
11079:
11012:
10905:
9957:, pp. 123–124, 133.
9906:, pp. 112, 120–121.
9669:, pp. 140, 246–247.
8844:, pp. 54–55, 63–64.
8525:, pp. 18–20, 28–40.
8202:
7553:'get desolate, fade' vs
6543:This form expressed the
6506:(attributive, adnominal)
6386:
5497:and a reflexive pronoun
4499:'give birth, lay an egg'
3956:'(it) has surely fallen'
3904:and the verbal suffixes
3594:The distinction between
3213:close back rounded vowel
2905:Old Japanese consonants
2756:modified Mathias–Miller
2686:Kindaichi, Miller, Tōdō
13413:Agglutinative languages
13104:Godan and ichidan verbs
12922:Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai
9468:, pp. 45, 131–132.
8931:, pp. 71, 164–166.
7940:, of uncertain origin.
6475:(adverbial, infinitive)
6184:so-ti amar-i puta-tu no
6172:
6159:
6148:
6137:
6122:
5452:and gradually replaced
5312:in Ryukyuan languages.
4768:where Old Japanese has
4707:In some cases, such as
4581:Internal reconstruction
3218:, unlike the unrounded
3199:suggest that it was an
3163:in the Korean textbook
3137:voiceless bilabial stop
455:Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai
276:Internal reconstruction
11884:
11628:10.1075/cilt.320.06yan
11203:The Languages of Japan
10718:, pp. 23–24, 151.
10433:, pp. 69–72, 121.
10397:, pp. 66–68, 123.
9516:, pp. 47–48, 153.
8231:Readings are given in
8222:(end of the Nara era).
8052:
7096:
7073:
7048:
7021:
6999:
6977:
6938:were eliminated after
6674:
6637:
6574:
6535:
6512:
6501:
6485:
6470:
6455:
6198:This example uses the
5442:, which suggests that
4853:§ Morphophonemics
2588:in Middle Chinese, and
308:
189:This article contains
13209:Court lady language (
12679:Southern Amami Ōshima
12612:Yilan Creole Japanese
12087:Early Modern Japanese
12070:Early Middle Japanese
11883:
11276:"Man'yōshū" (Book 20)
10191:Yamaguchi et al. 1997
9258:, pp. 73, 80–81.
8573:, pp. 20, 24–27.
8537:, pp. 1, 18, 22.
8279:An alternative form,
8050:
7642:the past conjectural
7527:'redden, lighten' vs
6451:and other languages:
5490:interrogative pronoun
5438:forms were also used
4912:in compounds such as
4436:'descend from heaven'
3665:may have represented
3149:Early Modern Japanese
3135:reflected an earlier
651:'many clouds rising'
301:
245:Early Middle Japanese
13028:Small Kana Extension
12639:Eastern Old Japanese
12278:Northern Izu Islands
12082:Late Middle Japanese
12063:Eastern Old Japanese
10917:. pp. 493–510.
10044:, pp. 113, 117.
8895:, pp. 183, 186.
8043:Eastern Old Japanese
7700:Late Middle Japanese
7101:(lower monograde or
7041:. Some monosyllabic
7026:(upper monograde or
6496:Hachijōjima dialects
6299:Late Middle Japanese
5331:Eastern Old Japanese
3707:Middle Chinese tones
12579:Pidgins and creoles
10772:, pp. 152–153.
10682:, pp. 386–389.
10586:, pp. 197–198.
10559:, pp. 373–383.
10547:, pp. 606–610.
10535:, pp. 713–730.
10508:, pp. 758–771.
10484:, pp. 771–776.
10472:, pp. 745–758.
10445:, pp. 701–713.
10409:, pp. 844–866.
10385:, pp. 833–834.
10373:, pp. 48, 122.
10361:, pp. 879–881.
10349:, pp. 48, 121.
10325:, pp. 827–830.
10241:, pp. 118–119.
10181:, pp. 227–228.
10169:, pp. 107–108.
10142:, pp. 54, 114.
10127:, pp. 101–103.
10056:, pp. 116–118.
10020:, pp. 112–113.
9945:, pp. 109–111.
9894:, pp. 111–112.
9882:, pp. 114–118.
9816:, pp. 126–127.
9741:, pp. 352–353.
9705:, pp. 344–345.
9693:, pp. 328–352.
9645:, pp. 139–140.
9633:, pp. 138–139.
9591:, pp. 136–137.
9552:, pp. 122–123.
9093:, pp. 521–522.
8955:, pp. 207–211.
8943:, pp. 198–203.
8774:, pp. 466–468.
8296:, is also attested.
7966:
7790:
7579:'get big, grow' vs
7490:-bigrade verbs are
7122:
6714:
6556:Conjugation classes
6291:(unrestricted) and
5807:
5544:
5488:There were also an
4703:< *-mVk-, *-nVk-
3483:Lange (1968, 1973)
3256:
3181:Shinkichi Hashimoto
2906:
2629:
2609:in Old Chinese and
2092:
1913:Shinkichi Hashimoto
1911:might be expected.
702:
287:subject–object–verb
13433:Old Japanese texts
13380:Classical Japanese
13227:Gender differences
13063:Extended shinjitai
12075:Classical Japanese
12050:Peninsular Japonic
11885:
11392:. John Benjamins.
11352:Nihongo no Rekishi
11221:Unger, J. Marshall
11054:Miyake, Marc Hideo
11010:Nihongo no Rekishi
9456:, pp. 44, 48.
8248:songs, except for
8123:are distinguished.
8053:
7964:
7788:
7590:Verbal auxiliaries
7120:
7004:(upper bigrade or
6982:(lower bigrade or
6712:
6526:(provisional) and
6224:Classical Japanese
6194:'thirty-two marks'
5805:
5542:
5450:indefinite pronoun
5448:was originally an
5263:< *əi, such as
4472:'honourable horse'
3254:
3171:and has different
2904:
2891:Ryukyuan languages
2883:circular reasoning
2627:
2615:in Middle Chinese.
2087:
697:
416:Eta Funayama Sword
309:
294:Sources and dating
270:or (occasionally)
264:Chinese characters
247:in the succeeding
55:Chinese characters
13443:Ancient languages
13428:Japonic languages
13395:
13394:
13099:Verb conjugations
13078:
13077:
12746:
12745:
12627:Japonic languages
12573:
12572:
12565:Okinawan Japanese
12129:Japanese language
12095:
12094:
12033:
12032:
12029:
12028:
11972:
11971:
11864:Japanese dialects
11845:Japonic languages
11811:
11810:
11710:Altaic hypothesis
11637:978-90-272-7480-9
11610:978-4-05-300082-8
11584:978-4-00-001758-9
11564:Nihongo no Keisei
11551:978-0-300-03729-6
11538:Martin, Samuel E.
11399:978-90-272-4809-1
11372:978-4-13-082004-2
11342:978-90-272-4809-1
11323:978-90-04-47119-1
11304:978-90-04-42211-7
11285:978-90-04-26198-3
11278:. Leiden: Brill.
11266:978-0-8248-3278-0
11212:978-0-521-36918-3
11193:978-90-04-09081-1
11186:. Leiden: BRILL.
11174:10.15055/00005266
11155:978-1-61451-285-1
11128:978-90-04-35085-4
11097:978-4-385-13237-2
11067:978-0-415-30575-4
11026:978-4-595-30547-4
11000:978-1-61451-285-1
10953:978-0-521-65320-6
10934:978-4-901558-17-4
10924:10.15055/00005265
10888:978-1-136-44658-0
10869:978-90-04-12308-3
10844:, pp. 35–38.
10832:, pp. 13–15.
10694:, pp. 11–14.
10571:, pp. 79–80.
10496:, pp. 62–63.
10460:, pp. 63–64.
10301:, pp. 58–62.
10217:, pp. 37–38.
9981:, pp. 54–55.
9930:, pp. 56–57.
9540:, pp. 46–48.
9528:, pp. 32–36.
9504:, pp. 47–48.
9480:, pp. 45–47.
9354:, pp. 68–71.
9330:, pp. 45–49.
9318:, pp. 36–44.
9294:, pp. 71–73.
9282:, pp. 42–43.
8991:, pp. 37–39.
8979:, pp. 55–57.
8883:, pp. 75–76.
8856:, pp. 64–65.
8738:, pp. 49–54.
8726:, pp. 48–50.
8624:, pp. 28–29.
8612:, pp. 26–27.
8600:, pp. 49–51.
8585:, pp. 17–20.
8561:, pp. 49–53.
8513:, pp. 41–49.
8489:, pp. 25–31.
8453:, pp. 55–56.
8417:, pp. 16–25.
8369:, pp. 19–20.
8177:Japanese dialects
8163:, instead of the
8009:
8008:
7916:
7915:
7484:
7483:
6908:
6907:
6690:-base verbs were
6109:
6108:
5778:forms and distal
5764:
5763:
5391:Personal pronouns
3679:Japanese dialects
3608:was seen only in
3592:
3591:
3233:Kyōsuke Kindaichi
3092:
3091:
2860:
2859:
2508:
2507:
1901:
1900:
655:
654:
474:Classical Chinese
420:Classical Chinese
400:" portion of the
237:Japanese language
215:
214:
197:rendering support
193:phonetic symbols.
13450:
13338:Polivanov system
13199:Honorific speech
13094:Japanese grammar
12757:
12756:
12632:
12631:
12173:
12172:
12122:
12115:
12108:
12099:
12098:
12054:
11983:
11982:
11906:
11905:
11897:
11896:
11838:
11831:
11824:
11815:
11814:
11703:
11696:
11689:
11680:
11679:
11664:
11662:
11660:
11641:
11614:
11588:
11555:
11533:
11531:
11482:
11480:
11453:
11432:
11403:
11376:
11346:
11327:
11308:
11289:
11270:
11253:Vovin, Alexander
11248:
11216:
11197:
11178:
11176:
11159:
11132:
11101:
11071:
11049:
11047:
11030:
11004:
10977:
10975:
10973:
10957:
10938:
10926:
10898:Vovin, Alexander
10892:
10873:
10845:
10839:
10833:
10827:
10821:
10815:
10809:
10803:
10797:
10791:
10785:
10779:
10773:
10767:
10761:
10755:
10746:
10740:
10731:
10730:, pp. 1–16.
10725:
10719:
10713:
10707:
10701:
10695:
10689:
10683:
10677:
10671:
10665:
10659:
10653:
10647:
10641:
10635:
10629:
10623:
10617:
10611:
10605:
10599:
10593:
10587:
10581:
10572:
10566:
10560:
10554:
10548:
10542:
10536:
10530:
10524:
10518:
10509:
10503:
10497:
10491:
10485:
10479:
10473:
10467:
10461:
10455:
10446:
10440:
10434:
10428:
10422:
10416:
10410:
10404:
10398:
10392:
10386:
10380:
10374:
10368:
10362:
10356:
10350:
10344:
10338:
10332:
10326:
10320:
10314:
10308:
10302:
10296:
10290:
10284:
10278:
10272:
10266:
10260:
10254:
10248:
10242:
10236:
10230:
10224:
10218:
10212:
10206:
10200:
10194:
10188:
10182:
10176:
10170:
10164:
10155:
10149:
10143:
10137:
10128:
10122:
10116:
10110:
10104:
10098:
10087:
10081:
10072:
10066:
10057:
10051:
10045:
10039:
10033:
10027:
10021:
10015:
10009:
10003:
9994:
9988:
9982:
9976:
9970:
9964:
9958:
9952:
9946:
9940:
9931:
9925:
9919:
9913:
9907:
9901:
9895:
9889:
9883:
9877:
9871:
9865:
9859:
9853:
9844:
9838:
9829:
9823:
9817:
9811:
9805:
9799:
9790:
9784:
9778:
9772:
9766:
9760:
9754:
9748:
9742:
9736:
9730:
9724:
9718:
9712:
9706:
9700:
9694:
9688:
9682:
9676:
9670:
9664:
9658:
9652:
9646:
9640:
9634:
9628:
9622:
9616:
9607:
9601:
9592:
9586:
9580:
9574:
9568:
9562:
9553:
9547:
9541:
9535:
9529:
9523:
9517:
9511:
9505:
9499:
9493:
9487:
9481:
9475:
9469:
9463:
9457:
9451:
9445:
9439:
9433:
9427:
9418:
9412:
9403:
9397:
9384:
9378:
9355:
9349:
9343:
9337:
9331:
9325:
9319:
9313:
9307:
9301:
9295:
9289:
9283:
9277:
9271:
9265:
9259:
9253:
9247:
9241:
9235:
9229:
9223:
9217:
9211:
9205:
9196:
9190:
9184:
9178:
9169:
9163:
9152:
9146:
9140:
9134:
9128:
9122:
9111:
9105:
9094:
9088:
9082:
9076:
9063:
9057:
9046:
9040:
9021:
9015:
9009:
9003:
8992:
8986:
8980:
8974:
8968:
8962:
8956:
8950:
8944:
8938:
8932:
8926:
8920:
8914:
8908:
8902:
8896:
8890:
8884:
8878:
8872:
8866:
8857:
8851:
8845:
8839:
8833:
8827:
8821:
8815:
8809:
8803:
8792:
8786:
8775:
8769:
8763:
8757:
8751:
8745:
8739:
8733:
8727:
8721:
8715:
8709:
8700:
8694:
8688:
8682:
8676:
8670:
8664:
8658:
8652:
8646:
8637:
8631:
8625:
8619:
8613:
8607:
8601:
8595:
8586:
8580:
8574:
8568:
8562:
8556:
8550:
8544:
8538:
8532:
8526:
8520:
8514:
8508:
8502:
8496:
8490:
8484:
8478:
8472:
8466:
8460:
8454:
8448:
8442:
8436:
8430:
8424:
8418:
8412:
8406:
8400:
8394:
8388:
8382:
8376:
8370:
8364:
8358:
8352:
8343:
8337:
8331:
8325:
8319:
8313:
8297:
8291:
8277:
8271:
8242:
8236:
8229:
8223:
8221:
8218:
8213:
8171:
8162:
8081:
8068:
8032:
8026:
8020:
8013:adjectival nouns
8002:
7995:
7988:
7967:
7963:
7960:
7954:
7948:
7939:
7929:
7923:
7909:
7902:
7892:
7885:
7878:
7871:
7859:
7852:
7842:
7835:
7828:
7821:
7791:
7787:
7772:
7767:the subjunctive
7764:
7756:
7748:
7740:
7734:
7726:
7720:
7714:
7697:
7691:
7685:
7679:
7673:
7667:
7657:
7651:
7638:
7632:
7619:
7613:
7607:
7602:the simple past
7584:
7578:
7558:
7552:
7532:
7526:
7477:
7466:
7459:
7452:
7445:
7438:
7420:
7410:
7403:
7396:
7389:
7379:
7357:
7342:
7331:
7320:
7309:
7299:
7280:
7265:
7258:
7251:
7244:
7234:
7212:
7197:
7190:
7183:
7176:
7166:
7123:
7119:
7116:
7110:
7090:
7069:
6901:
6894:
6887:
6880:
6873:
6866:
6848:
6841:
6834:
6827:
6820:
6813:
6795:
6785:
6775:
6768:
6761:
6751:
6715:
6711:
6707:
6701:
6695:
6670:
6664:
6658:
6587:
6531:
6525:
6466:
6442:
6441:
6436:
6382:
6368:
6362:
6356:
6350:
6344:
6335:
6321:
6306:
6296:
6290:
6276:
6261:
6255:
6242:
6221:
6212:
6206:
6168:
6155:
6144:
6133:
6097:
6075:
6067:
6056:
6039:
6028:
6010:
5996:
5987:
5976:
5960:
5945:
5926:
5911:
5892:
5884:
5874:
5858:
5850:
5835:
5823:
5808:
5804:
5789:
5783:
5777:
5771:
5760:
5742:
5735:
5728:
5716:
5709:
5697:
5690:
5679:
5663:
5656:
5645:
5629:
5622:
5608:
5589:
5582:
5572:
5545:
5541:
5538:
5532:
5522:
5505:
5496:
5484:
5475:
5466:
5457:
5447:
5437:
5431:
5425:
5411:
5402:
5385:
5349:
5300:
5290:
5281:
5271:
5252:
5179:
5173:
5164:
5158:
5149:
5143:
5134:
5128:
5119:
5113:
5104:
5098:
5089:
5083:
5061:
5051:
5042:
5032:
5006:
5000:
4991:
4985:
4976:
4970:
4961:
4955:
4946:
4940:
4917:
4911:
4905:
4836:
4830:
4824:
4818:
4813:'hot water' and
4812:
4806:
4798:
4792:
4786:
4780:
4767:
4759:
4728:
4718:
4712:
4702:
4693:
4687:
4681:
4675:
4666:
4660:
4650:
4644:
4635:
4622:
4609:
4600:
4576:Pre-Old Japanese
4570:
4561:
4552:
4551:
4547:
4541:
4533:
4520:
4511:
4498:
4488:
4482:
4471:
4461:
4455:
4435:
4429:
4423:
4415:
4401:
4395:
4373:'native weaving'
4372:
4362:
4356:
4326:
4313:
4304:
4274:
4261:
4252:
4222:
4212:
4206:
4173:
4167:
4161:
4128:
4118:
4112:
4104:
4091:
4082:
4052:
4039:
4030:
3994:
3984:
3978:
3977:
3972:
3971:
3966:
3955:
3945:
3939:
3936:
3935:
3930:
3929:
3915:
3910:'conjecture' or
3909:
3903:
3889:
3888:
3883:
3873:
3872:
3867:
3861:
3850:
3840:
3834:
3792:Turkic languages
3690:
3677:Although modern
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3343:Kikusawa (1935)
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3257:
3253:
3246:
3242:
3230:
3221:
3217:
3206:
3203:unrounded vowel
3119:
3115:
3112:. The sibilants
3111:
3101:
3097:
3086:
3076:
3057:
3038:
3030:
3015:
3007:
3001:
2995:
2989:
2977:
2967:
2959:
2951:
2943:
2907:
2903:
2872:
2630:
2626:
2614:
2608:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2587:
2577:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2554:
2545:
2536:
2527:
2518:
2093:
2086:
2063:
2057:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2033:
2023:
1964:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1945:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1897:
1896:
1892:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1837:
1836:
1832:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1777:
1776:
1772:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1745:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1718:
1717:
1713:
1703:
1702:
1698:
1688:
1687:
1683:
1676:
1675:
1671:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1634:
1633:
1629:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1589:
1588:
1584:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1545:
1544:
1540:
1530:
1529:
1525:
1515:
1514:
1510:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1455:
1451:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1417:
1416:
1412:
1402:
1401:
1397:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1350:
1346:
1339:
1338:
1334:
1327:
1326:
1322:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1257:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1244:
1240:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1196:
1192:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1173:
1172:
1168:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1078:
1077:
1073:
1063:
1062:
1058:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1034:
1033:
1029:
1020:
1019:
1015:
1005:
1004:
1000:
990:
989:
985:
975:
974:
970:
963:
962:
958:
951:
950:
946:
939:
938:
934:
927:
926:
922:
915:
914:
910:
900:
899:
895:
885:
884:
880:
871:
870:
866:
859:
858:
854:
847:
846:
842:
835:
834:
830:
823:
822:
818:
811:
810:
806:
799:
798:
794:
787:
786:
782:
775:
774:
770:
763:
762:
758:
751:
750:
746:
739:
738:
734:
727:
726:
722:
715:
714:
710:
703:
696:
689:
675:
672:
662:
644:
643:
642:
627:
620:
605:
598:
591:
584:
577:
563:
562:
556:
555:
549:
548:
542:
541:
535:
534:
526:
499:
478:Japanese grammar
440:
386:
374:
366:
363:
357:Bussokuseki-kahi
347:
344:
285:language with a
234:
232:
226:
225:
183:
167:
151:
144:
122:
83:
52:
49:
43:Bussokuseki-kahi
38:
21:
20:
13458:
13457:
13453:
13452:
13451:
13449:
13448:
13447:
13398:
13397:
13396:
13391:
13344:
13289:Transliteration
13284:
13260:Sound symbolism
13236:
13218:Role language (
13177:from Portuguese
13109:Irregular verbs
13087:
13085:
13074:
13023:Kana Supplement
13018:Kana Extended-B
13013:Kana Extended-A
12936:
12912:Historical kana
12878:
12820:
12799:by stroke count
12790:Kanji radicals
12784:by stroke count
12742:
12655:
12621:
12597:Hawaiian Creole
12569:
12546:
12469:
12343:
12162:
12131:
12126:
12096:
12091:
12025:
12002:
11968:
11947:
11886:
11875:
11847:
11842:
11812:
11807:
11780:Proto-languages
11774:
11753:Early languages
11748:
11712:
11707:
11673:Frellesvig 2010
11658:
11656:
11651:
11648:
11638:
11617:
11611:
11598:
11591:
11585:
11568:
11558:
11552:
11536:
11485:
11458:
11435:
11406:
11400:
11387:
11384:
11382:Further reading
11379:
11373:
11356:
11343:
11324:
11305:
11286:
11267:
11213:
11194:
11156:
11142:Kinsui, Satoshi
11129:
11098:
11081:
11068:
11027:
11014:
11001:
10987:Kinsui, Satoshi
10971:
10969:
10954:
10935:
10907:
10889:
10870:
10853:
10848:
10840:
10836:
10828:
10824:
10818:Frellesvig 2010
10816:
10812:
10806:Frellesvig 2010
10804:
10800:
10794:Frellesvig 2010
10792:
10788:
10780:
10776:
10770:Frellesvig 2010
10768:
10764:
10758:Frellesvig 2010
10756:
10749:
10741:
10734:
10726:
10722:
10716:Frellesvig 2010
10714:
10710:
10702:
10698:
10690:
10686:
10678:
10674:
10668:Frellesvig 2010
10666:
10662:
10654:
10650:
10644:Frellesvig 2010
10642:
10638:
10632:Frellesvig 2010
10630:
10626:
10618:
10614:
10608:Frellesvig 2010
10606:
10602:
10594:
10590:
10582:
10575:
10569:Frellesvig 2010
10567:
10563:
10555:
10551:
10543:
10539:
10531:
10527:
10521:Frellesvig 2010
10519:
10512:
10504:
10500:
10494:Frellesvig 2010
10492:
10488:
10480:
10476:
10468:
10464:
10458:Frellesvig 2010
10456:
10449:
10441:
10437:
10431:Frellesvig 2010
10429:
10425:
10419:Frellesvig 2010
10417:
10413:
10405:
10401:
10395:Frellesvig 2010
10393:
10389:
10381:
10377:
10371:Frellesvig 2010
10369:
10365:
10357:
10353:
10347:Frellesvig 2010
10345:
10341:
10335:Frellesvig 2010
10333:
10329:
10321:
10317:
10311:Frellesvig 2010
10309:
10305:
10299:Frellesvig 2010
10297:
10293:
10285:
10281:
10275:Frellesvig 2010
10273:
10269:
10261:
10257:
10249:
10245:
10239:Frellesvig 2010
10237:
10233:
10227:Frellesvig 2010
10225:
10221:
10213:
10209:
10201:
10197:
10189:
10185:
10179:Frellesvig 2010
10177:
10173:
10167:Frellesvig 2010
10165:
10158:
10152:Frellesvig 2010
10150:
10146:
10140:Frellesvig 2010
10138:
10131:
10125:Frellesvig 2010
10123:
10119:
10113:Frellesvig 2010
10111:
10107:
10101:Frellesvig 2010
10099:
10090:
10084:Frellesvig 2010
10082:
10075:
10069:Frellesvig 2010
10067:
10060:
10054:Frellesvig 2010
10052:
10048:
10042:Frellesvig 2010
10040:
10036:
10030:Frellesvig 2010
10028:
10024:
10018:Frellesvig 2010
10016:
10012:
10006:Frellesvig 2010
10004:
9997:
9991:Frellesvig 2010
9989:
9985:
9979:Frellesvig 2010
9977:
9973:
9965:
9961:
9955:Frellesvig 2010
9953:
9949:
9943:Frellesvig 2010
9941:
9934:
9928:Frellesvig 2010
9926:
9922:
9914:
9910:
9904:Frellesvig 2010
9902:
9898:
9892:Frellesvig 2010
9890:
9886:
9880:Frellesvig 2010
9878:
9874:
9868:Frellesvig 2010
9866:
9862:
9856:Frellesvig 2010
9854:
9847:
9839:
9832:
9826:Frellesvig 2010
9824:
9820:
9814:Frellesvig 2010
9812:
9808:
9802:Frellesvig 2010
9800:
9793:
9785:
9781:
9773:
9769:
9761:
9757:
9749:
9745:
9737:
9733:
9725:
9721:
9713:
9709:
9701:
9697:
9689:
9685:
9679:Frellesvig 2010
9677:
9673:
9667:Frellesvig 2010
9665:
9661:
9655:Frellesvig 2010
9653:
9649:
9643:Frellesvig 2010
9641:
9637:
9631:Frellesvig 2010
9629:
9625:
9619:Frellesvig 2010
9617:
9610:
9604:Frellesvig 2010
9602:
9595:
9589:Frellesvig 2010
9587:
9583:
9575:
9571:
9565:Frellesvig 2010
9563:
9556:
9548:
9544:
9536:
9532:
9524:
9520:
9514:Frellesvig 2010
9512:
9508:
9502:Frellesvig 2010
9500:
9496:
9488:
9484:
9478:Frellesvig 2010
9476:
9472:
9466:Frellesvig 2010
9464:
9460:
9454:Frellesvig 2010
9452:
9448:
9440:
9436:
9428:
9421:
9413:
9406:
9398:
9387:
9381:Frellesvig 2010
9379:
9358:
9350:
9346:
9338:
9334:
9326:
9322:
9314:
9310:
9302:
9298:
9290:
9286:
9280:Frellesvig 2010
9278:
9274:
9266:
9262:
9254:
9250:
9242:
9238:
9230:
9226:
9218:
9214:
9208:Frellesvig 2010
9206:
9199:
9191:
9187:
9179:
9172:
9164:
9155:
9147:
9143:
9137:Frellesvig 2010
9135:
9131:
9123:
9114:
9106:
9097:
9089:
9085:
9077:
9066:
9060:Frellesvig 2010
9058:
9049:
9041:
9024:
9018:Frellesvig 2010
9016:
9012:
9006:Frellesvig 2010
9004:
8995:
8987:
8983:
8975:
8971:
8963:
8959:
8951:
8947:
8939:
8935:
8927:
8923:
8915:
8911:
8903:
8899:
8891:
8887:
8879:
8875:
8867:
8860:
8852:
8848:
8840:
8836:
8828:
8824:
8816:
8812:
8806:Frellesvig 2010
8804:
8795:
8787:
8778:
8770:
8766:
8760:Frellesvig 2010
8758:
8754:
8746:
8742:
8734:
8730:
8722:
8718:
8712:Frellesvig 2010
8710:
8703:
8697:Frellesvig 2010
8695:
8691:
8685:Frellesvig 2010
8683:
8679:
8671:
8667:
8659:
8655:
8649:Frellesvig 2010
8647:
8640:
8632:
8628:
8622:Frellesvig 2010
8620:
8616:
8610:Frellesvig 2010
8608:
8604:
8596:
8589:
8583:Frellesvig 2010
8581:
8577:
8569:
8565:
8557:
8553:
8547:Frellesvig 2010
8545:
8541:
8533:
8529:
8521:
8517:
8509:
8505:
8497:
8493:
8485:
8481:
8477:, pp. 8–9.
8473:
8469:
8463:Frellesvig 2010
8461:
8457:
8449:
8445:
8437:
8433:
8425:
8421:
8413:
8409:
8401:
8397:
8393:, pp. 5–8.
8389:
8385:
8377:
8373:
8365:
8361:
8355:Frellesvig 2010
8353:
8346:
8338:
8334:
8326:
8322:
8314:
8310:
8306:
8301:
8300:
8289:
8285:
8278:
8274:
8260:
8253:
8243:
8239:
8230:
8226:
8219:
8214:
8210:
8205:
8193:
8169:
8160:
8145:
8135:
8121:
8114:
8089:9 songs in the
8045:
8039:
7930:was dropped by
7900:
7850:
7779:
7680:, derived from
7648:
7629:
7592:
7575:
7567:
7549:
7541:
7523:
7515:
7474:
7418:
7387:
7376:
7354:
7350:
7339:
7328:
7317:
7307:
7296:
7277:
7273:
7242:
7231:
7209:
7205:
7174:
7163:
7066:
7038:
7016:
6994:
6936:
6929:
6922:
6915:
6793:
6783:
6759:
6600:
6593:
6564:
6558:
6545:imperative mood
6445:principal parts
6429:
6427:Inflected forms
6389:
6380:
6342:
6332:
6309:nominative case
6288:
6253:
6249:
6232:
6196:
6187:
6183:
6178:
6170:
6163:
6157:
6146:
6135:
6126:
6094:
6090:
6065:
6037:
5985:
5958:
5954:
5943:
5924:
5920:
5909:
5871:
5867:
5848:
5844:
5832:
5821:
5817:
5796:
5687:
5676:
5653:
5642:
5620:
5616:
5606:
5602:
5580:
5569:
5529:
5519:
5503:
5482:
5409:
5378:
5373:
5360:auxiliary verbs
5356:
5338:
5327:
5320:
5306:
5297:
5288:
5278:
5269:
5261:
5241:
5232:
5223:
5214:
5204:
5197:
5171:
5156:
5141:
5126:
5111:
5096:
5081:
5069:
5058:
5049:
5039:
5030:
5021:
5014:
4998:
4983:
4968:
4953:
4947:'god, spirit',
4938:
4926:
4903:
4895:
4888:
4881:
4874:
4867:
4860:
4849:
4725:
4667:'mountain path'
4657:
4633:
4629:
4620:
4616:
4607:
4589:
4578:
4568:
4559:
4549:
4548:
4531:
4527:
4518:
4495:
4483:'child, egg' +
4480:
4468:
4453:
4412:
4408:
4393:
4389:
4369:
4346:
4324:
4320:
4311:
4294:
4272:
4268:
4259:
4242:
4219:
4196:
4185:
4151:
4140:
4125:
4102:
4098:
4089:
4072:
4053:'living person'
4050:
4046:
4037:
4020:
4013:
4006:
3991:
3975:
3974:
3969:
3968:
3964:
3952:
3933:
3932:
3927:
3926:
3925:'fall, scatter.
3924:
3901:
3886:
3885:
3880:
3870:
3869:
3859:
3847:
3832:
3821:
3810:
3800:
3798:Morphophonemics
3780:
3769:
3723:
3675:
3663:
3652:
3645:
3638:
3631:
3624:
3617:
3606:
3599:
3448:Hattori (1958)
3413:Arisaka (1955)
3304:
3296:
3288:
3280:
3272:
3264:
3193:
2982:
2939:
2899:
2865:
2680:
2672:
2664:
2656:
2648:
2640:
2633:index notation
2622:
2596:
2565:
2543:
2534:
2525:
2516:
2510:The rare vowel
2476:
2424:
2399:
2347:
2274:
2223:
2066:Alexander Vovin
2034:'to lie down',
2030:
1998:The consonants
1977:
1970:
1950:
1931:
1890:
1875:
1860:
1845:
1830:
1815:
1800:
1785:
1770:
1755:
1726:
1711:
1696:
1657:
1642:
1627:
1612:
1597:
1582:
1567:
1538:
1523:
1508:
1493:
1478:
1425:
1410:
1395:
1320:
1305:
1116:
1101:
1086:
1071:
1056:
1013:
998:
983:
908:
893:
682:
673:
640:
639:
618:
457:
449:Main articles:
447:
412:Inariyama Sword
364:
345:
296:
220:
195:Without proper
179:
163:
160:
147:
140:
123:
118:
112:
105:
98:
84:
81:Language family
79:
57:
50:
17:
12:
11:
5:
13456:
13446:
13445:
13440:
13435:
13430:
13425:
13420:
13415:
13410:
13393:
13392:
13390:
13389:
13388:
13387:
13377:
13376:
13375:
13365:
13360:
13354:
13352:
13346:
13345:
13343:
13342:
13341:
13340:
13330:
13329:
13328:
13323:
13318:
13313:
13308:
13303:
13292:
13290:
13286:
13285:
13283:
13282:
13281:
13280:
13275:
13270:
13262:
13257:
13252:
13246:
13244:
13238:
13237:
13235:
13234:
13229:
13224:
13215:
13206:
13201:
13196:
13191:
13186:
13181:
13180:
13179:
13174:
13160:
13155:
13149:Native words (
13146:
13141:
13136:
13131:
13126:
13121:
13116:
13111:
13106:
13101:
13096:
13090:
13088:
13083:
13080:
13079:
13076:
13075:
13073:
13072:
13071:
13070:
13065:
13060:
13055:
13050:
13042:
13041:
13040:
13035:
13030:
13025:
13020:
13015:
13010:
13002:
13001:
13000:
12995:
12990:
12985:
12980:
12975:
12967:
12966:
12965:
12957:
12956:
12955:
12944:
12942:
12938:
12937:
12935:
12934:
12929:
12924:
12919:
12914:
12909:
12904:
12899:
12898:
12897:
12886:
12884:
12880:
12879:
12877:
12876:
12871:
12866:
12861:
12856:
12851:
12846:
12841:
12836:
12830:
12828:
12822:
12821:
12819:
12818:
12813:
12808:
12803:
12802:
12801:
12796:
12788:
12787:
12786:
12776:
12771:
12765:
12763:
12754:
12752:Writing system
12748:
12747:
12744:
12743:
12741:
12740:
12739:
12738:
12733:
12728:
12723:
12713:
12712:
12711:
12706:
12701:
12696:
12691:
12686:
12681:
12676:
12665:
12663:
12657:
12656:
12654:
12653:
12652:
12651:
12641:
12635:
12629:
12623:
12622:
12620:
12619:
12614:
12609:
12607:Pseudo-Chinese
12604:
12599:
12594:
12589:
12587:Bamboo English
12583:
12581:
12575:
12574:
12571:
12570:
12568:
12567:
12562:
12560:Amami Japanese
12556:
12554:
12548:
12547:
12545:
12544:
12537:
12536:
12535:
12530:
12525:
12520:
12515:
12514:
12513:
12496:
12495:
12494:
12481:
12479:
12471:
12470:
12468:
12467:
12460:
12459:
12458:
12457:
12456:
12448:
12447:
12446:
12431:
12430:
12429:
12424:
12419:
12407:
12406:
12405:
12400:
12395:
12390:
12378:
12377:
12376:
12375:
12374:
12371:
12355:
12353:
12345:
12344:
12342:
12341:
12340:
12339:
12338:
12337:
12332:
12327:
12322:
12314:
12313:
12312:
12304:
12303:
12302:
12297:
12282:
12281:
12280:
12275:
12274:
12273:
12268:
12260:
12259:
12258:
12253:
12248:
12233:
12232:
12231:
12230:
12229:
12224:
12216:
12215:
12214:
12209:
12204:
12189:
12183:
12181:
12170:
12164:
12163:
12161:
12160:
12155:
12150:
12145:
12139:
12137:
12133:
12132:
12125:
12124:
12117:
12110:
12102:
12093:
12092:
12090:
12089:
12084:
12079:
12078:
12077:
12067:
12066:
12065:
12055:
12047:
12041:
12039:
12035:
12034:
12031:
12030:
12027:
12026:
12024:
12023:
12018:
12012:
12010:
12004:
12003:
12001:
12000:
11995:
11989:
11987:
11980:
11974:
11973:
11970:
11969:
11967:
11966:
11961:
11955:
11953:
11949:
11948:
11946:
11945:
11940:
11935:
11930:
11925:
11923:Southern Amami
11920:
11914:
11912:
11903:
11894:
11888:
11887:
11878:
11876:
11874:
11873:
11868:
11867:
11866:
11855:
11853:
11849:
11848:
11841:
11840:
11833:
11826:
11818:
11809:
11808:
11806:
11805:
11800:
11798:Proto-Mongolic
11795:
11790:
11784:
11782:
11776:
11775:
11773:
11772:
11767:
11762:
11756:
11754:
11750:
11749:
11747:
11746:
11741:
11736:
11731:
11726:
11720:
11718:
11714:
11713:
11706:
11705:
11698:
11691:
11683:
11677:
11676:
11666:
11647:
11646:External links
11644:
11643:
11642:
11636:
11615:
11609:
11589:
11583:
11575:Iwanami Shoten
11556:
11550:
11534:
11483:
11456:
11455:
11454:
11444:(1): 154–161.
11433:
11398:
11383:
11380:
11378:
11377:
11371:
11347:
11341:
11328:
11322:
11309:
11303:
11290:
11284:
11271:
11265:
11249:
11237:10.2307/417138
11231:(3): 655–681.
11217:
11211:
11198:
11192:
11179:
11160:
11154:
11133:
11127:
11102:
11096:
11072:
11066:
11050:
11031:
11025:
11005:
10999:
10978:
10958:
10952:
10939:
10933:
10913:]. Kyoto:
10893:
10887:
10874:
10868:
10854:
10852:
10849:
10847:
10846:
10834:
10822:
10820:, p. 153.
10810:
10808:, p. 402.
10798:
10796:, p. 154.
10786:
10784:, p. 189.
10774:
10762:
10760:, p. 152.
10747:
10732:
10720:
10708:
10706:, p. 159.
10696:
10684:
10672:
10670:, p. 235.
10660:
10658:, p. 138.
10648:
10636:
10624:
10622:, p. 104.
10612:
10600:
10598:, p. 198.
10588:
10573:
10561:
10549:
10537:
10525:
10510:
10498:
10486:
10474:
10462:
10447:
10435:
10423:
10411:
10399:
10387:
10375:
10363:
10351:
10339:
10337:, p. 121.
10327:
10315:
10303:
10291:
10289:, p. 165.
10279:
10277:, p. 119.
10267:
10265:, p. 665.
10255:
10253:, p. 164.
10243:
10231:
10229:, p. 120.
10219:
10207:
10195:
10183:
10171:
10156:
10154:, p. 106.
10144:
10129:
10117:
10115:, p. 105.
10105:
10088:
10073:
10071:, p. 115.
10058:
10046:
10034:
10032:, p. 117.
10022:
10010:
9995:
9993:, p. 133.
9983:
9971:
9967:Shibatani 1990
9959:
9947:
9932:
9920:
9918:, p. 664.
9908:
9896:
9884:
9872:
9860:
9845:
9843:, p. 123.
9841:Shibatani 1990
9830:
9828:, p. 134.
9818:
9806:
9804:, p. 126.
9791:
9789:, p. 195.
9779:
9777:, p. 110.
9767:
9765:, p. 109.
9755:
9753:, p. 352.
9743:
9731:
9729:, p. 354.
9719:
9717:, p. 344.
9707:
9695:
9683:
9681:, p. 285.
9671:
9659:
9657:, p. 141.
9647:
9635:
9623:
9621:, p. 136.
9608:
9606:, p. 138.
9593:
9581:
9579:, p. 530.
9569:
9554:
9550:Shibatani 1990
9542:
9538:Osterkamp 2017
9530:
9518:
9506:
9494:
9492:, p. 661.
9482:
9470:
9458:
9446:
9444:, p. 133.
9442:Shibatani 1990
9434:
9419:
9417:, p. 134.
9415:Shibatani 1990
9404:
9385:
9356:
9344:
9342:, p. 666.
9332:
9320:
9308:
9306:, p. 195.
9304:Shibatani 1990
9296:
9284:
9272:
9260:
9248:
9246:, p. 529.
9236:
9234:, p. 530.
9224:
9222:, p. 525.
9212:
9197:
9195:, p. 528.
9185:
9170:
9168:, p. 662.
9153:
9151:, p. 523.
9141:
9129:
9127:, p. 499.
9112:
9110:, p. 531.
9095:
9083:
9064:
9047:
9045:, p. 532.
9022:
9010:
8993:
8981:
8969:
8957:
8945:
8933:
8921:
8909:
8907:, p. 194.
8905:Shibatani 1990
8897:
8885:
8873:
8871:, p. 196.
8858:
8846:
8834:
8822:
8810:
8793:
8776:
8764:
8752:
8740:
8728:
8716:
8701:
8689:
8677:
8665:
8653:
8638:
8626:
8614:
8602:
8587:
8575:
8563:
8551:
8539:
8527:
8515:
8503:
8501:, p. 126.
8499:Shibatani 1990
8491:
8479:
8467:
8455:
8443:
8431:
8419:
8407:
8395:
8383:
8371:
8359:
8344:
8332:
8320:
8318:, p. 119.
8316:Shibatani 1990
8307:
8305:
8302:
8299:
8298:
8287:
8283:
8272:
8258:
8251:
8237:
8224:
8207:
8206:
8204:
8201:
8200:
8199:
8192:
8189:
8188:
8187:
8180:
8173:
8167:
8158:
8152:
8143:
8138:
8133:
8124:
8119:
8112:
8095:
8094:
8091:Hitachi Fudoki
8087:
8074:
8038:
8035:
8007:
8006:
8003:
7996:
7989:
7981:
7980:
7977:
7974:
7971:
7914:
7913:
7910:
7903:
7898:
7893:
7886:
7879:
7872:
7864:
7863:
7860:
7853:
7848:
7843:
7836:
7829:
7822:
7814:
7813:
7810:
7807:
7804:
7801:
7798:
7795:
7778:
7775:
7774:
7773:
7765:
7757:
7751:the honorific
7749:
7743:the causative
7741:
7727:
7660:
7659:
7646:
7640:
7627:
7621:
7608:(conclusive),
7591:
7588:
7587:
7586:
7573:
7565:
7560:
7547:
7539:
7534:
7521:
7513:
7482:
7481:
7478:
7472:
7467:
7460:
7453:
7446:
7439:
7432:
7425:
7424:
7421:
7416:
7411:
7404:
7397:
7390:
7385:
7380:
7374:
7369:
7362:
7361:
7358:
7352:
7348:
7343:
7337:
7332:
7326:
7321:
7315:
7310:
7305:
7300:
7294:
7289:
7285:
7284:
7281:
7275:
7271:
7266:
7259:
7252:
7245:
7240:
7235:
7229:
7224:
7217:
7216:
7213:
7207:
7203:
7198:
7191:
7184:
7177:
7172:
7167:
7161:
7156:
7149:
7148:
7145:
7142:
7139:
7136:
7133:
7130:
7127:
7093:
7092:
7083:
7071:
7064:
7058:
7046:
7036:
7031:
7019:
7014:
7009:
6997:
6992:
6987:
6934:
6927:
6920:
6913:
6906:
6905:
6902:
6895:
6888:
6881:
6874:
6867:
6860:
6853:
6852:
6849:
6842:
6835:
6828:
6821:
6814:
6807:
6800:
6799:
6796:
6791:
6786:
6781:
6776:
6769:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6745:
6741:
6740:
6737:
6734:
6731:
6728:
6725:
6722:
6719:
6710:
6709:
6686:The irregular
6684:
6672:
6647:
6635:
6598:
6591:
6580:
6557:
6554:
6549:
6548:
6541:
6533:
6518:
6510:
6507:
6499:
6491:
6483:
6476:
6468:
6461:
6428:
6425:
6388:
6385:
6384:
6383:
6378:
6370:
6340:
6330:
6322:
6312:
6286:
6278:
6251:
6247:
6231:
6228:
6185:
6181:
6171:
6161:
6158:
6147:
6136:
6124:
6121:
6120:
6107:
6106:
6104:
6102:
6100:
6098:
6092:
6088:
6081:
6080:
6078:
6076:
6068:
6063:
6057:
6048:
6047:
6045:
6043:
6041:
6035:
6029:
6020:
6019:
6017:
6015:
6013:
6011:
6002:
6001:
5999:
5997:
5989:
5983:
5977:
5968:
5967:
5965:
5963:
5961:
5956:
5952:
5946:
5941:
5934:
5933:
5931:
5929:
5927:
5922:
5918:
5912:
5907:
5900:
5899:
5897:
5895:
5893:
5885:
5876:
5875:
5869:
5865:
5859:
5851:
5846:
5842:
5836:
5830:
5824:
5819:
5815:
5795:
5792:
5762:
5761:
5754:
5751:
5748:
5744:
5743:
5736:
5729:
5721:
5720:
5717:
5710:
5703:
5699:
5698:
5691:
5685:
5680:
5674:
5669:
5665:
5664:
5657:
5651:
5646:
5640:
5635:
5631:
5630:
5623:
5618:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5600:
5595:
5591:
5590:
5583:
5578:
5573:
5567:
5562:
5558:
5557:
5556:Interrogative
5554:
5551:
5548:
5527:
5517:
5511:Demonstratives
5508:
5507:
5501:
5486:
5480:
5468:
5459:
5420:pronouns were
5407:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5355:
5352:
5336:
5325:
5318:
5304:
5295:
5286:
5276:
5267:
5259:
5245:
5244:
5239:
5235:
5230:
5226:
5221:
5217:
5212:
5202:
5195:
5182:
5181:
5169:
5165:'nail, hoof',
5154:
5139:
5124:
5109:
5094:
5079:
5067:
5063:
5056:
5047:
5037:
5028:
5019:
5012:
5008:
4996:
4981:
4966:
4951:
4936:
4924:
4901:
4893:
4886:
4879:
4872:
4865:
4858:
4848:
4845:
4838:
4837:
4799:
4723:
4705:
4704:
4695:
4668:
4655:
4637:
4631:
4627:
4618:
4614:
4605:
4588:
4585:
4577:
4574:
4573:
4572:
4566:
4557:
4535:
4529:
4525:
4516:
4501:
4500:
4493:
4478:
4473:
4466:
4456:(honorific) +
4451:
4438:
4437:
4417:
4410:
4406:
4391:
4387:
4377:
4376:
4375:
4374:
4367:
4348:
4344:
4331:
4330:
4329:
4328:
4322:
4318:
4309:
4296:
4292:
4279:
4278:
4277:
4276:
4270:
4266:
4257:
4244:
4240:
4227:
4226:
4225:
4224:
4217:
4198:
4194:
4183:
4178:
4177:
4176:
4175:
4153:
4149:
4138:
4133:
4132:
4131:
4130:
4123:
4106:
4100:
4096:
4087:
4074:
4070:
4057:
4056:
4055:
4054:
4048:
4044:
4035:
4022:
4018:
4011:
4004:
3999:
3998:
3997:
3996:
3989:
3962:
3957:
3950:
3922:
3899:
3893:
3892:
3891:
3878:
3857:
3852:
3845:
3830:
3823:
3819:
3808:
3799:
3796:
3778:
3767:
3762:Arisaka Hideyo
3758:
3757:
3754:
3727:open syllables
3722:
3719:
3703:Middle Chinese
3698:Ruiju Myōgishō
3674:
3671:
3661:
3650:
3643:
3636:
3629:
3622:
3615:
3604:
3597:
3590:
3589:
3588:Miyake (2003)
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3555:
3554:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3520:
3519:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3415:
3414:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3380:
3379:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3345:
3344:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3192:
3189:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3079:
3077:
3069:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3058:
3052:
3050:
3044:
3043:
3041:
3039:
3031:
3023:
3017:
3016:
3010:
3008:
3002:
2996:
2990:
2979:
2978:
2970:
2968:
2960:
2952:
2944:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2898:
2895:
2875:Middle Chinese
2864:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2791:Yale (Martin)
2788:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2683:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2605:, pronounced *
2594:
2589:
2574:, pronounced *
2563:
2541:
2532:
2523:
2514:
2506:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2474:
2469:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2397:
2392:
2391:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2345:
2340:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2301:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2288:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2276:
2272:
2267:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2252:
2249:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2221:
2216:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2028:
1975:
1968:
1899:
1898:
1888:
1883:
1873:
1868:
1858:
1853:
1843:
1838:
1828:
1823:
1813:
1808:
1798:
1793:
1783:
1778:
1768:
1763:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1734:
1724:
1719:
1709:
1704:
1694:
1689:
1677:
1665:
1655:
1650:
1640:
1635:
1625:
1620:
1610:
1605:
1595:
1590:
1580:
1575:
1565:
1560:
1547:
1546:
1536:
1531:
1521:
1516:
1506:
1501:
1491:
1486:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1457:
1445:
1433:
1423:
1418:
1408:
1403:
1393:
1388:
1376:
1364:
1352:
1340:
1328:
1318:
1313:
1303:
1298:
1285:
1284:
1282:
1270:
1258:
1246:
1234:
1222:
1210:
1198:
1186:
1174:
1162:
1150:
1138:
1125:
1124:
1114:
1109:
1099:
1094:
1084:
1079:
1069:
1064:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1035:
1023:
1021:
1011:
1006:
996:
991:
981:
976:
964:
952:
940:
928:
916:
906:
901:
891:
886:
873:
872:
860:
848:
836:
824:
812:
800:
788:
776:
764:
752:
740:
728:
716:
681:
678:
653:
652:
649:
646:
645:
635:
632:
629:
628:
621:
616:
611:
607:
606:
599:
592:
585:
578:
571:
569:Middle Chinese
565:
564:
557:
550:
543:
536:
529:
510:(712) and the
480:, such as the
446:
445:Writing system
443:
335:(720) and the
295:
292:
230:Jōdai Nihon-go
213:
212:
199:, you may see
185:
184:
177:
169:
168:
161:
156:
153:
152:
145:
137:
136:
135:Language codes
132:
131:
124:
120:Writing system
117:
114:
113:
108:
106:
103:
100:
99:
97:
96:
87:
85:
78:
75:
74:
71:
67:
66:
63:
59:
58:
39:
31:
30:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
13455:
13444:
13441:
13439:
13436:
13434:
13431:
13429:
13426:
13424:
13421:
13419:
13418:Ancient Japan
13416:
13414:
13411:
13409:
13406:
13405:
13403:
13386:
13383:
13382:
13381:
13378:
13374:
13371:
13370:
13369:
13366:
13364:
13361:
13359:
13356:
13355:
13353:
13351:
13347:
13339:
13336:
13335:
13334:
13333:Cyrillization
13331:
13327:
13324:
13322:
13321:Wāpuro rōmaji
13319:
13317:
13314:
13312:
13309:
13307:
13304:
13302:
13299:
13298:
13297:
13294:
13293:
13291:
13287:
13279:
13276:
13274:
13271:
13269:
13266:
13265:
13263:
13261:
13258:
13256:
13253:
13251:
13248:
13247:
13245:
13243:
13239:
13233:
13230:
13228:
13225:
13223:
13221:
13216:
13214:
13212:
13207:
13205:
13202:
13200:
13197:
13195:
13192:
13190:
13187:
13185:
13182:
13178:
13175:
13173:
13170:
13169:
13168:
13166:
13161:
13159:
13156:
13154:
13152:
13151:yamato kotoba
13147:
13145:
13142:
13140:
13139:Counter words
13137:
13135:
13132:
13130:
13127:
13125:
13122:
13120:
13117:
13115:
13112:
13110:
13107:
13105:
13102:
13100:
13097:
13095:
13092:
13091:
13089:
13081:
13069:
13066:
13064:
13061:
13059:
13056:
13054:
13051:
13049:
13046:
13045:
13043:
13039:
13036:
13034:
13031:
13029:
13026:
13024:
13021:
13019:
13016:
13014:
13011:
13009:
13006:
13005:
13003:
12999:
12996:
12994:
12991:
12989:
12986:
12984:
12981:
12979:
12976:
12974:
12971:
12970:
12968:
12964:
12961:
12960:
12958:
12954:
12951:
12950:
12949:
12946:
12945:
12943:
12939:
12933:
12930:
12928:
12925:
12923:
12920:
12918:
12915:
12913:
12910:
12908:
12905:
12903:
12900:
12896:
12893:
12892:
12891:
12888:
12887:
12885:
12881:
12875:
12874:Kana ligature
12872:
12870:
12867:
12865:
12862:
12860:
12857:
12855:
12852:
12850:
12847:
12845:
12842:
12840:
12837:
12835:
12832:
12831:
12829:
12827:
12823:
12817:
12814:
12812:
12809:
12807:
12804:
12800:
12797:
12795:
12792:
12791:
12789:
12785:
12782:
12781:
12780:
12777:
12775:
12772:
12770:
12769:Script reform
12767:
12766:
12764:
12762:
12758:
12755:
12753:
12749:
12737:
12734:
12732:
12729:
12727:
12724:
12722:
12719:
12718:
12717:
12714:
12710:
12707:
12705:
12702:
12700:
12697:
12695:
12692:
12690:
12687:
12685:
12682:
12680:
12677:
12675:
12672:
12671:
12670:
12667:
12666:
12664:
12662:
12658:
12650:
12647:
12646:
12645:
12642:
12640:
12637:
12636:
12633:
12630:
12628:
12624:
12618:
12615:
12613:
12610:
12608:
12605:
12603:
12600:
12598:
12595:
12593:
12592:Bonin English
12590:
12588:
12585:
12584:
12582:
12580:
12576:
12566:
12563:
12561:
12558:
12557:
12555:
12553:
12549:
12543:
12542:
12538:
12534:
12531:
12529:
12526:
12524:
12521:
12519:
12516:
12512:
12509:
12508:
12507:
12504:
12503:
12502:
12501:
12497:
12493:
12490:
12489:
12488:
12487:
12483:
12482:
12480:
12478:
12477:
12472:
12466:
12465:
12461:
12455:
12452:
12451:
12449:
12445:
12442:
12441:
12439:
12438:
12437:
12436:
12432:
12428:
12425:
12423:
12420:
12418:
12415:
12414:
12413:
12412:
12408:
12404:
12401:
12399:
12396:
12394:
12391:
12389:
12386:
12385:
12384:
12383:
12379:
12372:
12369:
12368:
12367:
12364:
12363:
12362:
12361:
12357:
12356:
12354:
12352:
12351:
12346:
12336:
12333:
12331:
12328:
12326:
12323:
12321:
12318:
12317:
12315:
12311:
12308:
12307:
12305:
12301:
12298:
12296:
12293:
12292:
12290:
12289:
12288:
12287:
12283:
12279:
12276:
12272:
12269:
12267:
12264:
12263:
12261:
12257:
12254:
12252:
12249:
12247:
12244:
12243:
12241:
12240:
12239:
12238:
12234:
12228:
12225:
12223:
12220:
12219:
12217:
12213:
12210:
12208:
12205:
12203:
12200:
12199:
12197:
12196:
12195:
12194:
12190:
12188:
12185:
12184:
12182:
12180:
12179:
12174:
12171:
12169:
12165:
12159:
12156:
12154:
12151:
12149:
12146:
12144:
12141:
12140:
12138:
12136:Earlier forms
12134:
12130:
12123:
12118:
12116:
12111:
12109:
12104:
12103:
12100:
12088:
12085:
12083:
12080:
12076:
12073:
12072:
12071:
12068:
12064:
12061:
12060:
12059:
12056:
12051:
12048:
12046:
12045:Proto-Japonic
12043:
12042:
12040:
12036:
12022:
12019:
12017:
12014:
12013:
12011:
12009:
12008:Macro-Yaeyama
12005:
11999:
11996:
11994:
11991:
11990:
11988:
11984:
11981:
11979:
11975:
11965:
11962:
11960:
11957:
11956:
11954:
11950:
11944:
11941:
11939:
11936:
11934:
11931:
11929:
11926:
11924:
11921:
11919:
11916:
11915:
11913:
11911:
11907:
11904:
11902:
11898:
11895:
11893:
11889:
11882:
11872:
11869:
11865:
11862:
11861:
11860:
11857:
11856:
11854:
11850:
11846:
11839:
11834:
11832:
11827:
11825:
11820:
11819:
11816:
11804:
11803:Proto-Japonic
11801:
11799:
11796:
11794:
11791:
11789:
11786:
11785:
11783:
11781:
11777:
11771:
11768:
11766:
11763:
11761:
11758:
11757:
11755:
11751:
11745:
11742:
11740:
11737:
11735:
11732:
11730:
11727:
11725:
11722:
11721:
11719:
11715:
11711:
11704:
11699:
11697:
11692:
11690:
11685:
11684:
11681:
11674:
11670:
11667:
11655:
11650:
11649:
11639:
11633:
11629:
11625:
11621:
11616:
11612:
11606:
11602:
11595:
11590:
11586:
11580:
11576:
11572:
11565:
11561:
11557:
11553:
11547:
11543:
11539:
11535:
11530:
11525:
11521:
11517:
11513:
11509:
11505:
11501:
11497:
11493:
11489:
11484:
11479:
11474:
11471:(118): 5–27.
11470:
11466:
11462:
11457:
11451:
11447:
11443:
11439:
11434:
11430:
11426:
11423:(1): 95–114.
11422:
11418:
11414:
11412:
11405:
11404:
11401:
11395:
11391:
11386:
11385:
11374:
11368:
11364:
11360:
11353:
11348:
11344:
11338:
11334:
11329:
11325:
11319:
11315:
11310:
11306:
11300:
11296:
11291:
11287:
11281:
11277:
11272:
11268:
11262:
11258:
11254:
11250:
11246:
11242:
11238:
11234:
11230:
11226:
11222:
11218:
11214:
11208:
11204:
11199:
11195:
11189:
11185:
11180:
11175:
11170:
11166:
11161:
11157:
11151:
11147:
11143:
11139:
11134:
11130:
11124:
11120:
11116:
11112:
11108:
11103:
11099:
11093:
11089:
11085:
11078:
11073:
11069:
11063:
11059:
11055:
11051:
11046:
11041:
11037:
11032:
11028:
11022:
11018:
11011:
11006:
11002:
10996:
10992:
10988:
10984:
10979:
10968:
10964:
10959:
10955:
10949:
10945:
10940:
10936:
10930:
10925:
10920:
10916:
10912:
10908:
10904:
10899:
10894:
10890:
10884:
10880:
10875:
10871:
10865:
10861:
10856:
10855:
10843:
10838:
10831:
10826:
10819:
10814:
10807:
10802:
10795:
10790:
10783:
10778:
10771:
10766:
10759:
10754:
10752:
10744:
10739:
10737:
10729:
10724:
10717:
10712:
10705:
10700:
10693:
10688:
10681:
10676:
10669:
10664:
10657:
10652:
10646:, p. 91.
10645:
10640:
10634:, p. 90.
10633:
10628:
10621:
10616:
10610:, p. 82.
10609:
10604:
10597:
10592:
10585:
10580:
10578:
10570:
10565:
10558:
10553:
10546:
10541:
10534:
10529:
10523:, p. 78.
10522:
10517:
10515:
10507:
10502:
10495:
10490:
10483:
10478:
10471:
10466:
10459:
10454:
10452:
10444:
10439:
10432:
10427:
10421:, p. 69.
10420:
10415:
10408:
10403:
10396:
10391:
10384:
10379:
10372:
10367:
10360:
10355:
10348:
10343:
10336:
10331:
10324:
10319:
10313:, p. 62.
10312:
10307:
10300:
10295:
10288:
10283:
10276:
10271:
10264:
10259:
10252:
10247:
10240:
10235:
10228:
10223:
10216:
10211:
10205:, p. 41.
10204:
10199:
10193:, p. 18.
10192:
10187:
10180:
10175:
10168:
10163:
10161:
10153:
10148:
10141:
10136:
10134:
10126:
10121:
10114:
10109:
10103:, p. 97.
10102:
10097:
10095:
10093:
10086:, p. 96.
10085:
10080:
10078:
10070:
10065:
10063:
10055:
10050:
10043:
10038:
10031:
10026:
10019:
10014:
10008:, p. 55.
10007:
10002:
10000:
9992:
9987:
9980:
9975:
9968:
9963:
9956:
9951:
9944:
9939:
9937:
9929:
9924:
9917:
9912:
9905:
9900:
9893:
9888:
9881:
9876:
9870:, p. 59.
9869:
9864:
9858:, p. 53.
9857:
9852:
9850:
9842:
9837:
9835:
9827:
9822:
9815:
9810:
9803:
9798:
9796:
9788:
9783:
9776:
9771:
9764:
9759:
9752:
9747:
9740:
9735:
9728:
9723:
9716:
9711:
9704:
9699:
9692:
9687:
9680:
9675:
9668:
9663:
9656:
9651:
9644:
9639:
9632:
9627:
9620:
9615:
9613:
9605:
9600:
9598:
9590:
9585:
9578:
9573:
9567:, p. 79.
9566:
9561:
9559:
9551:
9546:
9539:
9534:
9527:
9522:
9515:
9510:
9503:
9498:
9491:
9486:
9479:
9474:
9467:
9462:
9455:
9450:
9443:
9438:
9432:, p. 85.
9431:
9426:
9424:
9416:
9411:
9409:
9402:, p. 80.
9401:
9396:
9394:
9392:
9390:
9383:, p. 45.
9382:
9377:
9375:
9373:
9371:
9369:
9367:
9365:
9363:
9361:
9353:
9348:
9341:
9336:
9329:
9324:
9317:
9312:
9305:
9300:
9293:
9288:
9281:
9276:
9270:, p. 73.
9269:
9264:
9257:
9252:
9245:
9240:
9233:
9228:
9221:
9216:
9210:, p. 40.
9209:
9204:
9202:
9194:
9189:
9183:, p. 55.
9182:
9177:
9175:
9167:
9162:
9160:
9158:
9150:
9145:
9139:, p. 46.
9138:
9133:
9126:
9125:Erickson 2003
9121:
9119:
9117:
9109:
9104:
9102:
9100:
9092:
9087:
9081:, p. 81.
9080:
9075:
9073:
9071:
9069:
9062:, p. 48.
9061:
9056:
9054:
9052:
9044:
9039:
9037:
9035:
9033:
9031:
9029:
9027:
9020:, p. 44.
9019:
9014:
9008:, p. 43.
9007:
9002:
9000:
8998:
8990:
8985:
8978:
8973:
8967:, p. 55.
8966:
8961:
8954:
8949:
8942:
8937:
8930:
8925:
8919:, p. 74.
8918:
8913:
8906:
8901:
8894:
8889:
8882:
8877:
8870:
8865:
8863:
8855:
8850:
8843:
8838:
8831:
8826:
8820:, p. 45.
8819:
8814:
8808:, p. 32.
8807:
8802:
8800:
8798:
8791:, p. 62.
8790:
8785:
8783:
8781:
8773:
8768:
8762:, p. 49.
8761:
8756:
8749:
8744:
8737:
8732:
8725:
8720:
8714:, p. 39.
8713:
8708:
8706:
8699:, p. 34.
8698:
8693:
8687:, p. 26.
8686:
8681:
8675:, p. 84.
8674:
8669:
8663:, p. 61.
8662:
8657:
8651:, p. 30.
8650:
8645:
8643:
8636:, p. 51.
8635:
8630:
8623:
8618:
8611:
8606:
8599:
8594:
8592:
8584:
8579:
8572:
8567:
8560:
8555:
8549:, p. 19.
8548:
8543:
8536:
8531:
8524:
8519:
8512:
8507:
8500:
8495:
8488:
8483:
8476:
8471:
8465:, p. 22.
8464:
8459:
8452:
8447:
8441:, p. 66.
8440:
8435:
8429:, p. 12.
8428:
8423:
8416:
8411:
8405:, p. 10.
8404:
8399:
8392:
8387:
8380:
8375:
8368:
8363:
8357:, p. 24.
8356:
8351:
8349:
8342:, p. 17.
8341:
8336:
8329:
8324:
8317:
8312:
8308:
8295:
8290:
8276:
8269:
8265:
8261:
8254:
8247:
8241:
8234:
8228:
8212:
8208:
8198:
8195:
8194:
8185:
8181:
8178:
8174:
8170:
8161:
8153:
8150:
8146:
8139:
8136:
8129:
8125:
8122:
8115:
8108:
8104:
8100:
8099:
8098:
8092:
8088:
8085:
8080:
8075:
8072:
8067:
8062:
8061:
8060:
8058:
8049:
8044:
8034:
8031:
8025:
8019:
8014:
8004:
8001:
7997:
7994:
7990:
7987:
7983:
7982:
7978:
7975:
7972:
7969:
7968:
7962:
7959:
7953:
7947:
7941:
7938:
7933:
7928:
7922:
7911:
7908:
7904:
7901:
7894:
7891:
7887:
7884:
7880:
7877:
7873:
7870:
7866:
7865:
7861:
7858:
7854:
7851:
7844:
7841:
7837:
7834:
7830:
7827:
7823:
7820:
7816:
7815:
7811:
7808:
7805:
7802:
7799:
7796:
7793:
7792:
7786:
7784:
7783:stative verbs
7771:
7766:
7763:
7758:
7755:
7750:
7747:
7742:
7739:
7733:
7728:
7725:
7719:
7713:
7709:the negative
7708:
7707:
7706:
7703:
7701:
7698:, during the
7696:
7690:
7684:
7678:
7672:
7666:
7656:
7650:
7641:
7637:
7631:
7622:
7618:
7614:(adnominal),
7612:
7606:
7601:
7600:
7599:
7596:
7583:
7577:
7568:
7561:
7557:
7551:
7542:
7535:
7531:
7525:
7516:
7509:
7508:
7507:
7505:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7479:
7476:
7468:
7465:
7461:
7458:
7454:
7451:
7447:
7444:
7440:
7437:
7433:
7430:
7427:
7426:
7422:
7419:
7412:
7409:
7405:
7402:
7398:
7395:
7391:
7388:
7381:
7378:
7370:
7367:
7364:
7363:
7359:
7356:
7344:
7341:
7333:
7330:
7322:
7319:
7311:
7308:
7301:
7298:
7290:
7287:
7286:
7282:
7279:
7267:
7264:
7260:
7257:
7253:
7250:
7246:
7243:
7236:
7233:
7225:
7222:
7219:
7218:
7214:
7211:
7199:
7196:
7192:
7189:
7185:
7182:
7178:
7175:
7168:
7165:
7157:
7154:
7151:
7150:
7124:
7118:
7115:
7109:
7104:
7100:
7099:
7098:Shimo ichidan
7089:
7084:
7081:
7077:
7076:
7072:
7068:
7059:
7056:
7052:
7051:
7047:
7044:
7040:
7032:
7029:
7025:
7024:
7020:
7017:
7010:
7007:
7003:
7002:
6998:
6995:
6988:
6985:
6981:
6980:
6976:
6975:
6974:
6971:
6969:
6965:
6961:
6957:
6953:
6949:
6945:
6941:
6937:
6930:
6923:
6916:
6903:
6900:
6896:
6893:
6889:
6886:
6882:
6879:
6875:
6872:
6868:
6865:
6861:
6858:
6854:
6850:
6847:
6843:
6840:
6836:
6833:
6829:
6826:
6822:
6819:
6815:
6812:
6808:
6805:
6801:
6797:
6794:
6787:
6784:
6777:
6774:
6770:
6767:
6763:
6760:
6753:
6750:
6746:
6742:
6716:
6706:
6700:
6694:
6689:
6685:
6682:
6678:
6677:
6673:
6669:
6663:
6657:
6652:
6648:
6645:
6641:
6640:
6636:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6613:
6609:
6605:
6601:
6594:
6586:
6581:
6579:(quadrigrade)
6578:
6577:
6573:
6572:
6571:
6568:
6563:
6553:
6546:
6542:
6539:
6538:
6534:
6532:(concessive).
6530:
6524:
6519:
6516:
6515:
6511:
6508:
6505:
6504:
6500:
6497:
6492:
6489:
6488:
6484:
6481:
6477:
6474:
6473:
6469:
6462:
6459:
6458:
6454:
6453:
6452:
6450:
6446:
6435:
6424:
6422:
6418:
6414:
6410:
6406:
6402:
6401:conjunctional
6398:
6394:
6381:
6374:
6371:
6367:
6361:
6355:
6349:
6343:
6334:
6326:
6323:
6320:
6316:
6313:
6310:
6307:shifted to a
6305:
6300:
6295:
6289:
6282:
6279:
6275:
6271:
6268:
6267:
6266:
6263:
6260:
6254:
6241:
6235:
6227:
6225:
6220:
6214:
6211:
6205:
6201:
6195:
6192:
6189:
6177:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6156:
6150:
6145:
6139:
6134:
6128:
6119:
6117:
6112:
6105:
6103:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6083:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6069:
6066:
6058:
6055:
6050:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6042:
6038:
6030:
6027:
6022:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6014:
6012:
6009:
6004:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5990:
5986:
5978:
5975:
5970:
5969:
5966:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5947:
5944:
5936:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5913:
5910:
5902:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5886:
5883:
5878:
5877:
5873:
5860:
5857:
5852:
5849:
5837:
5834:
5825:
5822:
5810:
5809:
5803:
5801:
5791:
5788:
5782:
5776:
5770:
5759:
5755:
5752:
5749:
5746:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5734:
5730:
5727:
5723:
5722:
5718:
5715:
5711:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5689:
5681:
5678:
5670:
5667:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5655:
5647:
5644:
5636:
5633:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5621:
5610:
5607:
5596:
5593:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5581:
5574:
5571:
5563:
5560:
5559:
5555:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5546:
5540:
5537:
5531:
5521:
5512:
5504:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5474:
5469:
5465:
5460:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5430:
5424:
5419:
5415:
5414:
5413:
5410:
5401:
5396:
5392:
5388:
5384:
5368:
5365:
5361:
5351:
5348:
5343:
5339:
5332:
5328:
5321:
5313:
5311:
5307:
5299:
5289:
5280:
5270:
5262:
5254:
5251:
5243:< *ua, *uə
5242:
5236:
5233:
5227:
5225:< *ia, *iə
5224:
5218:
5216:< *ui, *əi
5215:
5209:
5208:
5207:
5205:
5198:
5191:
5187:
5178:
5172:
5163:
5157:
5148:
5142:
5133:
5127:
5118:
5112:
5103:
5097:
5088:
5082:
5074:
5070:
5064:
5060:
5050:
5041:
5031:
5023:
5015:
5009:
5005:
4999:
4990:
4984:
4975:
4969:
4960:
4954:
4945:
4939:
4931:
4927:
4921:
4920:
4919:
4916:
4910:
4904:
4896:
4889:
4882:
4875:
4868:
4861:
4854:
4844:
4841:
4835:
4829:
4823:
4817:
4811:
4805:
4800:
4797:
4791:
4785:
4779:
4775:
4774:
4773:
4771:
4763:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4730:
4727:
4719:'rudder' and
4717:
4711:
4699:
4696:
4692:
4686:
4680:
4672:
4669:
4665:
4659:
4651:'mountain' +
4649:
4641:
4638:
4634:
4621:
4608:
4597:
4594:
4593:
4592:
4584:
4582:
4569:
4560:
4546:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4519:
4510:
4506:
4505:
4504:
4497:
4487:
4481:
4474:
4470:
4460:
4454:
4447:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4434:
4428:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4400:
4394:
4383:
4382:
4381:
4371:
4361:
4355:
4351:
4350:
4349:
4347:
4340:
4336:
4333:
4332:
4325:
4312:
4303:
4299:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4288:
4284:
4281:
4280:
4273:
4260:
4251:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4236:
4232:
4229:
4228:
4221:
4211:
4205:
4201:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4190:
4186:
4180:
4179:
4172:
4166:
4160:
4156:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4145:
4141:
4135:
4134:
4127:
4117:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4090:
4081:
4077:
4076:
4075:
4073:
4066:
4062:
4059:
4058:
4051:
4038:
4029:
4025:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4014:
4007:
4001:
4000:
3993:
3983:
3965:
3958:
3954:
3944:
3938:
3918:
3917:
3914:
3908:
3902:
3894:
3882:
3866:
3860:
3853:
3851:'be blooming'
3849:
3839:
3833:
3826:
3825:
3824:
3822:
3815:
3811:
3805:
3804:
3803:
3795:
3793:
3789:
3788:vowel harmony
3785:
3781:
3774:
3770:
3763:
3755:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3718:
3716:
3712:
3711:tone patterns
3708:
3704:
3700:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3680:
3670:
3668:
3664:
3657:
3653:
3646:
3639:
3632:
3625:
3618:
3611:
3607:
3600:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3556:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3521:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3416:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3346:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3305:
3299:
3297:
3291:
3289:
3283:
3281:
3275:
3273:
3267:
3265:
3259:
3258:
3252:
3250:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3223:
3214:
3210:
3202:
3198:
3188:
3186:
3183:, argue that
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3165:Ch'ŏphae Sinŏ
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3143:had become a
3142:
3138:
3134:
3129:
3127:
3123:
3107:
3106:
3105:Ch'ŏphae Sinŏ
3100:/ᵐb,ⁿd,ⁿz,ᵑɡ/
3088:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3068:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3051:
3049:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3029:
3024:
3022:
3018:
3011:
3009:
3003:
2997:
2991:
2988:
2985:
2981:
2980:
2976:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2961:
2958:
2953:
2950:
2945:
2942:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2914:
2911:
2908:
2902:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2879:Sino-Japanese
2876:
2871:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2720:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2681:
2675:
2673:
2667:
2665:
2659:
2657:
2651:
2649:
2643:
2641:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2625:
2620:Transcription
2613:
2597:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2566:
2559:
2558:
2557:
2553:
2547:
2544:
2535:
2526:
2517:
2503:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2463:
2460:
2448:
2445:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2356:
2353:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2332:
2329:
2326:
2323:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2232:
2229:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2056:
2052:'to age' and
2050:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1961:
1949:
1942:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1891:
1884:
1876:
1869:
1861:
1854:
1846:
1839:
1831:
1824:
1816:
1809:
1801:
1794:
1786:
1779:
1771:
1764:
1756:
1749:
1748:
1739:
1727:
1720:
1712:
1705:
1697:
1690:
1682:
1670:
1658:
1651:
1643:
1636:
1628:
1621:
1613:
1606:
1598:
1591:
1583:
1576:
1568:
1561:
1553:
1548:
1539:
1532:
1524:
1517:
1509:
1502:
1494:
1487:
1479:
1472:
1471:
1462:
1450:
1438:
1426:
1419:
1411:
1404:
1396:
1389:
1381:
1369:
1357:
1345:
1333:
1321:
1314:
1306:
1299:
1291:
1286:
1283:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1223:
1215:
1211:
1203:
1199:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1155:
1151:
1143:
1139:
1131:
1127:
1126:
1117:
1110:
1102:
1095:
1087:
1080:
1072:
1065:
1057:
1050:
1049:
1040:
1028:
1014:
1007:
999:
992:
984:
977:
969:
957:
945:
933:
921:
909:
902:
894:
887:
879:
874:
865:
861:
853:
849:
841:
837:
829:
825:
817:
813:
805:
801:
793:
789:
781:
777:
769:
765:
757:
753:
745:
741:
733:
729:
721:
717:
709:
705:
704:
701:
695:
693:
688:
677:
668:
667:
661:
648:
647:
631:
630:
626:
619:
610:Old Japanese
609:
608:
604:
600:
597:
593:
590:
586:
583:
579:
576:
572:
570:
567:
566:
558:
551:
544:
537:
530:
528:
527:
524:
522:
517:
515:
514:
509:
508:
503:
498:
497:
491:
485:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
456:
452:
442:
439:
438:
432:
427:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
404:
399:
394:
392:
391:
390:Shoku Nihongi
385:
380:
379:
373:
372:
359:
358:
353:
352:
340:
339:
334:
333:
328:
327:
322:
318:
314:
307:
306:
300:
291:
288:
284:
283:agglutinative
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
231:
219:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
192:
186:
182:
178:
176:
175:
170:
166:
162:
159:
158:Linguist List
154:
150:
146:
143:
138:
133:
130:
129:
125:
121:
115:
111:
110:Proto-Japonic
107:
101:
95:
92:
91:
90:
86:
82:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
46:poems carved
45:
44:
37:
32:
27:
22:
19:
13326:In Esperanto
13296:Romanization
13250:Pitch accent
13232:Dictionaries
13219:
13211:nyōbō kotoba
13210:
13164:
13163:Loan words (
13150:
13134:Topic marker
13048:ARIB STD B24
12794:by frequency
12674:Amami Ōshima
12551:
12540:
12499:
12485:
12475:
12463:
12450:East San'in
12434:
12410:
12381:
12359:
12349:
12285:
12236:
12192:
12177:
12158:Early Modern
12148:Early Middle
12142:
12058:Old Japanese
12057:
11793:Proto-Turkic
11788:Proto-Altaic
11770:Old Japanese
11769:
11657:. Retrieved
11619:
11600:
11593:
11570:
11563:
11541:
11519:
11515:
11511:
11507:
11503:
11499:
11495:
11491:
11487:
11468:
11465:Gengo Kenkyu
11464:
11441:
11437:
11420:
11416:
11410:
11389:
11358:
11351:
11332:
11313:
11294:
11275:
11256:
11228:
11224:
11202:
11183:
11164:
11145:
11110:
11106:
11083:
11080:時代別国語大辞典 上代編
11076:
11057:
11045:10125/101739
11035:
11016:
11009:
10990:
10982:
10970:. Retrieved
10966:
10943:
10910:
10902:
10878:
10859:
10837:
10825:
10813:
10801:
10789:
10782:Bentley 2012
10777:
10765:
10745:, p. 1.
10743:Kupchik 2011
10723:
10711:
10699:
10687:
10675:
10663:
10656:Bentley 2001
10651:
10639:
10627:
10620:Bentley 2001
10615:
10603:
10596:Bentley 2012
10591:
10584:Bentley 2012
10564:
10552:
10540:
10528:
10501:
10489:
10477:
10465:
10438:
10426:
10414:
10402:
10390:
10378:
10366:
10354:
10342:
10330:
10318:
10306:
10294:
10287:Whitman 2008
10282:
10270:
10258:
10251:Whitman 2008
10246:
10234:
10222:
10215:Omodaka 1967
10210:
10198:
10186:
10174:
10147:
10120:
10108:
10049:
10037:
10025:
10013:
9986:
9974:
9962:
9950:
9923:
9911:
9899:
9887:
9875:
9863:
9821:
9809:
9787:Bentley 2012
9782:
9770:
9758:
9746:
9734:
9722:
9710:
9698:
9686:
9674:
9662:
9650:
9638:
9626:
9584:
9572:
9545:
9533:
9521:
9509:
9497:
9485:
9473:
9461:
9449:
9437:
9347:
9335:
9328:Pellard 2024
9323:
9311:
9299:
9287:
9275:
9263:
9251:
9244:Russell 2003
9239:
9232:Russell 2003
9227:
9220:Russell 2003
9215:
9193:Russell 2003
9188:
9149:Russell 2003
9144:
9132:
9108:Russell 2003
9091:Russell 2003
9086:
9043:Russell 2003
9013:
8984:
8972:
8960:
8948:
8936:
8924:
8912:
8900:
8888:
8876:
8849:
8837:
8832:, p. 2.
8825:
8813:
8767:
8755:
8743:
8731:
8719:
8692:
8680:
8668:
8656:
8629:
8617:
8605:
8578:
8566:
8554:
8542:
8530:
8518:
8506:
8494:
8482:
8470:
8458:
8446:
8434:
8422:
8410:
8398:
8386:
8381:, p. 6.
8379:Bentley 2001
8374:
8362:
8335:
8330:, p. 1.
8323:
8311:
8293:
8275:
8267:
8263:
8256:
8249:
8245:
8240:
8227:
8211:
8148:
8141:
8131:
8127:
8117:
8110:
8106:
8102:
8096:
8090:
8083:
8079:sakimori uta
8070:
8054:
8010:
7955:reducing to
7942:
7917:
7809:Exclamatory
7780:
7729:the passive
7704:
7661:
7597:
7593:
7563:
7537:
7511:
7506:*-i suffix:
7499:
7496:intransitive
7487:
7485:
7428:
7365:
7220:
7152:
7102:
7094:
7079:
7054:
7042:
7034:
7027:
7023:Kami ichidan
7012:
7005:
6990:
6983:
6972:
6967:
6963:
6959:
6955:
6951:
6947:
6943:
6939:
6932:
6925:
6924:and between
6918:
6911:
6909:
6904:'be, exist'
6856:
6803:
6744:quadrigrade
6687:
6680:
6650:
6643:
6631:
6627:
6623:
6619:
6615:
6611:
6607:
6603:
6596:
6589:
6569:
6565:
6550:
6540:(imperative)
6430:
6390:
6264:
6236:
6233:
6222:'first'. In
6215:
6197:
6193:
6190:
6179:
6175:
6165:
6151:
6140:
6129:
6115:
6113:
6110:
5799:
5797:
5765:
5553:Non-proximal
5509:
5389:
5379:
5357:
5341:
5334:
5323:
5316:
5314:
5309:
5302:
5257:
5255:
5246:
5237:
5228:
5219:
5210:
5200:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5183:
5150:'day, sun',
5072:
5065:
5017:
5010:
4929:
4922:
4891:
4884:
4877:
4870:
4863:
4856:
4850:
4842:
4839:
4769:
4761:
4737:
4733:
4731:
4706:
4697:
4682:'village' +
4670:
4639:
4595:
4590:
4579:
4502:
4439:
4430:'descend' →
4396:'eternal' +
4378:
4363:'weaving' →
4342:
4338:
4334:
4314:'to join' →
4290:
4286:
4282:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4192:
4188:
4181:
4147:
4143:
4136:
4129:(place name)
4068:
4064:
4060:
4016:
4009:
4002:
3995:'it existed'
3817:
3813:
3806:
3801:
3783:
3776:
3772:
3765:
3759:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3724:
3721:Phonotactics
3715:Asuka period
3696:
3692:
3683:pitch accent
3676:
3666:
3659:
3655:
3648:
3641:
3634:
3627:
3620:
3613:
3609:
3602:
3595:
3593:
3300:
3292:
3284:
3276:
3268:
3260:
3224:
3208:
3207:. The vowel
3196:
3194:
3184:
3176:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3140:
3132:
3130:
3125:
3121:
3103:
3093:
2987:prenasalized
2900:
2866:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2676:
2668:
2660:
2652:
2644:
2636:
2623:
2548:
2509:
2472:
2420:
2395:
2343:
2295:
2270:
2219:
2170:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2089:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2064:'to plant'.
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1966:
1947:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1902:
691:
683:
664:
656:
520:
518:
511:
505:
486:
465:
461:
458:
428:
424:Suiko period
401:
397:
395:
388:
376:
355:
349:
336:
330:
324:
310:
303:
280:
268:syllabograms
257:
249:Heian period
218:Old Japanese
217:
216:
188:
172:
126:
94:Old Japanese
93:
41:
24:Old Japanese
18:
13306:Nihon-shiki
13189:Wasei-kango
13124:Possessives
13084:Grammar and
12917:Modern kana
12902:Punctuation
12883:Orthography
12704:Tokunoshima
12316:Gifu-Aichi
12286:Tōkai–Tōsan
12153:Late Middle
11933:Tokunoshima
11659:14 November
11560:Ōno, Susumu
11529:10125/73219
11522:(7): 1–33.
10963:"The texts"
10851:Works cited
10704:Miyake 2003
9400:Miyake 2003
9352:Miyake 2003
9292:Miyake 2003
9268:Miyake 2003
9256:Miyake 2003
9079:Miyake 2003
8989:Miyake 2003
8977:Miyake 2003
8965:Miyake 2003
8953:Miyake 2003
8941:Miyake 2003
8929:Miyake 2003
8917:Miyake 2003
8893:Miyake 2003
8881:Miyake 2003
8869:Miyake 2003
8854:Miyake 2003
8842:Miyake 2003
8830:Miyake 2003
8789:Miyake 2003
8772:Inukai 2024
8673:Miyake 2003
8661:Miyake 2003
8634:Miyake 2003
8598:Miyake 2003
8571:Miyake 2003
8559:Seeley 1991
8535:Miyake 2003
8523:Miyake 2003
8511:Seeley 1991
8487:Seeley 1991
8475:Miyake 2003
8451:Seeley 1991
8439:Miyake 2003
8427:Miyake 2003
8415:Seeley 1991
8403:Miyake 2003
8391:Miyake 2003
8367:Miyake 2003
8340:Miyake 2003
8328:Miyake 2003
8266:) from the
7912:'precious'
7562:*-ə-i >
7536:*-u-i >
7510:*-a-i >
7431:-irregular
7368:-irregular
7144:Imperative
7141:Exclamatory
7126:Verb class
7082:-irregular)
7057:-irregular)
7030:-monograde)
6979:Shimo nidan
6859:-irregular
6806:-irregular
6736:Imperative
6733:Exclamatory
6718:Verb class
6683:-irregular)
6646:-irregular)
6421:auxiliaries
6200:classifiers
6116:Bussokuseki
5440:reflexively
5282:'back' and
4851:As seen in
4688:'master' →
4424:'heaven' +
4305:'number' +
4174:'attendant'
4162:'palace' +
4119:'market' →
4092:'breath' →
4040:'person' →
3693:Nihon Shoki
3553:Ōno (1982)
3067:Approximant
2580:Old Chinese
1981:Nihon Shoki
634:eight-cloud
513:Nihon Shoki
466:Nihon Shoki
332:Nihon Shoki
313:Nara period
241:Nara period
203:instead of
73:8th century
40:Rubbing of
13402:Categories
13350:Literature
13220:yakuwarigo
13204:Honorifics
13184:Wasei-eigo
13172:from Dutch
13119:Adjectives
13086:vocabulary
12864:Hentaigana
12859:Man'yōgana
12699:Okinoerabu
12403:Okuyoshino
11938:Okinoerabu
11765:Old Korean
11760:Old Turkic
10830:Vovin 2014
10692:Vovin 2020
10680:Vovin 2020
10557:Vovin 2020
10545:Vovin 2020
10533:Vovin 2020
10506:Vovin 2020
10482:Vovin 2020
10470:Vovin 2020
10443:Vovin 2020
10407:Vovin 2020
10383:Vovin 2020
10359:Vovin 2020
10323:Vovin 2020
10263:Unger 2000
9916:Unger 2000
9775:Vovin 2020
9763:Vovin 2020
9751:Vovin 2020
9739:Vovin 2020
9727:Vovin 2020
9715:Vovin 2020
9703:Vovin 2020
9691:Vovin 2020
9577:Vovin 2020
9526:Vovin 2010
9490:Unger 2000
9430:Vovin 2020
9340:Unger 2000
9316:Vovin 2010
9181:Vovin 2020
9166:Unger 2000
8818:Vovin 2020
8736:Vovin 2020
8724:Vovin 2020
8304:References
8220: 800
8041:See also:
7976:Adnominal
7973:Infinitive
7803:Conclusive
7800:Infinitive
7777:Adjectives
7504:inchoative
7492:transitive
7288:monograde
7135:Conclusive
7132:Infinitive
7001:Kami nidan
6727:Conclusive
6724:Infinitive
6649:The three
6560:See also:
6480:infinitive
6460:(irrealis)
6434:katsuyōkei
6393:inflection
6373:comitative
6270:accusative
5634:Direction
5416:The first-
5105:'heaven',
4977:'a calm'.
4636:'trawling'
4587:Consonants
4571:'my house'
4562:'house' →
4534:'my house'
4521:'house' →
4489:'birth' →
4462:'horse' →
4327:'to count'
4253:'young' +
4223:'big rock'
4168:'enter' →
3841:'exist' →
3835:'bloom' +
3688:man'yōgana
3228:man'yōgana
3173:allophones
2897:Consonants
2870:man'yōgana
700:man'yōgana
687:man'yōgana
674: 759
496:man'yōgana
490:Idu script
482:word order
451:Man'yōgana
414:, and the
365: 752
346: 759
290:suffixes.
260:man'yōgana
128:Man'yōgana
104:Early form
51: 752
13242:Phonology
13129:Particles
13068:Half/Full
12998:Shift JIS
12927:Yotsugana
12907:Kanazukai
12849:Okurigana
12761:Logograms
12373:Shiramine
12218:Southern
12198:Northern
10906:日本語系統論の現在
10862:. BRILL.
8268:Man'yōshū
8084:Man'yōshū
8071:Man'yōshū
8066:azuma uta
7986:katakara-
7932:haplology
7806:Adnominal
7770:-(a)masi-
7746:-(a)sime-
7724:-(a)ni-su
7559:'lonely'.
7223:-bigrade
7155:-bigrade
7138:Adnominal
7008:-bigrade)
6986:-bigrade)
6730:Adnominal
6537:Meireikei
6503:Rentaikei
6487:Shūshikei
6472:Ren'yōkei
6447:used for
5800:Man'yōshū
5594:Location
5364:particles
5180:'bamboo'.
5135:'shade',
4807:'house',
4801:Yonaguni
4713:'grain',
4661:'path' →
4623:'pull' →
4402:'rock' →
4213:'rock' →
4113:'high' +
4083:'long' +
4031:'real' +
3916:'exist':
3862:'wear' +
3760:In 1934,
3249:diphthong
3096:/p,t,s,k/
2941:voiceless
2935:Obstruent
2863:Phonology
2090:Man'yōshū
1985:Man'yōshū
680:Syllables
666:Man'yōshū
378:Engishiki
338:Man'yōshū
317:Heijō-kyō
305:Man'yōshū
272:logograms
174:Glottolog
142:ISO 639-3
13165:gairaigo
13144:Numerals
13114:Pronouns
13053:Enclosed
13033:Katakana
13008:Hiragana
13004:Unicode
12959:ISO/IEC
12941:Encoding
12844:Furigana
12839:Katakana
12834:Hiragana
12736:Yonaguni
12716:Southern
12694:Okinawan
12689:Kunigami
12669:Northern
12661:Ryukyuan
12602:Kyowa-go
12533:Tsushima
12523:Nagasaki
12518:Kumamoto
12506:Chikuzen
12370:Kanazawa
12360:Hokuriku
12295:Shizuoka
12262:Eastern
12251:Kanagawa
12242:Western
12187:Hokkaidō
12168:Dialects
12021:Yonaguni
11993:Miyakoan
11986:Miyakoan
11978:Southern
11964:Okinawan
11952:Okinawan
11901:Northern
11892:Ryukyuan
11859:Japanese
11852:Japanese
11739:Koreanic
11734:Tungusic
11729:Mongolic
11717:Families
11597:学研新漢和大字典
11562:(2000).
11540:(1987).
11450:41337651
11255:(2010).
11225:Language
11144:(eds.).
11088:Sanseidō
11056:(2003).
10989:(eds.).
8191:See also
8037:Dialects
8000:katakaru
7993:katakari
7970:Irrealis
7702:period.
7639:'exist'.
7283:'arise'
7129:Irrealis
6798:'write'
6721:Irrealis
6457:Mizenkei
6325:ablative
6281:genitive
6230:Suffixes
5794:Numerals
5561:Nominal
5550:Proximal
5395:genitive
5376:Pronouns
5371:Nominals
5234:< *ai
5120:'rain',
5062:'Hades',
5043:'tree',
5007:'stalk'.
4992:'moon',
4962:'body',
4915:sakaduki
4781:'I' and
4754:Yonaguni
4744:such as
4610:'net' +
4207:'big' +
3921:tir-i-ki
2887:typology
262:, using
209:Help:IPA
181:oldj1239
13368:Writers
13301:Hepburn
13255:Rendaku
13194:Engrish
12890:Braille
12811:Ryakuji
12731:Yaeyama
12649:grammar
12644:Hachijō
12541:Satsugū
12500:Hichiku
12486:Hōnichi
12440:San'yō
12435:Chūgoku
12411:Shikoku
12350:Western
12310:Nagaoka
12306:Echigo
12271:Tochigi
12266:Ibaraki
12227:Nairiku
12207:Tsugaru
12178:Eastern
12038:History
12016:Yaeyama
11871:Hachijō
11744:Japonic
10972:5 April
8005:'hard'
7862:'hard'
7738:-(a)re-
7732:-(a)ye-
7569:, e.g.
7543:, e.g.
7517:, e.g.
7423:'come'
7215:'open'
7070:'come'.
6659:'die',
6514:Izenkei
6311:marker.
6149:puta-tu
6141:exceed-
6130:thirty-
5861:10,000
5702:Manner
5668:Degree
5587:idu(re)
5397:marker
5354:Grammar
5090:'eye',
4750:Yaeyama
4694:(title)
4512:'my' +
4275:(title)
4256:iratuko
3967:'exist.
3308:Author
2923:Palatal
2918:Coronal
2024:'oar',
694:songs:
615:ya-kumo
516:(720).
431:Shōsōin
398:Wei Zhi
393:(797).
253:Japonic
205:Unicode
89:Japonic
13363:Poetry
13311:Kunrei
13273:Kan-on
13044:Other
12953:EUC-JP
12869:Sōgana
12854:Gojūon
12806:Kokuji
12774:Kanbun
12726:Tarama
12721:Miyako
12511:Hakata
12476:Kyūshū
12464:Umpaku
12427:Sanuki
12393:Banshū
12382:Kansai
12325:Mikawa
12320:Nagoya
12300:Narada
12193:Tōhoku
11998:Tarama
11724:Turkic
11634:
11607:
11581:
11567:日本語の形成
11548:
11510:, and
11448:
11396:
11369:
11355:日本語の歴史
11339:
11320:
11301:
11282:
11263:
11245:417138
11243:
11209:
11190:
11152:
11125:
11107:mokkan
11094:
11064:
11023:
11013:日本語の歴史
10997:
10983:mokkan
10950:
10931:
10885:
10866:
8264:Kojiki
8246:Kojiki
8109:, but
7979:Gloss
7907:kusisa
7897:kusiki
7883:kusiku
7857:katasa
7847:kataki
7840:katasi
7833:kataku
7812:Gloss
7794:Class
7762:-(a)m-
7754:-(a)s-
7721:< *
7718:-(a)z-
7712:-(a)n-
7585:'big'.
7533:'red'.
7360:'see'
7147:Gloss
7075:Sa-hen
7050:Ka-hen
6851:'die'
6839:sinure
6832:sinuru
6739:Gloss
6676:Ra-hen
6668:-(i)n-
6639:Na-hen
6413:aspect
6315:dative
6188:katati
6173:katati
6138:amar-i
6034:nanaso
5536:i(du)-
5494:ta(re)
5464:na(re)
5429:wa(re)
5418:person
5347:mokkan
4847:Vowels
4746:Miyako
4691:murazi
4664:yamadi
4565:wagape
4542:'I' +
4442:clitic
4269:ratuko
4171:toneri
4105:'sigh'
3961:ari-ki
3949:tirike
3884:'wear.
3749:, and
3673:Accent
3610:Kojiki
3247:. The
3238:glides
3211:was a
3191:Vowels
3048:Liquid
2984:voiced
2913:Labial
2721:Vovin
2552:mokkan
1993:Kojiki
692:Kojiki
660:ongana
521:Kojiki
507:Kojiki
470:Baekje
462:Kojiki
437:mokkan
410:, the
384:Senmyō
371:Norito
351:Fudoki
326:Kojiki
62:Region
13385:texts
13358:Books
13278:Tō-on
13268:Go-on
12895:Kanji
12816:Ateji
12779:Kanji
12709:Yoron
12684:Kikai
12552:Other
12454:Inshū
12444:Bingo
12398:Kishū
12388:Awaji
12256:Tokyo
12246:Gunma
12237:Kantō
12222:Kesen
12212:Akita
12202:Nanbu
11943:Yoron
11928:Kikai
11918:Amami
11910:Amami
11599:[
11569:[
11446:JSTOR
11357:[
11241:JSTOR
11082:[
11015:[
10909:[
8282:utuso
8203:Notes
8086:, and
8030:-yaka
8024:-raka
8011:Many
7869:-siku
7797:Stem
7695:-tar-
7692:>
7617:-sika
7556:sabu-
7480:'do'
7471:se(yo
7263:okure
7256:okuru
7195:akure
7188:akuru
7114:kuwe-
7091:'do'.
6811:sina-
6749:kaka-
6576:Yodan
6449:Latin
6409:tense
6405:voice
6397:modal
6387:Verbs
6357:from
6127:so-ti
5853:1000
5747:Time
5661:iduti
5627:iduku
5423:a(re)
5177:taka-
5162:tuma-
5132:kaga-
5004:kuku-
4989:tuku-
4974:nagu-
4944:kamu-
4909:saka-
4756:have
4433:amori
4043:utuse
4034:oyomi
4028:utusi
3988:arike
3681:have
3633:and *
3021:Nasal
2928:Velar
2504:1177
2501:1312
2498:9618
2492:5848
2486:1206
2480:3407
2467:3657
2458:7788
2452:1870
2431:1995
2428:2441
2415:1406
2403:1011
2387:2598
2375:1101
2372:1425
2366:2831
2360:1220
2354:1145
2336:3656
2333:2190
2330:2692
2324:2905
2321:1449
2318:1065
2315:4417
2309:2507
2303:4855
2300:1556
2262:3901
2257:5818
2251:3489
2248:7101
2242:2195
2236:8070
2230:5771
2227:3679
2214:2581
2211:4213
2208:3184
2205:6018
2202:2195
2199:6450
2196:5891
2190:5212
2184:3473
2181:3358
2178:7616
2175:4612
637:rise.
319:(now
224:上代日本語
65:Japan
29:上代日本語
12993:0213
12988:0212
12983:0211
12978:0208
12973:0201
12969:JIS
12963:2022
12826:Kana
12528:Saga
12492:Ōita
12422:Tosa
12366:Kaga
12335:Hida
12330:Mino
11661:2023
11632:ISBN
11605:ISBN
11579:ISBN
11546:ISBN
11469:2000
11394:ISBN
11367:ISBN
11337:ISBN
11318:ISBN
11299:ISBN
11280:ISBN
11261:ISBN
11207:ISBN
11188:ISBN
11150:ISBN
11123:ISBN
11092:ISBN
11062:ISBN
11021:ISBN
10995:ISBN
10974:2024
10948:ISBN
10929:ISBN
10883:ISBN
10864:ISBN
8255:and
8184:Ainu
8116:and
8105:and
8063:230
8057:Nara
7952:-ua-
7890:kusi
7876:kusi
7826:kata
7735:and
7715:and
7671:-te-
7668:and
7655:-am-
7582:opo-
7546:sabi
7464:sure
7457:suru
7408:kure
7401:kuru
7108:kwe-
6966:and
6931:and
6917:and
6864:ara-
6846:sine
6825:sinu
6818:sini
6790:kake
6780:kake
6773:kaku
6766:kaku
6756:kaki
6699:wor-
6662:-in-
6656:sin-
6595:and
6585:kana
6417:mood
6415:and
6399:and
6395:for
6366:yori
6360:yuri
6348:yuri
6259:tati
6219:patu
6176:mark
6152:two-
6073:yapo
6070:800
6062:yaso
6031:70 (
6026:nana
5991:500
5979:50 (
5890:pata
5882:puta
5838:100
5733:sika
5726:kaku
5714:sate
5695:iku-
5570:(re)
5523:and
5426:and
5362:and
5340:and
5322:and
5199:and
5168:take
5153:tume
5123:kage
5117:ama-
5102:ama-
5055:yomo
5046:yomi
4995:kuki
4980:tuki
4965:nagi
4935:kami
4900:sake
4876:and
4834:yama
4831:and
4816:dama
4796:wata
4793:and
4784:bata
4752:and
4736:and
4716:kadi
4710:tubu
4701:/ᵑɡ/
4685:nusi
4679:mura
4674:/ⁿz/
4648:yama
4643:/ⁿd/
4599:/ᵐb/
4524:wagi
4509:waga
4366:sito
4354:situ
4317:kazo
4302:kazu
4265:waki
4250:waku
4159:tono
4122:take
4110:taka
4095:nage
4080:naga
3982:ar-i
3979:' +
3943:am-u
3874:' →
3868:'be.
3844:sake
3829:saki
3647:and
3601:and
3243:and
3201:open
3124:and
3118:/ⁿz/
3116:and
2612:tsyi
2607:tjəʔ
2585:tsye
2582:and
2549:The
2537:and
2495:882
2489:122
2483:436
2464:215
2461:871
2449:583
2446:269
2443:485
2437:536
2434:138
2412:287
2409:959
2406:489
2390:342
2384:644
2381:318
2378:203
2369:727
2363:210
2327:389
2312:904
2306:444
2290:589
2287:140
2284:756
2281:404
2278:690
2265:270
2254:585
2245:335
2239:350
2233:762
2193:734
2187:255
2080:and
2072:and
2055:uuru
2043:kuyu
2014:and
1983:and
1972:and
1960:otsu
1946:and
1907:and
625:tatu
582:kjuw
502:kana
464:and
453:and
321:Nara
13316:JSL
13058:EIS
12948:EUC
12417:Iyo
12143:Old
11624:doi
11524:hdl
11512:pey
11508:pye
11500:mey
11496:mye
11488:mwo
11473:doi
11425:doi
11233:doi
11169:doi
11115:doi
11040:hdl
10919:doi
8166:-yo
8157:-ro
8027:or
8018:-ka
7958:-a-
7946:ar-
7937:-si
7927:-si
7921:-si
7819:-ku
7689:ar-
7683:-te
7677:-ta
7665:-n-
7645:-ke
7636:ar-
7626:-ke
7611:-si
7605:-ki
7572:opi
7530:aka
7520:ake
7494:or
7436:se-
7351:(yo
7274:(yo
7270:oki
7249:oku
7239:oki
7228:oki
7206:(yo
7202:ake
7181:aku
7171:ake
7160:ake
7088:se-
6899:are
6892:are
6885:aru
6878:ari
6871:ari
6705:or-
6693:ar-
6630:or
6440:活用形
6210:-tu
6204:-ti
6167:GEN
6143:INF
6118:2:
6059:80
5994:ipo
5982:iso
5974:itu
5948:40
5914:30
5887:20
5826:10
5781:ka-
5775:ko-
5769:so-
5758:itu
5740:ika
5688:kV-
5677:kV-
5500:ono
5435:wa-
5383:-re
5147:ka-
5108:ame
5093:ame
5087:ma-
4959:mu-
4890:or
4766:/d/
4758:/b/
4626:abi
4604:ami
4556:ipe
4550:GEN
4515:ipe
4486:umu
4459:uma
4427:ori
4421:ama
4399:ipa
4360:ori
4308:ape
4216:opi
4210:isi
4204:opo
4165:iri
4116:iti
4086:iki
3976:RET
3970:INF
3934:RET
3928:INF
3913:ari
3907:amu
3887:FIN
3871:ATT
3865:aru
3838:ari
3782:or
3667:Cwo
3626:, *
3619:, *
3245:/w/
3241:/j/
3220:/ɯ/
3216:/u/
3205:/a/
3159:or
3147:by
3114:/s/
3110:/ɡ/
2578:in
2576:kje
2455:75
2357:13
2351:45
2061:uwe
2046:),
2037:kui
2021:kai
1923:or
1880:余,與
1743:袁,遠
1731:漏,路
1674:富,本
1617:俗,蘇
1587:胡,呉
1557:淤,意
1337:勢,世
973:爾,迩
925:斯,志
725:加,迦
684:In
676:).
641:ADN
589:maw
575:yae
266:as
191:IPA
165:ojp
149:ojp
70:Era
13404::
11630:.
11577:.
11520:38
11518:.
11506:,
11504:po
11502:,
11498:,
11494:,
11492:mö
11490:,
11467:.
11463:.
11442:37
11440:.
11421:39
11419:.
11415:.
11365:.
11239:.
11229:76
11227:.
11121:.
11090:.
10965:.
10927:.
10750:^
10735:^
10576:^
10513:^
10450:^
10159:^
10132:^
10091:^
10076:^
10061:^
9998:^
9935:^
9848:^
9833:^
9794:^
9611:^
9596:^
9557:^
9422:^
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