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watersheds on the Oak Ridges
Moraine (ORM). The Coalition formed in 2000 two years prior to the ORM conservation Plan, in response to the need for a comprehensive policy, planning and management approach geared to sustaining the health of the entire ORM. The CAMC is a partnership organization. It collaborates with numerous groups and individuals to achieve common objectives to support a robust and resilient environment across the ORM landscape. These objectives include; undertaking science-based research; providing opportunities for recreation; taking action for the protection and restoration of the ORM and; providing expert advice for environmental planning and policy matters.
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in the geologic record) where many millions of years of depositional or crystalline record are erased (mostly
Silurian to Pleistocene rocks) by regional erosion processes and continent building phases. A large time gap is important in this context to correlate where and when this event occurred with respect to both local and surrounding geology of the lithostratigraphic and geographical record. Cause of this stratigraphic gap may originate from a couple large scale meltwater events, the older Algonquin and younger Ontarian erosional floods from melting glaciers of the Late Wisconsinan glaciation.
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earlier and more frequent sedimentary deposition than the eastern portion, as the ice lobes which controlled the moraine's eastern formation slowly retreated. The Rice Lake wedge is separated from the other wedges where the Oak Ridges
Moraine intersects Rice Lake. As the moraine is a local topographic high, streams originating in the lower Oak Ridges Moraine sediment packages, by groundwater movement, either flow south into Lake Ontario or north toward Lake Simcoe or Georgian Bay through large river valleys carved during melting of glaciers.
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the moraine is permitted in other areas (i.e., tree farm), but is otherwise restricted. Given that the land-subdivision process is lengthy and that
Markham, Vaughan, Richmond Hill, Whitchurch-Stouffville and King Township are experiencing a shortage in servicing capacity, what often appears as "new" development in Markham, Vaughan, Richmond Hill, Whitchurch-Stouffville and King Township on the moraine is in the majority of cases development which has had approval for many years.
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system. Preservation of aquifers under the moraine is especially important, since they are used as a primary water source by some municipalities located on or near the moraine. These aquifers also discharge into tributaries that are the headwaters of approximately 65 creeks and rivers which eventually flow into Lake Simcoe, Lake Scugog and Lake
Ontario or Georgian Bay.
373:. The main depositional ingredient from these lakes is silt with some clay content, as layers of 2 to 20 metres (6.6 to 65.6 ft) thick in places. Glacial sediments are subject to erosional forces and valley cutting processes, removing previously laid sediments and placing them further along the river path.
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Unless approved prior to the Oak Ridges
Moraine Conservation Act coming into force in 2001 or through orders of the Ontario Municipal Board to the contrary, development on the Oak Ridges Moraine is restricted to the Settlement Area. Smaller-scale development which improves the ecological integrity of
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announced, on "Rouge Park Day", that he would be implementing a ban on all development on the Oak Ridges
Moraine. This announcement sparked considerable opposition by the development industry which, in turn, attracted considerable media attention and public interest. A media campaign by environmental
795:, which divided the moraine into four zones with increasingly stringent controls on development in each. The Act prevented development of over 92% of the land mass of the moraine and only those development projects which had already received zoning and planning approval were allowed to be completed.
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At the Oak Ridges
Moraine system, rocks from the Ordovician Period underlie the post-glacial sediment and are a large part of the bedrock geology, aside from the presence of some older basement rock beneath. From the basement rocks to the overlying stratigraphic successions is an unconformity (a gap
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This hydrological system is inter-twined with a regional flow systems not bound by the morphological limits of the moraine. For this reason, environmentalists and researchers promote an aggressive protection strategy extending beyond the moraine, thus ensuring a contiguously protected hydrological
270:) occurred along the ice margins. Whereas the glacial river deposits were more substantial by volume, the diamicton deposits represent a greater portion of the moraine's exposed surface. Research suggests that sedimentation occurred in a west to east sequence along the four main sedimentary wedges:
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Current research efforts on the moraine are quite extensive. Because of the political implications of development on the moraine, and because its aquifers are a source of potable water for numerous communities, both federal and provincial governments have invested resources towards research on the
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In the area of the Oak Ridges
Moraine, glacially derived sediments, mainly of Pleistocene age, may overlie a regional unconformity and lower Newmarket till, up to 200 metres thick in some places. Extensive research in the moraine area indicate there may be 6 different periods of sedimentation from
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Fisher and
Alexander in the early 1990s described a "metropolitan" invasion of the Oak Ridges Moraine, in response to which organizations such as Save the Oak Ridges Moraine (STORM) were formed. Conservation Authorities Moraine Coalition (CAMC) is a coalition of nine Conservation Authorities with
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from west to east) formed in stages, though some synchronous formation also occurred at an early period of formation. The moraine peaks at the Uxbridge wedge, generally rising from east to west, a result of the moraine's west-to-east formation. That is, the western portion of the moraine received
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stipulates that any development which targets the moraine or nearby areas must satisfy several conditions, most prominently that each development leave a buffer zone of 30 metres (98 ft) between it and any hydrological feature; for a kettle lake, this measure is from the edge of the lake's
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Palaeo-Indian hunter-gatherers were in this area between 11,000 - 9,500 BP. The oldest artifact found in what is now Richmond Hill, Ontario, from these people, was a stone scraper about 40 mm long, at the Mortson Site, near Leslie Street and 19th Avenue. Other artifacts were found in a
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in June 1991, with the aim of creating a regional planning strategy for the moraine. The plan was completed in 1994, but was subsequently dismissed in favour of local government administration of the affected lands. This led to intense development on some portions of the moraine.
455:, while also including intrusions of granitic composition as well. Both the metamorphic and igneous rocks are able to better withstand erosional forces from the advancing ice sheets compared to some softer rock types. Softer metamorphic rocks of the Precambrian basement include
642:, so that any factors affecting the moraine may affect the connected systems. A specific concern is urbanization, which affects water quality by increasing its load of metals and organic contaminants. A study by Cook et al. (1985) found an increase in mean annual
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sediments above this new unconformity. A third depositional sequence is found in the Late Ordovician, separated from the Middle Ordovician by local erosion and clastic sediments, consists of a shale base topped with more shale interbedded with limestone and
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Although preservation of the moraine was first suggested in the 1940s, it was not until 1991 that the issue achieved prominence in political discourse. Part of the reason for its entry into political discourse, was due to the formation, in 1989, of the
131:). This region has been subject to multiple decades of scientific research to study the origins of formation, and how early communities used the land. A larger focus currently is how to source potable water without removing the aquifer entirely (see
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government announced a six-month moratorium on moraine development. A panel was formed to create a land-use plan consistent with the current "smart growth" policy. The plan was released in October 2001, and became the basis for Bill 122, the
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Late Archaic artifacts c. 3800 BP have also been found at the Silver Stream site, near the headwaters of the Rouge River on Leslie Street, just north of Major Mackenzie Drive, and at the Esox site, on the eastern shore of Lake Wilcox.
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on and below its surface, particularly in the headwaters. The estimated current population on the moraine land itself is roughly 200,000 but this number continues to grow at a frantic pace, with large urban developments occurring in
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aged sediments. This broad range of thickness is representative of the unequal effects of regional erosion, uplift, sedimentary deposition and continental processes (tectonics, building and destroying of continents).
119:). Construction development nearby, and with expansion of communities around the moraine in need of potable water, it is a contested site in Ontario, since it stands in the path of major urban development (see
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Research conducted in the 1990s revealed that the moraine has multiple origins: its eastern area has subglacial depositions (Gorrell and McCrae, 1993); early parts of the moraine were deposited in an
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as a first sequence only to be stripped away by erosion in the Middle Ordovician. Sea transgression during continent reformation in the Middle Ordovician brought in a second sequence of deposition as
646:, instantaneous discharge, and hydrograph peak flow as a result of urbanization: "...changes in land use coincided with changes in volumetric and time distribution aspects of hydrologic response".
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glacial period. Ice melt from the Niagara Escarpment flowed into the western boundaries of the moraine, wherein conduits beneath the ice expanded to form a west-to-east passage between the main
125:). Conservation of the moraine is thus an important step for keeping aquifers in a safe drinkable condition while also protecting the natural ecosystems surrounding and within the moraine (see
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are threatened by development pressures. Attractive forests and hilly relief typical of the moraine are a magnet for developers looking for building opportunities in the densely populated
350:. There may also be sequences of sediments decreasing in size from medium sands to silts and clays up to ten's of metres thick. Above these sediments lie clayey-silt to silt till of the
286:. The wedges may have formed in a relatively short period of time, perhaps no more than a few hundred years, as indicated by the annual deposition cycles in glacial lakes (known as
1443:"Regional subglacial quarrying and abrasion below hard-bedded palaeo-ice streams crossing the Shield–Palaeozoic boundary of central Canada: the importance of substrate control"
330:
are 10 to 25 metres of gravels or 10-to-75-metre (33 to 246 ft) sands that decrease in grain size during later deposition following a period of slowing meltwater runoff.
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of stony, silty sand and sandy-silt diamicton ranging from 5 to 50 metres (16 to 164 ft) thick and is thought to extend southward under Lake Ontario. Cutting into the
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of sand, silt and clay, which rest directly above the regional time unconformity up to 100 metres (330 ft) thick in some areas. These lower deposits are thought to be
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85:, below) during the last glaciation period. Below the approximately 200 metre thick glacial derived sediments of the moraine lies thick bedrock successions of
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period. Rivers and lakes scatter the landscape and are important for creating habitat for the rich diversity of species of animals, trees and shrubbery (see
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derived, and contain from bottom to top: York Till, Don Interglacial beds, Scarborough Formation, Sunnybrook Till and Thorncliffe Formation. Next comes the
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of Precambrian age lie below Ordovician aged limestones and shales in much of the Oak Ridges Moraine area. These come from a period of continental scale
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858:. This rapid development is especially apparent in Oak Ridges, where land previously set aside for conservation has, as of 2009, been opened up by the
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promised to terminate development on the moraine as part of their election campaign. The government, in its attempt to halt developments, proposed the
706:
1783:
Fisher, John R.; Alexander, Donald H.M. (1993). "The Symbolic Landscape of the Oak Ridges Moraine: Its Influence on Conservation in Ontario, Canada".
1879:
709:. This has become the accepted explanation for the moraine's development, though research in the 1970s suggested the moraine may not be interlobate.
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estimates the bedrock thickness to range between 50 and 500 metres (160 and 1,640 ft) thick, below approximately 200 metres (660 ft) of
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in the west to the Trent River in the east. He also proposed that its origin was overlapping, interlobate glaciation retreat, between the
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The Oak Ridges Moraine is a pair of large ridges composed of four elevated wedges. It is bounded to the west by the Niagara Escarpment, a
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in eastern North America about 1.2 to 1.3 billion years ago. This area of the Grenville Province is mainly composed of metamorphosed
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Near the Rice Lake wedge and Peterborough drumlin field are a couple of low-lying terrain plains and small hills on bedrock basement.
1518:"Hydrogeology of the Oak Ridges Moraine aquifer system: implications for protection and management from the Duffins Creek watershed"
249:. Sedimentary glaciofluvial areas form the core of the Oak Ridges Moraine, though restricted to subglacial cavity fills of confined
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uplands. The channel tunnels were primarily created by the erosion from glacial rivers, a typical process before moraine formation.
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Using downhole geophysical logs to provide detailed lithology and stratigraphic assignment, Oak Ridges Moraine, southern Ontario
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818:. The exchange settled outstanding disputes being considered by the OMB involving moraine lands in Richmond Hill and Uxbridge.
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1030:"Quaternary geology of the Lindsay and Peterborough areas, southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 6321"
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Bukhari, Syed; Eyles, Nick; Sookhan, Shane; Mulligan, Riley; Paulen, Roger; Krabbendam, Maarten; Putkinen, Niko (July 2021).
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communities to develop and thrive. The moraine contains one of the last large contiguous forested spans in southern Ontario.
253:. Overlaying this core is a glaciolacustrine sedimentary layer that is younger and topographically lower, principally in the
552:. Unique ecosystems in the moraine include wetlands similar to those of boreal forests in Northern Ontario, and remnants of
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292:) within the moraine sediments. However, the lowest beds in the moraine may have experienced synchronous sedimentation.
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is a threatened species in Canada. Happy Valley Forests is one of the few remaining Canadian habitats for this species.
71:, the moraine gets its name from the rolling hills and river valleys extending 160 km (99 mi) east from the
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Moreover, because it is a rich resource for sand and gravel, it has become a significant source of materials for the
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113:). These are also the supply of fresh water to aquifers in the moraine through complex subterranean connections (see
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Barnett, P.J.; Sharpe, D.R.; Russell, H.A.J.; Brennand, T.A.; Gorrell, G.; Kenny, F.M.; Pugin, A. (October 1998).
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on the moraine which would house over 100,000 people. On July 20, 1999, Minister of Municipal Affairs and Housing
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surface. Up to 150 metres (490 ft) in some areas, the deposits occurred on surfaces defined by highly eroded
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is also active and are raising funds to protect a 5.4 km (1,300 acres) property called Happy Valley Forest.
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Local concerns for preserving wildlife habitat on the moraine have increased in recent years. In April 2000, the
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was formed. The ORMLT is a non-profit organization that raises funds to protect areas on the moraine through
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565:
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1226:"Evidence for large-scale subglacial meltwater flood events in southern Ontario and northern New York State"
1179:"Gravity interpretation of bedrock topography: the case of the Oak Ridges Moraine, southern Ontario, Canada"
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1920:
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1053:"Regional unconformities and the sedimentary architecture of the Oak Ridges Moraine area, southern Ontario"
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1490:"Achieving Ecological Integrity on the Oak Ridges Moraine: Towards Ecologically Relevant Water Management"
1317:. Pt. 2. Vol. 4. Ontario Geological Survey Special Volume. pp. 914–915, 924, 934–935, 940, 989.
410:. Above this is yet another unconformity, this time due to sea regression in the Late Ordovician to Early
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878:. However, many planners and residents see a need to preserve the moraine from the negative aspects of
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Barnett, P J; Sharpe, D R; Russell, Haj; Brennand, T A; Gorrell, G; Kenny, F; Pugin, A (1998-10-01).
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that are globally threatened ecosystems. A representative portion of the moraine may be found in the
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Geology of the Precambrian Superior and Grenville Provinces and Precambrian Fossils in North America
1265:"Evidence for rapid sedimentation in a tunnel channel, Oak Ridges Moraine, southern Ontario, Canada"
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Sharpe, D R; Barnett, P J; Brennand, T A; Finley, D; Gorrell, G; Russell, H A J; Stacey, P (1997).
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groups built on the public opposition of the developments, and the issue was transferred to the
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1960:
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716:(Brennand and Shaw, 1994); and that the moraine is not continuous, but is composed of multiple
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is not present over the entire expanse of the moraine, cropping out locally and interspersed.
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conducted the first investigation of the moraine. He noted the elevation, and styled the area
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Looking southwest at The Oak Ridges Moraine from the North Monaghan Parkway in Peterborough.
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Despite all these efforts, including the government's creation of a permanently protected
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1130:"Surficial geology of the Greater Toronto and Oak Ridges Moraine area, southern Ontario"
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time allowed large scale erosion to occur in this geographic region, to the onset of
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stratigraphic package start as coarse sands and gravels whereas upper sediments are
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and outright purchases. They have protected 6 square kilometres (1,500 acres). The
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In the late stages of its development, random unstratified accumulation (known as
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covers a geographic area of 1,900 square kilometres (730 sq mi) between
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Linking Science and Policy for Urban Nonpoint Pollution in the Great Lakes Region
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for development. Another five million people live in close proximity. Use of the
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Johnson, M.D; Armstrong, D.K.; Sanford, B.V; Telford, P.G.; Rutka, M.A. (1992).
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lands) for privately owned lands on the Oak Ridges Moraine in Richmond Hill and
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Some of the wide variety of plant and animal species found in the moraine are
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720:: subglacial, ice-marginal and proglacial lacustrine (Barnett et al., 1998).
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The Oak Ridges Moraine's hydrological system is a major constituent of the
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Characteristic of this moraine is the transition of deposition layers from
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which was critical to the formation of the moraine, and to the east by the
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at the Government of Ontario Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing
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1177:
Annecchione, Maria A; Chouteau, Michel; Keating, Pierre (2001-05-01).
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Sharpe, David; Pugin, André; Pullan, Susan; Shaw, John (2004-02-01).
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1599:"Issues in Stormwater Quality and Quantity in the Humber:Background"
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1693:. International Association for Great Lakes Research. November 2002
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is visible in the centre of the picture as it ascends the Moraine.
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to Rice Lake, formed 12,000 years ago by advancing and retreating
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1811:"Conservation - Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA)"
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time. Large gaps in deposition from the Early Silurian through
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Russell, H. A. J; Arnott, R. W. C; Sharpe, D. R (2003-08-01).
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is another regional unconformity, which led to coarse grained
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1983:
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Government of Canada, Natural Resources Canada (2015-12-07).
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is currently under dispute; environmental groups such as the
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By May 2001, with the issue still unresolved, the provincial
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Stratified sediment was deposited rapidly on the high-relief
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which may continue south of Rice Lake and the Rice Lake wedge
1377:"An Overview of Grenville Province Geology, Canadian Shield"
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1740:. Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing. Archived from
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10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<1169:EFLSSM>2.3.CO;2
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In early 1999, developers targeted Richmond Hill for large
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and subsequent sediment deposition. A 1997 report from the
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stratigraphy in the region, namely from two glacial lakes,
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825:, the political struggle regarding the moraine continues.
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This involved exchanging government-owned public lands in
1104:. Geological Survey of Canada, Current Research 2002-E8.
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525:, have provided an environment suitable for significant
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The greatest threat to the function of the moraine is
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Basement layers are composed of Early Ordovician aged
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settlement site on the eastern shore of Lake Wilcox.
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361:Glacial lake sediments cap the entire sequence of
1516:Gerber, Richard E.; Ken Howard (September 2002).
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3001:Landforms of the Regional Municipality of Durham
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16:Glacial till landform above Lake Ontario, Canada
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1098:Pullan, S.E.; Hunter, J.A.; Good, R.L. (2002).
338:, atop the unconformity. Lower deposits of the
3006:Landforms of the Regional Municipality of Peel
2996:Landforms of the Regional Municipality of York
2326:Withrow Moraine and Jameson Lake Drumlin Field
764:Oak Ridges Moraine Technical Working Committee
674:, identifying the portion of moraine north of
211:The Oak Ridges Moraine probably formed in the
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724:moraine. The Geological Survey of Canada and
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798:During the provincial election of 2003, the
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689:Taylor formally defined the landform as the
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2320:Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area
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1841:Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Plan (2017)
1765:. Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing
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509:. Varied landforms on the moraine, such as
67:. One of the most significant landforms in
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1224:Shaw, John; Gilbert, Robert (1990-12-01).
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497:flowing south into rivers that drain into
1847:Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Act, 2001
1836:Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing
1763:"More facts about the Oak Ridges Moraine"
1755:
1624:"On the Origin of the Oak Ridges Moraine"
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1315:Paleozoic and Mesozoic geology of Ontario
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959:"On the origin of the Oak Ridges Moraine"
793:Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Act, 2001
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2254:Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail
2218:Chippewa Moraine State Recreation Area
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889:industry of the Greater Toronto Area.
762:The Government of Ontario created the
732:and hydrology throughout the moraine.
501:and north into rivers that drain into
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1861:
582:Hydrography of the Oak Ridges Moraine
540:in Canada and Ontario, including the
493:moraine is the water source for many
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103:of erosion and non-deposition to the
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1687:"Case Study: The Oak Ridges Moraine"
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2260:Ice Age National Scientific Reserve
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631:Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Act
306:the onset of glaciation. There are
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1631:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences
1522:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences
1348:"GEOSCAN Search Results: Fastlink"
1057:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences
963:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences
750:Politics of the Oak Ridges Moraine
590:system of the Oak Ridges Moraine:
586:A number of features comprise the
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2248:Horicon Marsh State Wildlife Area
1825:
1488:Bradford, Andrea; Stephen Maude.
485:Ecology of the Oak Ridges Moraine
127:
2922:
2921:
2538:
2537:
2193:Origin of the Oak Ridges Moraine
594:permanent and ephemeral streams,
463:, both from sedimentary origin.
207:Origin of the Oak Ridges Moraine
153:and Rice Lake. The four wedges (
2820:Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System
1849:at Government of Ontario e-Laws
1803:
1776:
1738:"North Pickering Land Exchange"
1704:
1567:
1368:
1339:
892:
376:
334:sediments comprise the base of
140:
2256:, Idaho, Oregon and Washington
1256:
1217:
1091:
1021:
997:
950:
804:North Pickering Land Exchange.
115:
89:rocks and up to 200 metres of
1:
2883:Aquifers in the United States
2500:Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal
1853:Oak Ridges Moraine Land Trust
1834:at the Government of Ontario
1713:"Save the Oak Ridges Moraine"
1289:10.1016/S0037-0738(02)00335-4
1203:10.1016/S0926-9851(01)00047-7
1183:Journal of Applied Geophysics
903:Oak Ridges Moraine Land Trust
870:maintain the area's delicate
542:West Virginia white butterfly
99:below), capped by a regional
2888:Aquifer storage and recovery
2635:Buried Valley Aquifer System
2583:
1921:Glacial history of Minnesota
928:Greenbelt (Golden Horseshoe)
911:Nature Conservancy of Canada
575:
340:Oak Ridges Moraine sediments
336:Oak Ridges Moraine sediments
177:uplands, referred to as the
109:
95:
7:
2284:Kettle Moraine State Forest
2187:Lion's Head Provincial Park
916:
757:Save the Oak Ridges Moraine
684:Geological Survey of Canada
424:Geological Survey of Canada
363:Oak Ridges Moraine sediment
179:Peterborough drumlin field,
10:
3027:
2991:Natural history of Ontario
2685:Santa Clara valley aquifer
2430:Penultimate Glacial Period
2157:Big Rock (glacial erratic)
1375:Davidson, A (1998-01-01).
860:Richmond Hill Town Council
747:
660:Koffler Scientific Reserve
579:
482:
466:
346:fine sands and silts with
295:
204:
2916:
2870:
2844:
2828:
2802:
2786:
2750:
2729:
2713:
2655:Kirkwood–Cohansey aquifer
2617:
2591:
2533:
2495:Late Glacial Interstadial
2402:
2376:
2345:
2274:, Minnesota and Wisconsin
2208:
2151:Arrowhead Provincial Park
2143:
2127:
2068:
2017:
1976:
1969:
1926:List of prehistoric lakes
1893:
726:Ontario Geological Survey
718:depositional environments
620:and other recharge areas.
219:and a mass of ice in the
2450:Holocene glacial retreat
2242:Glacial Lakes State Park
2181:Foothills Erratics Train
938:List of glacial moraines
800:Liberal Party of Ontario
2604:Laurentian River System
2490:Bølling–Allerød warming
2230:Devil's Lake State Park
2199:Ovayok Territorial Park
1888:Continental glaciations
1651:10.1139/cjes-35-10-1152
1389:10.1130/dnag-gna-c1.205
781:Ontario Municipal Board
650:Research on the moraine
23:The Oak Ridges Moraine.
2836:Yarkon-Taninim Aquifer
2815:Lotikipi Basin Aquifer
2695:Southern Hills Aquifer
2332:Yosemite National Park
2236:Glacial Lake Wisconsin
2175:Eskers Provincial Park
2163:Cypress Hills (Canada)
1961:Timeline of glaciation
1155:Cite journal requires
907:conservation easements
728:both investigate hydro
663:
601:kettle lakes and ponds
480:
261:areas of the moraine.
197:
24:
2599:Arkell Spring Grounds
2475:Quaternary glaciation
2410:Quaternary glaciation
2308:Mill Bluff State Park
2272:Interstate State Park
2086:Giant current ripples
1901:Cordilleran ice sheet
1603:University of Toronto
833:Development pressures
657:
474:
420:Quaternary glaciation
191:
22:
2768:Great Artesian Basin
2758:Botany Sands Aquifer
2485:Wisconsin glaciation
2440:Last Glacial Maximum
1956:Post-glacial rebound
1911:Last Glacial Maximum
1906:Laurentide ice sheet
1497:University of Guelph
1383:. pp. 205–270.
1028:Marich, A.S (2016).
944:References and notes
923:Conservation Ontario
876:Greater Toronto Area
562:Happy Valley Forests
546:Jefferson salamander
491:ecologically diverse
217:Laurentide Ice Sheet
2986:Moraines of Ontario
2953: /
2903:Sole Source Aquifer
2690:Snake River Aquifer
2675:San Diego Formation
2650:Fox Hills Formation
2470:Pre-Illinoian Stage
2435:Last Glacial Period
2224:Coteau des Prairies
2135:Greenland ice sheet
1643:1998CaJES..35.1152B
1534:2002CaJES..39.1333G
1352:geoscan.nrcan.gc.ca
1281:2003SedG..160...33R
1269:Sedimentary Geology
1242:1990Geo....18.1169S
1195:2001JAG....47...63A
1069:2004CaJES..41..183S
975:1998CaJES..35.1152B
759:(STORM) Coalition.
550:red-shouldered hawk
521:, kettle lakes and
435:Precambrian bedrock
3011:Aquifers in Canada
2981:Oak Ridges Moraine
2778:Yarragadee Aquifer
2609:Oak Ridges Moraine
2515:4.2 kiloyear event
2510:8.2 kiloyear event
2445:Mousterian Pluvial
2177:, British Columbia
1832:Oak Ridges Moraine
1579:Oak Ridges Moraine
691:Oak Ridges Moraine
664:
610:seepage areas and
495:headwaters streams
481:
441:Grenville Province
201:Geological origins
198:
82:geological origins
73:Niagara Escarpment
29:Oak Ridges Moraine
25:
2957:44.050°N 78.867°W
2936:
2935:
2908:Surficial aquifer
2862:Upper Rhine Plain
2810:Bas Saharan Basin
2551:
2550:
2520:Piora Oscillation
2480:Sangamonian Stage
2341:
2340:
2123:
2122:
2119:
2118:
1711:STORM Coalition.
1459:10.1111/bor.12522
1236:(12): 1169–1172.
1005:"Toronto-Moraine"
969:(10): 1152–1167.
703:Lake Ontario Lobe
554:tallgrass prairie
386:Paleozoic bedrock
301:Glacial sediments
173:To the north are
43:of south-central
3018:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2958:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2949:
2946:
2925:
2924:
2898:Artesian aquifer
2878:List of aquifers
2871:Related articles
2794:Waiwhetu Aquifer
2665:Ogallala Aquifer
2645:Floridan aquifer
2625:Biscayne Aquifer
2578:
2571:
2564:
2555:
2554:
2541:
2540:
2141:
2140:
2066:
2065:
2050:Terminal moraine
1974:
1973:
1882:
1875:
1868:
1859:
1858:
1819:
1818:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1715:. Archived from
1708:
1702:
1701:
1699:
1698:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1667:
1661:. Archived from
1628:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1586:
1585:
1571:
1565:
1564:
1562:
1561:
1552:. Archived from
1528:(9): 1333–1348.
1513:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1503:
1494:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1438:
1429:
1428:
1422:
1418:
1416:
1408:
1406:
1405:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1363:
1343:
1337:
1336:
1310:
1301:
1300:
1260:
1254:
1253:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1174:
1165:
1164:
1158:
1153:
1151:
1143:
1141:
1125:
1114:
1113:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1048:
1037:
1036:
1034:
1025:
1019:
1018:
1016:
1015:
1001:
995:
994:
954:
933:Terminal moraine
839:land development
744:Political action
707:Lake Simcoe Lobe
658:Entrance to the
640:Humber Watershed
635:catchment area.
326:sediments. Some
247:glaciolacustrine
122:political action
69:southern Ontario
41:Mixedwood Plains
39:landform in the
3026:
3025:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3017:
3016:
3015:
2971:
2970:
2962:44.050; -78.867
2961:
2959:
2955:
2952:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2932:
2912:
2866:
2857:Schwyll Aquifer
2852:Alnarpsströmmen
2840:
2824:
2798:
2782:
2746:
2737:Guarani Aquifer
2725:
2709:
2680:Sankoty Aquifer
2660:Mahomet Aquifer
2640:Edwards Aquifer
2630:Bishop Subbasin
2613:
2587:
2582:
2552:
2547:
2529:
2415:Illinoian Stage
2398:
2389:Lambert Glacier
2372:
2358:Killary Harbour
2337:
2290:Lake Bonneville
2210:
2204:
2139:
2115:
2064:
2013:
2009:U-shaped valley
1999:Roche moutonnée
1965:
1931:Proglacial lake
1916:Canadian Shield
1889:
1886:
1828:
1823:
1822:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1781:
1777:
1768:
1766:
1761:
1760:
1756:
1747:
1745:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1722:
1720:
1709:
1705:
1696:
1694:
1685:
1684:
1680:
1671:
1669:
1665:
1626:
1620:
1616:
1607:
1605:
1597:
1596:
1592:
1583:
1581:
1573:
1572:
1568:
1559:
1557:
1542:10.1139/e02-058
1514:
1510:
1501:
1499:
1492:
1486:
1482:
1439:
1432:
1420:
1419:
1410:
1409:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1373:
1369:
1344:
1340:
1325:
1311:
1304:
1261:
1257:
1222:
1218:
1175:
1168:
1156:
1154:
1145:
1144:
1126:
1117:
1096:
1092:
1077:10.1139/e04-001
1049:
1040:
1032:
1026:
1022:
1013:
1011:
1003:
1002:
998:
983:10.1139/e98-062
955:
951:
946:
919:
895:
835:
808:North Pickering
783:(OMB) in 2000.
776:Steve Gilchrist
752:
746:
652:
605:catchment areas
584:
578:
538:species at risk
487:
469:
439:Rocks from the
437:
388:
379:
312:proglacial lake
303:
298:
251:subaqueous fans
209:
203:
143:
93:aged rock (see
17:
12:
11:
5:
3024:
3014:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2934:
2933:
2931:
2930:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2848:
2846:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2806:
2804:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2796:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2775:
2773:Jandakot Mound
2770:
2765:
2763:Gnangara Mound
2760:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2739:
2733:
2731:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2717:
2715:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2621:
2619:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2588:
2581:
2580:
2573:
2566:
2558:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2527:
2525:Little Ice Age
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2396:
2394:Ross Ice Shelf
2391:
2386:
2380:
2378:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2353:Hardangerfjord
2349:
2347:
2343:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2335:
2329:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2299:
2293:
2287:
2281:
2278:Kelleys Island
2275:
2269:
2263:
2257:
2251:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2226:, South Dakota
2221:
2214:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2196:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2166:
2165:, Saskatchewan
2160:
2154:
2147:
2145:
2138:
2137:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2117:
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2088:
2083:
2078:
2072:
2070:
2063:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1989:Glacial striae
1986:
1980:
1978:
1971:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1884:
1877:
1870:
1862:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1844:
1838:
1827:
1826:External links
1824:
1821:
1820:
1802:
1775:
1754:
1729:
1703:
1678:
1614:
1590:
1566:
1508:
1480:
1453:(3): 781–805.
1430:
1421:|website=
1397:
1367:
1361:10.4095/210859
1338:
1323:
1302:
1255:
1216:
1166:
1157:|journal=
1139:10.4095/209298
1115:
1090:
1063:(2): 183–198.
1038:
1020:
996:
948:
947:
945:
942:
941:
940:
935:
930:
925:
918:
915:
894:
891:
834:
831:
748:Main article:
745:
742:
705:and the older
682:conducted the
651:
648:
622:
621:
615:
608:
598:
595:
580:Main article:
577:
574:
483:Main article:
477:hooded warbler
468:
465:
436:
433:
387:
384:
378:
375:
367:Lake Algonquin
320:Newmarket Till
316:Newmarket Till
308:lower deposits
302:
299:
297:
294:
213:Late Wisconsin
205:Main article:
202:
199:
142:
139:
15:
9:
6:
4:
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2740:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2730:South America
2728:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2712:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2700:Turlock Basin
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2670:Permian Basin
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2618:United States
2616:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
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2579:
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2526:
2523:
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2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2505:Younger Dryas
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
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2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2401:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2375:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2318:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2302:Lake Missoula
2300:
2297:
2296:Lake Lahontan
2294:
2291:
2288:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2266:Ice Age Trail
2264:
2261:
2258:
2255:
2252:
2249:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2207:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2169:Eramosa River
2167:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2128:North America
2126:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2060:Veiki moraine
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2045:Rogen moraine
2043:
2041:
2040:Pulju moraine
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2030:Erratic block
2028:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2016:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2004:Tunnel valley
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1975:
1972:
1968:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
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1668:on 2007-08-24
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368:
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30:
21:
2938:
2920:
2893:Aquifer test
2721:Lake Texcoco
2608:
2455:Oldest Dryas
2425:Interstadial
2420:Interglacial
2403:Time periods
2334:, California
2328:, Washington
2069:Glacifluvial
2018:Depositional
1941:Lake Chicago
1936:Lake Agassiz
1814:
1805:
1788:
1785:Environments
1784:
1778:
1767:. Retrieved
1757:
1746:. Retrieved
1742:the original
1732:
1721:. Retrieved
1717:the original
1706:
1695:. Retrieved
1690:
1681:
1670:. Retrieved
1663:the original
1637:(10): 1152.
1634:
1630:
1617:
1606:. Retrieved
1593:
1582:. Retrieved
1578:
1569:
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1554:the original
1525:
1521:
1511:
1500:. Retrieved
1483:
1450:
1446:
1402:. Retrieved
1380:
1370:
1351:
1341:
1314:
1275:(1): 33–55.
1272:
1268:
1258:
1233:
1229:
1219:
1189:(1): 63–81.
1186:
1182:
1148:cite journal
1100:
1093:
1060:
1056:
1023:
1012:. Retrieved
1009:CGEN Archive
1008:
999:
966:
962:
952:
900:
896:
893:Conservation
884:
880:urban sprawl
836:
827:
820:
803:
797:
792:
788:Conservative
785:
772:subdivisions
769:
763:
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738:
734:
730:stratigraphy
722:
711:
690:
688:
671:
665:
637:
629:
627:
623:
603:, and their
588:hydrological
585:
537:
535:
519:watercourses
499:Lake Ontario
488:
438:
389:
380:
377:Unconformity
362:
360:
355:
351:
348:channel fill
347:
339:
335:
332:Channel fill
331:
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324:channel fill
323:
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307:
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265:
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240:
225:
221:Lake Ontario
210:
182:
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166:
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158:
154:
144:
141:Physiography
132:
128:conservation
126:
121:
114:
108:
101:unconformity
94:
81:
65:Peterborough
33:ecologically
28:
26:
2960: /
2829:Middle-East
2787:New Zealand
2742:Hamza River
2465:Pleistocene
2460:Older Dryas
2322:, Wisconsin
2314:Oneida Lake
2310:, Wisconsin
2286:, Wisconsin
2268:, Wisconsin
2262:, Wisconsin
2250:, Wisconsin
2244:, Minnesota
2238:, Wisconsin
2232:, Wisconsin
2220:, Wisconsin
2106:Outwash fan
2101:Kettle hole
1994:Ribbon lake
1951:Teays River
868:Sierra Club
844:Stouffville
668:John Bigsby
568:, north of
566:York Region
507:Lake Simcoe
503:Lake Scugog
428:Pleistocene
356:Halton Till
352:Halton Till
344:interbedded
194:Highway 115
175:drumlinized
151:Trent River
87:Precambrian
2975:Categories
2384:Antarctica
2377:Antarctica
2363:Monte Rosa
2316:, New York
2096:Kame delta
2055:Till plain
1946:Lake Tight
1815:trca.on.ca
1797:10613/2830
1769:2006-06-16
1748:2006-06-16
1723:2007-07-27
1697:2006-06-16
1672:2006-06-16
1608:2006-06-16
1584:2023-03-24
1560:2006-06-16
1502:2006-06-16
1404:2023-03-10
1398:0660131358
1014:2023-03-24
872:ecosystems
461:turbidites
408:siltstones
405:calcareous
137:section).
105:Quaternary
91:Ordovician
37:geological
35:important
2751:Australia
2304:, Montana
2201:, Nunavut
2195:, Ontario
2189:, Ontario
2183:, Alberta
2171:, Ontario
2159:, Alberta
2153:, Ontario
1977:Erosional
1970:Landforms
1659:1480-3313
1550:1480-3313
1475:236628890
1467:0300-9483
1423:ignored (
1413:cite book
1333:0827-181X
1297:0037-0738
1211:0926-9851
1110:1701-4387
1085:0008-4077
991:0008-4077
887:aggregate
823:Greenbelt
672:Oak Ridge
666:In 1829,
597:wetlands,
576:Hydrology
511:woodlands
400:carbonate
392:dolostone
284:Rice Lake
280:Pontytool
267:diamicton
228:erosional
167:Rice Lake
163:Pontypool
116:hydrology
61:Rice Lake
2927:Category
2705:Wekepeke
2585:Aquifers
2543:Category
2368:Svalbard
2298:, Nevada
2076:Diluvium
1132:: 3062.
917:See also
816:Uxbridge
618:aquifers
515:wetlands
453:mylonite
416:Mesozoic
412:Silurian
276:Uxbridge
232:channels
159:Uxbridge
134:research
77:glaciers
2948:78°52′W
2945:44°03′N
2346:Eurasia
2035:Moraine
2025:Drumlin
1894:General
1639:Bibcode
1575:"Water"
1530:Bibcode
1277:Bibcode
1238:Bibcode
1230:Geology
1191:Bibcode
1065:Bibcode
971:Bibcode
864:moraine
848:Vaughan
676:Toronto
612:springs
570:Toronto
558:savanna
467:Ecology
459:or meta
457:marbles
445:orogeny
396:clastic
296:Geology
236:drumlin
223:basin.
110:ecology
96:geology
63:, near
57:Caledon
53:moraine
45:Ontario
2845:Europe
2803:Africa
2714:Mexico
2592:Canada
2292:, Utah
2280:, Ohio
2211:States
2209:United
2144:Canada
2111:Sandur
1657:
1548:
1473:
1465:
1447:Boreas
1395:
1331:
1321:
1295:
1209:
1108:
1083:
989:
856:Aurora
854:, and
812:Seaton
644:runoff
548:, and
449:gneiss
289:varves
272:Albion
155:Albion
147:cuesta
51:. The
49:Canada
31:is an
2081:Esker
1984:Fjord
1791:(1).
1666:(PDF)
1627:(PDF)
1493:(PDF)
1471:S2CID
1033:(PDF)
810:(the
714:esker
699:Maple
614:, and
564:, in
531:fauna
527:flora
259:basin
255:delta
79:(see
2091:Kame
1655:ISSN
1546:ISSN
1463:ISSN
1425:help
1393:ISBN
1329:ISSN
1319:ISBN
1293:ISSN
1207:ISSN
1161:help
1106:ISSN
1081:ISSN
987:ISSN
697:and
695:King
628:The
529:and
523:bogs
505:and
489:The
475:The
451:and
398:and
369:and
282:and
257:and
234:and
165:and
59:and
27:The
1793:hdl
1647:doi
1538:doi
1455:doi
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