Switzerland during the World Wars

1337:. In World War II, Switzerland, and to a lesser extent Sweden and the United States, performed these roles for both sides. When the US entered the war in late 1941, Switzerland took over its mandates. In terms of major roles Swiss diplomats had the mandate to protect Germany's interest in Britain, the United States, Yugoslavia, Turkey, and Dutch Indonesia. Switzerland protected British interests in Germany, France, Italy, Hungary, Romania and Japan. It protected Vichy France's interests in Britain, the United States, Italy, Egypt and Brazil. It protected Italy's interest in Egypt and Brazil. It protected the United States interest in Germany, France, Italy, Japan, China and Denmark. It protected Japan's interest in Britain, the United States, Egypt and Argentina. The diplomats arranged travel permissions, helping tens of thousands of people to return to their home countries after being trapped in an enemy nation. Swiss diplomats also supervised closed enemy embassies. Of special importance was the protection provided prisoners of war, especially the sick and wounded. 1304: 1756: 58: 1276:

could only be granted to those who were under personal threat owing to their political activities only; it did not include those who were under threat due to race, religion or ethnicity. On the basis of this definition, Switzerland granted asylum to only 644 people between 1933 and 1945; of these, 252 cases were admitted during the war. All other refugees were admitted by the individual cantons and were granted different permits, including a "tolerance permit" that allowed them to live in the canton but not to work. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned 300,000 refugees. Of these, 104,000 were foreign troops interned according to the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers outlined in the

1056:, but the special nature of the trials was made clear in their files. Swiss police had received word of Pauli, who'd fled to Switzerland to avoid prosecution, from the French in 1947. Pauli, who denied any involvement in war crimes, was initially released due to a lack of evidence. Over the next few years, however, prosecutors compiled evidence and witness testimony against him. In 1951, under questioning, Pauli finally admitted to his involvement in the executions of two prisoners. He was also one of the two main participants in the Offenburg massacre, in which SS men massacred 41 concentration camp prisoners who were too weak to walk in 1945, and had been the leader of a six-man 323: 512: 3432: 853: 1064:, where he was most likely involved in the Holocaust. However, neither of these things were known at the time. In 1953, he was found guilty of murder for executing a prisoner for looting and ordering the executions of two other prisoners without trial, and sentenced to 12 years in prison. Pauli was released from prison in 1961, and died in 1969. According to historian Martin Faust, the participation of Swiss citizens in Nazi war crimes is "a topic that has so far been dealt with almost completely by German historiography and only insufficiently by Swiss historiography." 449: 315: 481:. Switzerland had an outpost and a hotel (which was destroyed as it was used by the Austrians) on the peak. During the war, fierce battles were fought in the ice and snow of the area, with gunfire coming on to Swiss territory. The three nations made an agreement not to fire over Swiss territory, which jutted out between Austria (to the north) and Italy (to the south). Instead they could fire down the pass, as Swiss territory was around the peak. In one incident, a Swiss soldier was killed at his outpost on 1265: 1280:. The rest were foreign civilians and were either interned or granted tolerance or residence permits by the cantonal authorities. Refugees were not allowed to hold jobs. Of the refugees, 60,000 were civilians escaping persecution by the Nazis. Of these 60,000, 27,000 were Jews. The official Swiss narrative on this subject was largely focused on Switzerland's generosity and tolerance, while refugees were portrayed as a burden. This attitude can clearly be seen in an article by 5438: 245: 865: 574: 5426: 1769:

coal shipments to Italy while the Allies, despite some plans to do so, took no action as they wanted to maintain good relations with Switzerland. Between 1939 and 1945 Germany exported 10,267,000 tons of coal to Switzerland. In 1943 these imports supplied 41% of Swiss energy requirements. In the same period Switzerland sold electric power to Germany equivalent to 6,077,000 tons of coal.

1048:

establishment to reinforce a convenient and simplistic myth over its wartime past. However, they constituted a genuine national cleansing of Nazism by targeting key ideological figures in Switzerland's Nazi movement. Many Swiss volunteers in the Waffen-SS were tried on lesser charges, including desertion, dereliction of duty, and unauthorized border crossing.

413:-speaking populations sided with the Entente Powers, which would cause internal conflict in 1918. However, the country managed to keep out of the war, although it was blockaded by the Allies and therefore suffered some difficulties. Nevertheless, because Switzerland was centrally located, neutral, and generally undamaged, the war allowed the growth of the 1383:. Each side openly exerted pressure on Switzerland not to trade with the other. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion, and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached their zenith after a crucial rail link through 1768:

continued. North–South transit trade across Switzerland increased from 2.5 million tons before the war to nearly 6 million tons per year. No troops or "war goods" were supposed to be transshipped. Switzerland was concerned that Germany would cease the supply of the coal it required if it blocked

464:

Once it became clear that the Allies and the Central Powers would respect Swiss neutrality, the number of troops deployed began to drop. After September 1914, some soldiers were released to return to their farms and to vital industries. By November 1916 the Swiss had only 38,000 men in the army. This

436:

had about 220,000 men under his command. By 11 August Wille had deployed much of the army along the Jura border with France, with smaller units deployed along the eastern and southern borders. This remained unchanged until May 1915 when Italy entered the war on the Entente side, at which point troops

1284:

for the “Weekly” magazine in London, 1938. Between 10,000 and 24,000 Jewish civilian refugees were refused entry. These refugees were refused entry on the claim of 'dwindling supplies'. Of those refused entry, a Swiss government representative said, "Our little lifeboat is full." At the beginning of

1085:

was especially furious when he saw that German equipment was used to shoot down German pilots. He said they would respond "in another manner". On 20 June, the Swiss air force was ordered to stop intercepting planes violating Swiss airspace. Swiss fighters began instead to force intruding aircraft to

1299:

Switzerland's treatment of Jewish refugees has been criticized by scholars of the Holocaust. In 1999 an international panel of historians declared that Switzerland was "guilty of acting as an accomplice to the Holocaust when it refused to accept many thousands of fleeing Jews, and instead sent them

593:

in Zürich they put on performances expressing their disgust with the war and with the interests that inspired it. By some accounts Dada coalesced on 6 October 1916 at the cabaret. The artists used abstraction to fight against the social, political, and cultural ideas of that time that they believed

1275:

As a neutral state bordering Germany, Switzerland was relatively easy to reach for refugees from the Nazis. Switzerland's refugee laws, especially with respect to Jews fleeing Germany, were strict and have caused controversy since the end of World War II. From 1933 until 1944 asylum for refugees

1223:

The Swiss, although somewhat skeptical, reacted by treating these violations of their neutrality as "accidents". The United States was warned that single aircraft would be forced down and their crews would still be allowed to seek refuge, while bomber formations in violation of airspace would be

927:

failed, largely as a result of Switzerland's sense of national identity and tradition of democracy and civil liberties. The Swiss press criticized the Third Reich, often infuriating its leadership. In turn, Berlin denounced Switzerland as a medieval remnant and its people renegade Germans. Swiss

1186:

The bombing limited much of the leniency the Swiss had shown toward Allied airspace violations. Eventually, the problem became so bad that they declared a zero-tolerance policy for violation by either Axis or Allied aircraft and authorized attacks on American aircraft. Victims of these mistaken

1051:

In 1953, Johannes Pauli, a dual-national with German citizenship, stood trial for crimes committed at the Bisingen concentration camp. He was one of only seven Nazi war criminals to be convicted by Swiss courts, three of whom were tried in absentia. All of the cases were tried under the regular

1387:

was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis. Switzerland relied on trade for half of its food and essentially all of its fuel; however, the Swiss controlled vital trans-alpine rail tunnels between Germany and Italy and possessed considerable electrical generating

1034:

and certain other military offenses, such as desertion in the face of the enemy. During World War II, 33 people were sentenced to death for spying for Nazi Germany, 15 of them in absentia. Seventeen of those condemned were executed before the end of the war. With the exception of one man from

1047:

held six trials against 102 Swiss citizens, who were charged with treason and undermining Swiss's neutrality and independence, for collaboration, of which 99 were convicted. Some of those convicted were tried in absentia. According to Martin Gutmann, the trials served as a way for the Swiss

302:, and was not invaded by its neighbors, in part because of its topography, much of which is mountainous. Germany was a threat, and Switzerland built a powerful defense. It served as a "protecting power" for the belligerents of both sides, with a special role in helping prisoners of war. The 1235:

From 1943 onwards Switzerland stopped American and British aircraft, mainly bombers, overflying Switzerland on nine occasions, six times by Swiss Air Force fighters and nine by flak. Thirty-six Allied airmen were killed. On 1 October 1943 the first American bomber was shot down near

1285:

the war, Switzerland had a Jewish population of between 18,000 and 28,000 and a total population of about 4 million. By the end of the war, there were over 115,000 refuge-seeking people of all categories in Switzerland, representing the maximum number of refugees at any one time.

550:, adopted the stance that what he described as an "imperialist war" ought to be turned into a civil war between the classes. He left Austria for neutral Switzerland in 1914 following the outbreak of the war and remained active in Switzerland until 1917. Following the 1917 1224:

intercepted. While American politicians and diplomats tried to minimize the political damage caused by these incidents, others took a more hostile view. Some senior commanders argued that as Switzerland was "full of German sympathizers", it deserved to be bombed. General

1187:

bombings were not limited to Swiss civilians but included the often confused American aircrews, shot down by the Swiss fighters as well as several Swiss fighters shot down by American airmen. In February 1945, 18 civilians were killed by Allied bombs dropped over

2107: 594:

had caused the war. Dadaists viewed abstraction as the result of a lack of planning and of logical thought-processes. When World War I ended in 1918, most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries, and some began Dada activities in other cities.

1042:

In January 1946, the Swiss government published a report on collaboration which, in the words of Swiss historian Luc van Dongen, gave the public memory its memorial and ideology tone and also its clear conscience." From the end of the war to April 1949, the

617:. Misrepresenting himself as a diplomat and an actual representative of the Swiss government, he made progress but had to admit to fraud and return home when the Allies found out about the proposed peace deal. The Allies were placated by the resignation of 1763:

Under pressure from the Allies, in December 1943 quotas were imposed on the importation and exportation of certain goods and foodstuffs and in October 1944 sales of munitions were halted. However, the transit of goods by railway between Germany, Italy and

919:, but Switzerland was never attacked. Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, economic concessions to Germany and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion. Attempts by the 1219:

in Germany. As John Helmreich points out, the pilot and navigator, in choosing a target of opportunity, "missed the marshalling yard they were aiming for, missed the city they were aiming for, and even missed the country they were aiming for".

1404:

sold 1.3 billion francs (approximately 18 billion francs adjusted for inflation to 2019) worth of gold to Swiss banks in exchange for Swiss francs and other foreign currency, which were used to buy strategically important raw materials like

1296:. This initiative saved thousands of Jews from certain death by issuing them with Latin American identity papers. Not all efforts were successful though, and the network was eventually discovered and dismantled by the Swiss authorities. 947:

in which he discussed the importance of a Nazi coup for Switzerland. Burri said he and his colleagues were "ready for action at any time" and had a paramilitary of 1,800 men prepared for deployment in all German-speaking Swiss cantons.

1094:

sent saboteurs to destroy Swiss airfields but they were captured by Swiss troops before they could cause any damage. Skirmishes between German and Swiss troops took place on the northern border of Switzerland throughout the war.

57: 1743:

prompted the Swiss government to commission the most recent and authoritative study of Switzerland's interaction with the Nazi regime. The final report by this independent panel of international scholars, known as the

643:. To be transferred, the wounded had to have a disability that would negate their further military service or have been interned over 18 months with deteriorating mental health. The wounded were transferred from 1080:

aircraft between 10 May and 17 June 1940, while suffering the loss of three of their own aircraft. Germany protested diplomatically on 5 June and with a second note on 19 June which contained explicit threats.

469:

that would have crossed Switzerland. When this attack failed to occur the army began to shrink again. Because of widespread workers' strikes, at the end of the war the Swiss army had shrunk to only 12,500 men.

424:

consisted of about 250,000 men with an additional 200,000 in supporting roles. Both European alliance-systems took the size of the Swiss military into account in the years prior to 1914, especially in the

4271: 887:. The transition into wartime was smooth and caused less controversy than in 1914; the country was fully mobilized in only three days. Parliament quickly selected the 61-year-old career soldier 1765: 1333:

In war time each belligerent nation relies on an independent neutral third party to protect its diplomatic interests through "mandates" as specified in international law especially the

366:

had been open to the possibility of trying to outflank the French fortifications by marching through Switzerland in violation of its neutrality, although the plan's eventual executor

928:

military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to a strategy of attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the

1798: 1018:

retrospectively denounced in this sense "the occult influence of Hitlerism on the Swiss people during the Second World War, which they were not conscious of being under".

895:

and by 3 September 430,000 combat troops and 210,000 in support services, 10,000 of whom were women, had been mobilized, though most of these were sent home during the

5318: 1361:(ICRC), the SIAP provided over half a million books to prisoners of war during World War II, and organized educational opportunities and study groups in prison camps. 4886: 1124:

that had been emptied from lack of tourists due to the war and held until hostilities ended. At least 940 American airmen attempted to escape into France after the

4667: 5071: 634: 5096: 1171:, a German town 284 kilometres (176 mi) away; forty people were killed and over fifty buildings destroyed, among them a group of small factories producing 671:

on 11 May 1920, over 80% of those voting supported a proposal that the state join the Swiss Confederation. However, this was prevented by the opposition of the

2370: 923:, a Swiss political party with Nazi sympathies (which never had more than 4,000 members out of a population of 4.2 million people, less than 0.1%) to effect a 802:

Actions were also taken to prove Switzerland's independent national identity and unique culture from the surrounding Fascist powers. This policy was known as

3092: 2447: 833: 4881: 4835: 5393: 1232:, even suggested that it was the Germans themselves who were flying captured Allied planes over Switzerland in an attempt to gain a propaganda victory. 4697: 4602: 994:

Despite the public and political attitudes in Switzerland, some higher-ranking officers within the Swiss Army had pro-Nazi sympathies: notably Colonel

647:

unable to cope with the number of wounded and sat out the war in Switzerland. The transfer was agreed between the warring powers and organised by the

159: 5373: 5338: 1728: 648: 153: 3006:

Bergier, Jean-Francois; W. Bartoszewski; S. Friedländer; H. James; H. Junz; G. Kreis; S. Milton; J. Picard; J. Tanner; D. Thürer; J. Voyame (2002).

2756:

Bergier, Jean-Francois; W. Bartoszewski; S. Friedländer; H. James; H. Junz; G. Kreis; S. Milton; J. Picard; J. Tanner; D. Thürer; J. Voyame (2002).

4730: 4692: 1307:

A photograph from the International Bureau of Education Archives showing the preparation of parcels and books for distribution to prisoners of war.

273: 4562: 4349: 1783: 936:

would cede control of the economic heartland and population centres but retain control of crucial rail links and passes in the National Redoubt.

2528: 1215:

dropped its bomb load over Zürich, destroying two buildings and killing five civilians. The crew claimed they believed that they were attacking

5403: 5209: 5179: 5162: 932:. This controversial strategy was essentially one of deterrence. The idea was to render the cost of invading too high. During an invasion, the 432:

Following the declarations of war in late July 1914, on 1 August 1914, Switzerland mobilized its army; by 7 August the newly appointed general

1388:

capacity that was relatively safe from air attack. Switzerland's most important exports during the war were precision machine tools, watches,

5204: 4537: 3197: 1396:

was the only remaining major freely convertible currency in the world, and both the Allies and the Germans sold large amounts of gold to the

1256:

to Switzerland), instructed the soldiers not to flee, but most of them thought it to be a diplomatic joke and gave no regard to his request.

1109:

Allied aircraft intruded on Swiss airspace throughout World War II. In total, 6,304 Allied aircraft violated Swiss airspace during the war.

5137: 5002: 4592: 3294: 2317: 5219: 4276: 3389: 1778: 4866: 2980: 2059: 5398: 5378: 4404: 3709: 1039:, all of those executed were Swiss. Hundreds of others were also imprisoned for spying for Germany and acts against national security. 760: 1003: 5458: 791:

cell was established. Households were encouraged to keep a two-month supply of food and basic necessities. In 1938 Foreign Minister

5333: 3860: 2630: 2603: 2502: 1358: 1312: 680: 466: 2477: 5473: 5188: 3643: 3231: 1164: 1160: 1104: 542:

in orientation) supported their various respective countries' war efforts. Lenin, believing that the peasants and workers of the

1144:

lodged protests against the Swiss government and eventually secured their release. The American military attaché in Bern warned

4758: 3946: 3704: 3262: 1152:

in 1944, that "the mistreatment inflicted on US aviators could lead to 'navigation errors' during bombing raids over Germany".

1112:

Some damaged Allied bombers returning from raids over Italy and Germany would intentionally violate Swiss airspace, preferring

756: 714: 527: 5076: 4572: 4511: 3951: 3794: 3669: 2990: 2879: 2713: 2353: 2302: 2151: 1867: 1755: 1303: 1289: 1149: 208: 3252: 1740: 1128:

but Swiss authorities intercepted 183 internees. Over 160 of these airmen were incarcerated in a Swiss prison camp known as

473:

During the war, belligerents crossed the Swiss borders about 1,000 times, with some of these incidents occurring around the

5488: 5468: 4723: 4622: 4134: 3789: 3764: 2844: 2808: 2045: 1983: 1944: 1908: 1044: 585:

was also an anti-war organization, Dadaists used art to oppose all wars. The founders of the movement had left Germany and

266: 5493: 5463: 5012: 4379: 4342: 3367: 118: 17: 2940:

Leo Schelbert. "Linking the Hideously-Sundered Nations" Neutral Switzerland as Protecting Power" in Leo Schelbert, ed.,

2665: 1120:. Over a hundred Allied aircraft and their crews were interned in this manner. They were subsequently put up in various 5291: 5167: 4778: 4074: 3664: 3414: 1788: 1334: 213: 1076:

in 1940, German aircraft violated Swiss airspace at least 197 times. In several air incidents, the Swiss shot down 11

784: 74: 5388: 5259: 5239: 5007: 4949: 4916: 4840: 4773: 4039: 3971: 3865: 3384: 3211: 3164: 3146: 3020: 2963: 2770: 2648: 2613: 2586: 2544: 2329: 2278: 2228: 1346: 1277: 1141: 306:

states made it the scene for diplomacy, espionage, and commerce, as well as being a safe haven for 300,000 refugees.

147: 2954:

Avanzini, Guy; Darcy de Oliviera, Rosiska; Egger, Eugen; Roller, Samuel; Stock, Rodney; Suchodolski, Bogdan (1979).

2430: 5345: 5081: 5029: 5019: 4414: 4094: 3928: 3776: 3287: 920: 808:, or "spiritual national defence". In 1937, the government opened the Museum of Federal Charters. Increased use of 5279: 3100: 2444: 721:, in part to allow Germans (including Jews) to hide or protect their assets from seizure by the newly established 5034: 4716: 4516: 4266: 4022: 4008: 3991: 3901: 3853: 3684: 3409: 951:

Switzerland was a base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the

259: 223: 37: 5214: 5368: 5323: 4906: 4896: 4481: 4476: 4335: 4244: 4124: 4109: 3848: 3843: 3833: 3823: 3694: 3394: 1793: 929: 869: 639:

During the war Switzerland accepted 68,000 British, French and German wounded prisoners of war for recovery in

367: 178: 755:

As European tension grew in the 1930s, the Swiss began to rethink their political and military situation. The

390:

might spill into Switzerland. Of lesser concern was the Italian border, but troops were also stationed in the

5483: 5056: 5041: 4964: 4934: 4911: 4753: 4637: 4617: 4496: 4104: 3996: 3784: 3759: 3719: 3636: 3631: 3421: 3404: 2669: 2636: 2462:

Dwight S. Mears, "The Catch-22 Effect: The Lasting Stigma of Wartime Cowardice in the U.S. Army Air Forces,"

1997: 695: 233: 169: 5478: 5383: 5264: 5254: 5244: 5132: 4980: 4954: 4944: 4830: 4597: 4501: 4471: 4445: 4440: 4384: 3921: 3699: 3347: 3342: 1269: 1129: 964: 618: 79: 65: 3242: 2218: 2167: 590: 318:

Alliances in Europe in 1914. Switzerland (yellow) found itself surrounded by members of opposing alliances

5274: 5234: 5229: 4959: 4891: 4627: 4547: 4172: 4162: 4119: 4089: 4059: 4044: 3981: 3801: 3749: 3714: 3479: 3280: 1212: 1140:, a pro-Nazi Swiss officer. The American internees remained in Wauwilermoos until November 1944 when the 844:

subsequently exploded, being featured on stamps, in children's books, and through official publications.

804: 610: 218: 3177: 1748:, was issued in 2002 and also documented Switzerland's role as a major hub for the sale and transfer of 488:

During the fighting, Switzerland became a haven for many politicians, artists, pacifists, and thinkers.

334:

Switzerland maintained a state of armed neutrality during the first world war. However, with two of the

5416: 5350: 5308: 5296: 5269: 5224: 5157: 4901: 4876: 4803: 4788: 4783: 4662: 4607: 4567: 4557: 4552: 4409: 4099: 3906: 3806: 3754: 3374: 3337: 2143: 1350: 912: 228: 124: 3167: 1370: 759:

abandoned their revolutionary and anti-military stances, and soon the country began to rearm for war.

5286: 5051: 4871: 4825: 4652: 4577: 4430: 4374: 4234: 4084: 4069: 4049: 3332: 2857: 2525: 1208: 598: 417:

industry. For the same reasons, Switzerland became a haven for foreign refugees and revolutionaries.

194: 628: 5301: 5086: 5061: 4990: 4861: 4647: 4491: 4466: 4197: 4064: 4001: 3986: 3771: 3689: 3626: 3440: 3379: 2896: 976: 130: 5328: 5249: 5199: 5194: 5184: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5127: 5117: 4818: 4798: 4739: 4675: 4671: 4587: 4389: 4256: 4034: 3966: 3737: 3357: 672: 511: 421: 4708: 2172: 322: 4985: 4939: 4856: 4808: 4632: 4582: 4542: 4532: 4394: 4327: 4302: 4295: 4149: 4114: 3976: 3911: 3889: 3679: 3659: 3572: 3502: 3487: 3324: 3307: 2371:"Kriegsverbrecher - Der KZ-Führer mit dem Schweizer Pass: Johannes Pauli, ein Leben mit Gewalt" 1376: 1156: 956: 706:

with Switzerland that effectively guaranteed its independence. In 1920, Switzerland joined the

414: 371: 358:) all sharing borders and populations with Switzerland, neutrality proved difficult. Under the 46: 3552: 3138: 2576: 2292: 1345:

In 1939, the Service of Intellectual Assistance to Prisoners of War (SIAP) was created by the

5091: 5066: 5024: 4793: 4763: 4612: 4486: 4435: 4202: 4167: 4079: 3933: 3870: 3492: 3352: 2063: 1354: 1268:

Ella Maillart's article about Jewish refugees in Switzerland, 1938, in the collection of the

1172: 1168: 892: 718: 676: 622: 555: 375: 351: 347: 109: 3035: 5101: 4311: 4261: 4239: 4139: 4054: 3674: 3567: 3192:

Petropoulos, Jonathan, "Co-Opting Nazi Germany: Neutrality in Europe During World War II."

3157:

Between the Alps and a Hard Place: Switzerland in World War II and the Rewriting of History

1817:

Here likely in the sense of the original Latin meaning: occultus, lit. 'hidden' or 'secret'

1229: 1180: 916: 852: 644: 500:

became centers of debate and discussion. In Zürich two very different anti-war groups, the

379: 363: 3037: 8: 4506: 4182: 3916: 3577: 3007: 2757: 1831: 1397: 1053: 821: 780: 551: 453: 3431: 2219:

Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland - Second World War (UEK/CIE), ed. (2002).

1253: 5442: 4316: 4249: 3956: 3828: 3818: 3522: 1745: 1409:

and oil from neutral countries. Hundreds of millions of francs' worth of this gold was

1145: 933: 906: 586: 567: 249: 89: 3246: 3235: 752:

to Germany. Frankfurter was sentenced to 18 years in prison but was pardoned in 1945.

4813: 4461: 3547: 3207: 3160: 3142: 3129: 3016: 2986: 2959: 2924: 2875: 2766: 2644: 2609: 2582: 2349: 2325: 2298: 2253: 2224: 2147: 1863: 1249: 1192: 1137: 796: 749: 707: 3009:

Final Report of the Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland – Second World War

2759:

Final Report of the Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland – Second World War

1417:

of occupied countries. A total of 581,000 francs' worth of "Melmer" gold taken from

1091: 448: 4768: 4642: 4229: 4217: 3838: 3617: 3582: 3532: 3527: 3512: 3066: 2640: 2632:

From Hitler's Doorstep: the Wartime Intelligence Reports of Allen Dulles, 1942–1945

2245: 1328: 1293: 1117: 1073: 995: 960: 944: 817: 813: 729: 535: 420:

Following the organization of the army in 1907 and military expansion in 1911, the

410: 299: 3174:

The Economics of Neutrality: Spain, Sweden and Switzerland in the Second World War

605:, a Swiss socialist politician, travelled to Russia as an activist to negotiate a 5046: 3187: 2717: 2532: 2451: 2406: 2343: 2077: 1225: 1057: 772: 664: 640: 629:

Swiss hosts POW invalided out of military service from Entente and Central Powers

426: 406: 402: 382:. From December 1914 until the spring of 1918, Swiss troops were deployed in the 359: 343: 95: 2801: 2795: 2789: 1340: 1211:

led to the destruction of a passenger train, but no casualties were reported; a

625:

who had supported Grimm but had not consulted his colleagues on the initiative.

5430: 4187: 3875: 3542: 3507: 3469: 2956:

The International Bureau of Education in the service of educational development

2837: 2831: 2825: 2038: 2032: 2026: 1976: 1970: 1964: 1937: 1931: 1925: 1901: 1895: 1889: 1858:

Stackelberg (October 3, 2003). Stackelberg, Roderick; Winkle, Sally A. (eds.).

1188: 792: 699: 606: 531: 465:

number increased during the winter of 1916–17 to over 100,000 as a result of a

438: 391: 335: 314: 99: 4222: 2691: 1015: 975:, the first US intelligence service in Western Europe was created. During the 442: 5452: 4212: 4177: 3813: 3612: 3597: 3464: 3067:"A race against time Swiss urged to provide missing links to Nazi-looted art" 2257: 1736: 1410: 1389: 1281: 1264: 1087: 1036: 999: 903: 837: 764: 703: 684: 547: 383: 339: 3362: 3093:"The Diplomacy of Apology: U.S. Bombings of Switzerland during World War II" 3005: 2755: 2138:

Church, Clive H.; Head, Randolph C. (2013), "The shocks of war, 1914–1950",

405:-speaking majority in Switzerland generally favored the Central Powers, the 395: 5174: 4207: 4129: 2942:

Switzerland Under Siege 1939-1945: A Neutral Nation's Struggle for Survival

1749: 1425:

Swiss National Bank gold transactions from 1 September 1939 to 30 June 1945

1414: 1384: 1176: 1027: 972: 888: 880: 876: 809: 722: 602: 559: 478: 433: 355: 327: 291: 2503:"Stadtarchiv Schaffhausen : Willkommen beim Stadtarchiv Schaffhausen" 2445:

The Diplomacy of Apology: U.S. Bombings of Switzerland during World War II

1248:. The representative of the US military intelligence group based in Bern, 4359: 4157: 3938: 3517: 3303: 3137:. The Society for the Promotion of Science and Scholarship Inc. pp. 1759:

Swiss exports of arms, ammunition, and fuses (thousands of CHF) 1940–1944

1393: 1380: 952: 940: 857: 788: 745: 660: 543: 303: 295: 287: 2979:

Eichengreen, Barry; Reis, Jaime; MacEdo, Jorge Braga de (May 16, 1996).

2246:"Der Schweizer Hetzer, der den "Anschluss" an Nazi-Deutschland forderte" 2168:"Mobilmachung der Armee von 1939: "Überall Menschen, Pferde, Aufregung"" 1392:(used in bomb sights), electricity, and dairy products. Until 1936, the 3961: 3459: 3272: 3266: 3038:"Switzerland, National Socialism and the Second World War Final Report" 2221:

Switzerland, National Socialism, and the Second World War. Final Report

1401: 1316: 1121: 1113: 896: 768: 737: 668: 523: 501: 457: 387: 3257: 2115: 979:, the OSS in Switzerland guided tactical efforts for the take-over of 534:. Following the outbreak of the war, Lenin was stunned when the large 5122: 4995: 4399: 3557: 2481: 2294:

The challenge of neutrality: diplomacy and the defense of Switzerland

1418: 1245: 1237: 1207:

were accidentally bombed by American aircraft. The attack on Basel's

1077: 924: 864: 563: 85: 2953: 1204: 516: 493: 4192: 3562: 3247:

1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War

3236:

1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War

2920: 2206:"Let's Swallow Switzerland" by Klaus Urner (Lexington Books, 2002). 1732: 1406: 1216: 988: 884: 776: 741: 614: 3133:. In Luck, James Murray; Burckhardt, Lukas F.; Haug, Hans (eds.). 3036:

Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland – Second World War.

2220: 1199:. Arguably the most notorious incident came on 4 March 1945, when 943:, the leading Nazi propagandist for Switzerland, sent a letter to 787:

for conscripts was extended to 3 months of instruction. In 1937 a

573: 4738: 3587: 3537: 1133: 1061: 1031: 984: 980: 825: 688: 539: 4357: 3045:

Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland – Second World War

1300:

back to almost certain annihilation at the hands of the Nazis".

779:

system. The army was restructured into smaller, better equipped

654: 3607: 3592: 3497: 2322:

Landesverräter. 17 Lebensläufe und Todesurteile 1942–1944.

1240:, with only three men surviving. The officers were interned in 1082: 829: 799:, returning the country to its traditional form of neutrality. 767:, predicting war would come in 1939, led the rebuilding of the 497: 2039: 1977: 1341:

Service of Intellectual Assistance to Prisoners of War (SIAP)

1241: 1200: 1125: 733: 597:

In 1917 Switzerland's neutrality came into question when the

2838: 2078:"Switzerland's forgotten role in saving World War One lives" 2033: 2027: 1971: 1965: 1938: 1364: 1353:

dedicated to educational matters. In collaboration with the

1072:

Nazi Germany repeatedly violated Swiss airspace. During the

698:

managed to exclude itself from Austria in 1918 and signed a

3602: 2832: 2826: 1932: 1926: 1902: 1196: 968: 832:

cantons. In December of that year in a government address,

609:

between Russia and Germany, in order to end the war on the

582: 505: 489: 2578:

Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II

1896: 1890: 1167:

by American aircraft on 1 April 1944. It was mistaken for

856:

Switzerland was surrounded by territory controlled by the

2085: 899:. At its highest point, 850,000 soldiers were mobilized. 27:

History of Switzerland from 1914 to 1918 and 1939 to 1945

2281:. MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Retrieved January 17, 2016. 1860:

The Nazi Germany Sourcebook : An Anthology of Texts

816:

a national language in 1938, a move designed to counter

2706: 911:

doctrine, detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the

635:

Prisoner of war camps in Switzerland during World War I

2608:. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press. p. 179. 2188: 5414: 2982:

Currency Convertibility: The Gold Standard and Beyond

2978: 2605:

Shot from the sky : American POWs in Switzerland

1014:, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1949), the Swiss journalist 2874:(in German and English). Basel: edition clandestin. 2469: 1421:victims in eastern Europe was sold to Swiss banks. 3128: 2223:(Report). Zürich, Switzerland: Pendo Verlag GmbH. 1799:Switzerland during the First World War (in French) 663:was an expansion of Switzerland itself during the 577:Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, as it appeared in 2006 5077:Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo 2872:Passports, Profiteers, Police: A Swiss War Secret 2684: 1098: 1021: 5450: 2897:"Panel Finds Switzerland Complicit in Holocaust" 2348:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 199–201. 2214: 2212: 744:in Switzerland. The Swiss government refused to 667:. In a referendum held in the Austrian state of 2663: 2108:"C2D - Centre for Research on Direct Democracy" 1881: 1879: 1784:List of aircraft of Switzerland in World War II 812:coincided with a national referendum that made 3232:Domestic Politics and Neutrality (Switzerland) 3218:Britain, Switzerland, and the Second World War 2858:Switzerland from the Shoah Resource Foundation 2475: 1794:Switzerland in the First World War (in German) 1375:Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the 515:Plaque on Lenin's house at Spiegelgasse 14 in 386:along the French border over concern that the 4740:History of World War II by region and country 4724: 4343: 3288: 2478:"POW medal recognises US aviators' suffering" 2209: 655:Swiss independence during the interwar period 589:to escape the destruction of the war. At the 267: 2657: 1876: 1357:, who initially funded the project, and the 1322: 508:, would bring lasting changes to the world. 3263:Switzerland and the Refugees Fleeing Nazism 2431:de:Schweizer Luftwaffe#Im Zweiten Weltkrieg 2398: 2396: 2394: 2392: 2165: 1915: 1857: 1779:List of World War II weapons of Switzerland 4731: 4717: 4350: 4336: 4272:Cultural Property of National Significance 3295: 3281: 3091:Helmreich, Dr. Jonathan E. (Summer 2000). 3015:. Zürich: Pendo Verlag GmbH. p. 243. 2765:. Zürich: Pendo Verlag GmbH. p. 107. 2751: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2440: 2438: 2243: 2137: 879:in 1939, Switzerland immediately began to 274: 260: 3090: 2802: 2714:"Gedenkstein für Internierten-Straflager" 2563:Blue on Blue – A History of Friendly Fire 2521: 2519: 2290: 2142:, Cambridge Concise Histories, New York: 1998:"Gefallen 1916 an der Dreisprachenspitze" 1365:Financial relationships with Nazi Germany 1288:A refugee help network operated from the 3302: 3130:"Swiss Neutrality During Two World Wars" 2894: 2796: 2790: 2666:"Abgeschossen von der neutralen Schweiz" 2628: 2574: 2389: 2342:Gutmann, Martin R. (December 20, 2018). 1754: 1359:International Committee of the Red Cross 1302: 1263: 1126:Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944 1090:units still operated. Later, Hitler and 863: 851: 771:. Starting in 1936, he secured a larger 572: 510: 447: 321: 313: 3126: 2895:Drozdiak, William (December 10, 1999). 2869: 2732: 2435: 2341: 2200: 2194: 1956: 1954: 1729:controversy over a class-action lawsuit 1371:Swiss National Bank § World War II 1311:Switzerland also acted as a refuge for 1105:Bombings of Switzerland in World War II 1004:Schweizerischer Vaterländischer Verband 717:was passed. This allowed for anonymous 566:, where he would shortly lead the 1917 14: 5451: 2601: 2516: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2052: 1163:during the war; most notably from the 538:of Europe (at that time predominantly 528:Russian Social Democratic Labour Party 4712: 4331: 3276: 3064: 2664:Franz Kasperski (September 7, 2015). 2368: 2311: 554:in Russia and the abdication of Tsar 3184:Switzerland and the Second World War 2845:Historical Dictionary of Switzerland 2809:Historical Dictionary of Switzerland 2476:Olivier Grivat (February 11, 2013). 2046:Historical Dictionary of Switzerland 1984:Historical Dictionary of Switzerland 1951: 1945:Historical Dictionary of Switzerland 1909:Historical Dictionary of Switzerland 1400:. Between 1940 and 1945, the German 1067: 1045:Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland 1030:provided for capital punishment for 3258:Switzerland and the First World War 3065:Laird, Michèle (November 7, 2013). 2122: 24: 3120: 2947: 1789:Neutral powers during World War II 1335:Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 1315:who escaped, including those from 1259: 1165:accidental bombing of Schaffhausen 840:urged a defence of Swiss culture. 613:in the interests of socialism and 378:and the disorganized state of the 25: 5505: 3224: 3204:Switzerland Under Siege 1939–1945 3178:PhD thesis, LSE, 500pp. full text 2944:(2000) pp 153-182, at p. 156-159. 2291:Chevallaz, Georges André (2001). 2166:Rudolf Jaun (September 2, 2014). 1347:International Bureau of Education 868:Plan of the defence lines of the 477:(Three Languages Peak), near the 5459:History of Switzerland by period 5436: 5424: 3430: 2369:Rosch, Benjamin (May 31, 2020). 2279:The Office of Strategic Services 2244:Tribelhorn, Marc (May 6, 2018). 2176:(in German). Zürich, Switzerland 2140:A Concise History of Switzerland 921:National Movement of Switzerland 326:Swiss officers' barracks in the 243: 56: 3107: 3084: 3058: 3029: 2999: 2972: 2934: 2914: 2888: 2863: 2851: 2815: 2779: 2622: 2595: 2568: 2555: 2537: 2526:US-Bomben auf Schweizer Kantone 2495: 2464:The Journal of Military History 2456: 2424: 2412: 2362: 2335: 2284: 2271: 2237: 2159: 2004:(in German). September 20, 2014 1820: 1811: 847: 445:and along the southern border. 5474:Neutral states in World War II 3790:President of the Confederation 2581:. Da Capo Press. p. 224. 2100: 2070: 2016: 1990: 1851: 1099:Allied bombings and violations 1022:Prosecutions for collaboration 795:withdrew Switzerland from the 368:Helmuth von Moltke the Younger 309: 13: 1: 2670:Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen 2637:University Park, Pennsylvania 2565:. Avin Books, New York, 1995. 1844: 1752:during the Second World War. 963:. In 1942, the United States 696:Principality of Liechtenstein 374:instead due to Switzerland's 1270:Jewish Museum of Switzerland 1228:, Commanding General of the 965:Office of Strategic Services 7: 5489:20th century in Switzerland 5469:Switzerland in World War II 2958:. UNESCO. pp. 51, 80. 2531:September 28, 2007, at the 2510:stadtarchiv-schaffhausen.ch 1772: 1741:Holocaust-era bank accounts 1423: 1155:Switzerland, surrounded by 842:Geistige Landesverteidigung 805:Geistige Landesverteidigung 558:, he left Switzerland on a 10: 5510: 5494:Switzerland in World War I 5464:Wars involving Switzerland 2930:The Latter Days at Colditz 2575:Halbrook, Stephen (2003). 2144:Cambridge University Press 2023:Culture during World War I 1961:World War I – 1914 to 1918 1368: 1351:international organization 1326: 1102: 902:During the war, under the 632: 5359: 5110: 4973: 4927: 4849: 4746: 4685: 4525: 4454: 4423: 4367: 4289: 4148: 4030: 4021: 3897: 3888: 3745: 3736: 3652: 3478: 3452: 3448: 3439: 3428: 3323: 3314: 2860:accessed February 4, 2009 2822:Second World War-Refugees 2545:"Military Agency Records" 1922:World War I – Preparation 1862:. Routledge. p. 31. 1826:Purchases and sales made 1323:Protecting Power mandates 1157:Axis-controlled territory 1132:, which was located near 1116:by the Swiss to becoming 1086:land at Swiss airfields. 971:. Through the efforts of 967:(OSS) was established in 736:; he was the head of the 536:Social Democratic parties 3750:Administrative divisions 3637:list of cities and towns 3253:Switzerland's Neutrality 2985:. Taylor & Francis. 2602:Prince, Cathryn (2003). 2466:77 (July 2013): 1037–43. 2324:Huber, Frauenfeld 1980, 2277:Bruce L. Brager (2006). 2252:(in Swiss High German). 2173:Neue Zürcher Zeitung NZZ 1886:World War I-Introduction 1837:the listed counterparty. 1804: 1739:, over Jewish assets in 977:allied invasion of Italy 925:unification with Germany 659:One potential result of 623:Swiss Federal Councillor 546:were fighting for their 3947:Pharmaceutical industry 3243:Internees (Switzerland) 3188:excerpt and text search 3168:excerpt and text search 3127:Bonjour, Edgar (1978). 3097:Aerospace Power Journal 2870:Lubrich, Naomi (2021). 2629:Petersen, Neal (1996). 2421:, Nicholas Hobbes, 2005 1313:Allied prisoners of war 913:German military command 757:Social Democratic party 742:"Auslands-Organisation" 229:Territorial development 3952:Science and technology 3795:Federal administration 3172:Golson, Eric Bernard, 2345:Building a Nazi Europe 1760: 1349:(IBE), a Geneva-based 1308: 1290:Polish embassy in Bern 1272: 1150:Swiss foreign minister 872: 861: 820:'s attempts to incite 719:numbered bank accounts 578: 526:were a faction of the 519: 467:proposed French attack 461: 376:mountainous topography 331: 319: 250:Switzerland portal 4362:by region and country 3155:Codevilla, Angelo M. 2409:, 1995) states 25,000 2002:www.suedostschweiz.ch 1758: 1355:Swiss Federal Council 1327:Further information: 1306: 1267: 1169:Ludwigshafen am Rhein 1159:, also suffered from 1142:U.S. State Department 867: 855: 834:Catholic-Conservative 748:the alleged assassin 645:prisoner of war camps 599:Grimm–Hoffmann Affair 576: 514: 451: 437:were deployed to the 325: 317: 110:Old Swiss Confederacy 5484:Jewish Swiss history 4277:World Heritage Sites 3202:Schelbert, Leo, ed. 2450:May 5, 2007, at the 2250:Neue Zürcher Zeitung 2146:, pp. 209–223, 2066:on November 2, 2008. 1230:U.S. Army Air Forces 1173:anti-aircraft shells 917:Operation Tannenbaum 732:was assassinated at 485:by Italian gunfire. 380:Belgian Armed Forces 364:German General Staff 5479:Non-interventionism 5189:Carpathian Ruthenia 4075:Firearms regulation 3644:Statistical regions 3453:Physiographic areas 3241:Bürgisser, Thomas: 2901:The Washington Post 2419:Essential Militaria 2297:. Lexington Books. 1832:Swiss National Bank 1428: 1413:plundered from the 1398:Swiss National Bank 1183:parts for Germany. 1054:Swiss Criminal Code 983:and the islands of 875:At the outbreak of 822:Italian nationalism 763:Federal Councillor 673:Austrian Government 552:February Revolution 140:Transitional period 18:Neutral Switzerland 4779:French West Africa 4759:British Somaliland 4040:Capital punishment 3972:Telecommunications 3866:Popular initiative 3220:(Oxford U.P. 2003) 3196:14.1 (2000): 13+. 3135:Modern Switzerland 2720:. October 23, 2015 2551:. August 15, 2016. 1761: 1746:Bergier Commission 1427:(in CHF millions) 1424: 1309: 1273: 1244:and the airmen in 1146:Marcel Pilet-Golaz 1008:Letters to Suzanne 873: 862: 860:from 1940 to 1944. 579: 568:October Revolution 530:, centered around 520: 462: 332: 330:during World War I 320: 5412: 5411: 5003:Dutch East Indies 4841:Southern Rhodesia 4774:French Somaliland 4706: 4705: 4415:Southern Rhodesia 4410:South West Africa 4325: 4324: 4285: 4284: 4095:Human trafficking 4017: 4016: 3884: 3883: 3861:Political parties 3854:Council of States 3777:Foreign relations 3732: 3731: 3728: 3727: 2992:978-0-203-98429-1 2925:The Colditz Story 2881:978-3-907262-09-2 2561:Regan, Geoffrey. 2549:National Archives 2355:978-1-316-60894-4 2304:978-0-7391-0274-9 2153:978-0-521-14382-0 1869:978-0-203-46392-5 1725: 1724: 1278:Hague Conventions 1136:and commanded by 1068:German violations 1012:Lettres à Suzanne 797:League of Nations 750:David Frankfurter 715:Swiss Banking Act 708:League of Nations 583:Dada art movement 346:) and two of the 284: 283: 82:(200 BC – AD 400) 16:(Redirected from 5501: 5441: 5440: 5439: 5429: 5428: 5427: 5420: 5163:Military history 4917:Native Americans 4733: 4726: 4719: 4710: 4709: 4352: 4345: 4338: 4329: 4328: 4305: 4298: 4028: 4027: 4009:Waste management 3942: 3902:Economic history 3895: 3894: 3849:National Council 3834:National Redoubt 3743: 3742: 3450: 3449: 3446: 3445: 3434: 3410:Military history 3380:Early Modern era 3297: 3290: 3283: 3274: 3273: 3216:Wylie, Neville. 3152: 3132: 3114: 3111: 3105: 3104: 3099:. Archived from 3088: 3082: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3062: 3056: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3042: 3033: 3027: 3026: 3014: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2976: 2970: 2969: 2951: 2945: 2938: 2932: 2918: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2907: 2892: 2886: 2885: 2867: 2861: 2855: 2849: 2840: 2834: 2828: 2819: 2813: 2804: 2798: 2792: 2783: 2777: 2776: 2764: 2753: 2730: 2729: 2727: 2725: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2692:"Forced Landing" 2688: 2682: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2661: 2655: 2654: 2641:Penn State Press 2626: 2620: 2619: 2599: 2593: 2592: 2572: 2566: 2559: 2553: 2552: 2541: 2535: 2523: 2514: 2513: 2507: 2499: 2493: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2473: 2467: 2460: 2454: 2442: 2433: 2428: 2422: 2416: 2410: 2400: 2387: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2366: 2360: 2359: 2339: 2333: 2315: 2309: 2308: 2288: 2282: 2275: 2269: 2268: 2266: 2264: 2241: 2235: 2234: 2216: 2207: 2204: 2198: 2192: 2186: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2135: 2120: 2119: 2118:on July 6, 2011. 2114:. Archived from 2104: 2098: 2097: 2095: 2093: 2074: 2068: 2067: 2062:. Archived from 2056: 2050: 2041: 2035: 2029: 2020: 2014: 2013: 2011: 2009: 1994: 1988: 1979: 1973: 1967: 1958: 1949: 1940: 1934: 1928: 1919: 1913: 1904: 1898: 1892: 1883: 1874: 1873: 1855: 1838: 1824: 1818: 1815: 1727:In the 1990s, a 1429: 1329:Protecting power 1254:military attaché 1118:prisoners of war 1074:Battle of France 996:Arthur Fonjallaz 961:protecting power 959:by serving as a 945:Heinrich Himmler 930:National Redoubt 870:National Redoubt 824:in the southern 818:Benito Mussolini 730:Wilhelm Gustloff 641:mountain resorts 591:Cabaret Voltaire 483:Dreisprachen Piz 475:Dreisprachen Piz 454:balloon observer 300:armed neutrality 276: 269: 262: 248: 247: 246: 224:Military history 60: 50: 32: 31: 21: 5509: 5508: 5504: 5503: 5502: 5500: 5499: 5498: 5449: 5448: 5447: 5437: 5435: 5425: 5423: 5415: 5413: 5408: 5404:Pacific Islands 5399:Solomon Islands 5379:Gilbert Islands 5361: 5355: 5334:Channel Islands 5106: 4969: 4923: 4845: 4742: 4737: 4707: 4702: 4681: 4538:Austria-Hungary 4521: 4450: 4419: 4363: 4356: 4326: 4321: 4308: 4301: 4294: 4281: 4245:Public holidays 4144: 4125:Social security 4013: 3940: 3880: 3824:Law enforcement 3785:Federal Council 3724: 3705:Mountain passes 3648: 3474: 3435: 3426: 3358:Federal Charter 3353:Old Confederacy 3319: 3310: 3301: 3227: 3149: 3123: 3121:Further reading 3118: 3117: 3112: 3108: 3103:on May 5, 2007. 3089: 3085: 3075: 3073: 3063: 3059: 3049: 3047: 3040: 3034: 3030: 3023: 3012: 3004: 3000: 2993: 2977: 2973: 2966: 2952: 2948: 2939: 2935: 2919: 2915: 2905: 2903: 2893: 2889: 2882: 2868: 2864: 2856: 2852: 2848:. states 28,000 2820: 2816: 2784: 2780: 2773: 2762: 2754: 2733: 2723: 2721: 2718:Schweiz aktuell 2712: 2711: 2707: 2697: 2695: 2690: 2689: 2685: 2675: 2673: 2662: 2658: 2651: 2643:. p. 398. 2627: 2623: 2616: 2600: 2596: 2589: 2573: 2569: 2560: 2556: 2543: 2542: 2538: 2533:Wayback Machine 2524: 2517: 2505: 2501: 2500: 2496: 2486: 2484: 2474: 2470: 2461: 2457: 2452:Wayback Machine 2443: 2436: 2429: 2425: 2417: 2413: 2407:Time Life Books 2401: 2390: 2380: 2378: 2367: 2363: 2356: 2340: 2336: 2316: 2312: 2305: 2289: 2285: 2276: 2272: 2262: 2260: 2242: 2238: 2231: 2217: 2210: 2205: 2201: 2193: 2189: 2179: 2177: 2164: 2160: 2154: 2136: 2123: 2106: 2105: 2101: 2091: 2089: 2076: 2075: 2071: 2058: 2057: 2053: 2021: 2017: 2007: 2005: 1996: 1995: 1991: 1959: 1952: 1920: 1916: 1884: 1877: 1870: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1841: 1825: 1821: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1775: 1766:occupied France 1750:Nazi-looted art 1426: 1373: 1367: 1343: 1331: 1325: 1262: 1260:Jewish refugees 1226:Henry H. Arnold 1209:railway station 1161:Allied bombings 1107: 1101: 1070: 1058:Feldgendarmerie 1024: 883:for a possible 850: 665:interwar period 657: 637: 631: 619:Arthur Hoffmann 427:Schlieffen Plan 360:Schlieffen Plan 344:Austria-Hungary 312: 280: 244: 242: 48: 41: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5507: 5497: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5446: 5445: 5433: 5410: 5409: 5407: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5365: 5363: 5357: 5356: 5354: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5342: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5324:British Empire 5319:United Kingdom 5316: 5311: 5306: 5305: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5292:Basque Country 5284: 5283: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5171: 5170: 5168:Basque Country 5165: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5138:Czechoslovakia 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5114: 5112: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5038: 5037: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5016: 5015: 5010: 5000: 4999: 4998: 4988: 4983: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4970: 4968: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4931: 4929: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4853: 4851: 4847: 4846: 4844: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4822: 4821: 4816: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4750: 4748: 4744: 4743: 4736: 4735: 4728: 4721: 4713: 4704: 4703: 4701: 4700: 4695: 4689: 4687: 4683: 4682: 4680: 4679: 4668:United Kingdom 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4618:Ottoman Empire 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4529: 4527: 4523: 4522: 4520: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4497:Ottoman Empire 4494: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4458: 4456: 4452: 4451: 4449: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4427: 4425: 4421: 4420: 4418: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4371: 4369: 4365: 4364: 4355: 4354: 4347: 4340: 4332: 4323: 4322: 4320: 4319: 4314: 4307: 4306: 4299: 4291: 4290: 4287: 4286: 4283: 4282: 4280: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4253: 4252: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4226: 4225: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4154: 4152: 4146: 4145: 4143: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4031: 4025: 4019: 4018: 4015: 4014: 4012: 4011: 4006: 4005: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3957:Stock exchange 3954: 3949: 3944: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3925: 3924: 3919: 3909: 3904: 3898: 3892: 3886: 3885: 3882: 3881: 3879: 3878: 3876:Federal decree 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3857: 3856: 3851: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3810: 3809: 3799: 3798: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3768: 3767: 3757: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3730: 3729: 3726: 3725: 3723: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3670:Extreme points 3667: 3662: 3656: 3654: 3650: 3649: 3647: 3646: 3641: 3640: 3639: 3632:Municipalities 3629: 3623: 3622: 3621: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3484: 3482: 3476: 3475: 3473: 3472: 3470:Jura Mountains 3467: 3462: 3456: 3454: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3429: 3427: 3425: 3424: 3422:Historiography 3419: 3418: 3417: 3407: 3405:Modern history 3402: 3397: 3392: 3387: 3385:Napoleonic era 3382: 3377: 3372: 3371: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3335: 3329: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3315: 3312: 3311: 3300: 3299: 3292: 3285: 3277: 3271: 3270: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3239: 3226: 3225:External links 3223: 3222: 3221: 3214: 3200: 3190: 3182:Kreis, Georg. 3180: 3170: 3153: 3147: 3122: 3119: 3116: 3115: 3113:Golson, p. 294 3106: 3083: 3057: 3028: 3021: 2998: 2991: 2971: 2964: 2946: 2933: 2913: 2887: 2880: 2862: 2850: 2842:in the online 2814: 2806:in the online 2778: 2771: 2731: 2705: 2683: 2656: 2649: 2621: 2614: 2594: 2587: 2567: 2554: 2536: 2515: 2494: 2468: 2455: 2434: 2423: 2411: 2405:by Time Life ( 2388: 2361: 2354: 2334: 2310: 2303: 2283: 2270: 2236: 2229: 2208: 2199: 2197:, p. 431. 2187: 2158: 2152: 2121: 2099: 2088:. May 30, 2016 2069: 2060:"Introduction" 2051: 2043:in the online 2015: 1989: 1981:in the online 1950: 1942:in the online 1914: 1906:in the online 1875: 1868: 1849: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1840: 1839: 1819: 1809: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1802: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1786: 1781: 1774: 1771: 1723: 1722: 1719: 1716: 1713: 1709: 1708: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1695: 1694: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1681: 1680: 1677: 1674: 1671: 1667: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1653: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1639: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1625: 1624: 1621: 1618: 1615: 1611: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1597: 1596: 1593: 1590: 1587: 1583: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1569: 1568: 1565: 1562: 1559: 1555: 1554: 1551: 1548: 1545: 1541: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1513: 1512: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1499: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1485: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1475: 1471: 1470: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1457: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1447: 1443: 1442: 1439: 1436: 1433: 1390:jewel bearings 1366: 1363: 1342: 1339: 1324: 1321: 1261: 1258: 1250:Barnwell Legge 1213:B-24 Liberator 1189:Stein am Rhein 1100: 1097: 1092:Hermann Göring 1069: 1066: 1023: 1020: 1002:, who led the 849: 846: 793:Giuseppe Motta 775:and started a 773:defence budget 685:Swiss-Italians 681:Swiss liberals 656: 653: 633:Main article: 630: 627: 607:separate peace 532:Vladimir Lenin 460:in World War I 409:- and, later, 348:Entente Powers 336:Central Powers 311: 308: 282: 281: 279: 278: 271: 264: 256: 253: 252: 239: 238: 237: 236: 234:Historiography 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 203: 202: 198: 197: 191: 190: 189: 188: 182: 173: 172: 170:Modern history 166: 165: 164: 163: 157: 151: 148:Napoleonic era 142: 141: 137: 136: 135: 134: 128: 122: 113: 112: 106: 105: 104: 103: 93: 83: 77: 69: 68: 62: 61: 53: 52: 43: 42: 35: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5506: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5444: 5434: 5432: 5422: 5421: 5418: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5364: 5358: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5321: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5288: 5285: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5267: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5215:Liechtenstein 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5190: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5160: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5115: 5113: 5109: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5036: 5033: 5032: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5005: 5004: 5001: 4997: 4994: 4993: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4978: 4976: 4972: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4950:Latin America 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4932: 4930: 4928:South America 4926: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4889: 4888: 4887:United States 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4854: 4852: 4850:North America 4848: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4811: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4754:Belgian Congo 4752: 4751: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4734: 4729: 4727: 4722: 4720: 4715: 4714: 4711: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4690: 4688: 4684: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4598:Liechtenstein 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4530: 4528: 4524: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4457: 4453: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4441:United States 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4372: 4370: 4366: 4361: 4353: 4348: 4346: 4341: 4339: 4334: 4333: 4330: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4309: 4304: 4300: 4297: 4293: 4292: 4288: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4251: 4248: 4247: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4224: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4200: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4155: 4153: 4151: 4147: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4032: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4020: 4010: 4007: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3989: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3923: 3922:Private banks 3920: 3918: 3915: 3914: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3899: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3887: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3846: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3814:Landsgemeinde 3812: 3808: 3805: 3804: 3803: 3800: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3766: 3765:Supreme Court 3763: 3762: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3747: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3735: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3651: 3645: 3642: 3638: 3635: 3634: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3624: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3536: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3496: 3494: 3491: 3490: 3489: 3486: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3477: 3471: 3468: 3466: 3465:Swiss Plateau 3463: 3461: 3458: 3457: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3444: 3442: 3438: 3433: 3423: 3420: 3416: 3413: 3412: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3398: 3396: 3395:Federal state 3393: 3391: 3388: 3386: 3383: 3381: 3378: 3376: 3373: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3356: 3355: 3354: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3344: 3343:Early history 3341: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3331: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3298: 3293: 3291: 3286: 3284: 3279: 3278: 3275: 3268: 3264: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3237: 3233: 3230:Moos, Carlo: 3229: 3228: 3219: 3215: 3213: 3212:0-89725-414-7 3209: 3205: 3201: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3169: 3166: 3165:0-89526-238-X 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3148:0-930664-01-9 3144: 3140: 3136: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3110: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3087: 3072: 3071:LootedArt.com 3068: 3061: 3046: 3039: 3032: 3024: 3022:3-85842-603-2 3018: 3011: 3010: 3002: 2994: 2988: 2984: 2983: 2975: 2967: 2965:92-3-101733-0 2961: 2957: 2950: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2927: 2926: 2922: 2917: 2902: 2898: 2891: 2883: 2877: 2873: 2866: 2859: 2854: 2847: 2846: 2841: 2835: 2829: 2823: 2818: 2811: 2810: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2787: 2782: 2774: 2772:3-85842-603-2 2768: 2761: 2760: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2736: 2719: 2716:(in German). 2715: 2709: 2693: 2687: 2671: 2668:(in German). 2667: 2660: 2652: 2650:0-271-01485-7 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2633: 2625: 2617: 2615:1-55750-433-4 2611: 2607: 2606: 2598: 2590: 2588:0-306-81325-4 2584: 2580: 2579: 2571: 2564: 2558: 2550: 2546: 2540: 2534: 2530: 2527: 2522: 2520: 2511: 2504: 2498: 2483: 2479: 2472: 2465: 2459: 2453: 2449: 2446: 2441: 2439: 2432: 2427: 2420: 2415: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2393: 2376: 2372: 2365: 2357: 2351: 2347: 2346: 2338: 2331: 2330:3-7193-0681-X 2327: 2323: 2319: 2314: 2306: 2300: 2296: 2295: 2287: 2280: 2274: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2240: 2232: 2230:3-85842-601-6 2226: 2222: 2215: 2213: 2203: 2196: 2191: 2175: 2174: 2169: 2162: 2155: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2103: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2073: 2065: 2061: 2055: 2048: 2047: 2042: 2036: 2030: 2024: 2019: 2003: 1999: 1993: 1986: 1985: 1980: 1974: 1968: 1962: 1957: 1955: 1947: 1946: 1941: 1935: 1929: 1923: 1918: 1911: 1910: 1905: 1899: 1893: 1887: 1882: 1880: 1871: 1865: 1861: 1854: 1850: 1836: 1833: 1829: 1823: 1814: 1810: 1800: 1797: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1785: 1782: 1780: 1777: 1776: 1770: 1767: 1757: 1753: 1751: 1747: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1720: 1717: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1698:Confederation 1697: 1696: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1682: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1668: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1655: 1654: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1640: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1626: 1622: 1619: 1616: 1613: 1612: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1598: 1594: 1591: 1588: 1585: 1584: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1571: 1570: 1566: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1556: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1538: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1528: 1524: 1521: 1518: 1515: 1514: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1501: 1500: 1496: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1486: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1472: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1460:Great Britain 1459: 1458: 1454: 1451: 1448: 1445: 1444: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1431: 1430: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1415:central banks 1412: 1411:monetary gold 1408: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1372: 1362: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1338: 1336: 1330: 1320: 1318: 1314: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1283: 1282:Ella Maillart 1279: 1271: 1266: 1257: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1221: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1184: 1182: 1178: 1177:ball-bearings 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1110: 1106: 1096: 1093: 1089: 1088:Anti-aircraft 1084: 1079: 1075: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1049: 1046: 1040: 1038: 1037:Liechtenstein 1033: 1029: 1019: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 1000:Eugen Bircher 997: 992: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 957:Allied powers 954: 949: 946: 942: 937: 935: 931: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 909: 905: 904:pan-Germanist 900: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 871: 866: 859: 854: 845: 843: 839: 838:Philipp Etter 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 806: 800: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 765:Rudolf Minger 762: 758: 753: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 726: 724: 720: 716: 711: 709: 705: 704:customs union 701: 697: 694:However, the 692: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 652: 650: 646: 642: 636: 626: 624: 620: 616: 612: 611:Eastern Front 608: 604: 600: 595: 592: 588: 584: 575: 571: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 548:class enemies 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 518: 513: 509: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 486: 484: 480: 476: 471: 468: 459: 455: 452:Replica of a 450: 446: 444: 440: 435: 430: 428: 423: 418: 416: 415:Swiss banking 412: 408: 404: 399: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 329: 324: 316: 307: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 277: 272: 270: 265: 263: 258: 257: 255: 254: 251: 241: 240: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 206: 205: 204: 200: 199: 196: 193: 192: 186: 183: 180: 179:Federal state 177: 176: 175: 174: 171: 168: 167: 161: 158: 155: 152: 149: 146: 145: 144: 143: 139: 138: 132: 131:Ancien Régime 129: 126: 123: 120: 117: 116: 115: 114: 111: 108: 107: 101: 97: 94: 91: 87: 84: 81: 78: 76: 73: 72: 71: 70: 67: 66:Early history 64: 63: 59: 55: 54: 51: 45: 44: 39: 34: 33: 30: 19: 5346:Vatican City 5313: 5265:Soviet Union 5013:West Sumatra 4882:Newfoundland 4836:South Africa 4831:Sierra Leone 4809:North Africa 4657: 4405:South Africa 4250:National Day 4173:Coat of arms 4163:Architecture 4130:Swiss people 4120:Prostitution 4090:Homelessness 4060:Demographics 4045:Conscription 3982:Trade unions 3917:Central bank 3802:Human rights 3755:Constitution 3480:Subdivisions 3415:list of wars 3399: 3317:Major topics 3316: 3217: 3203: 3193: 3183: 3173: 3156: 3134: 3109: 3101:the original 3096: 3086: 3074:. Retrieved 3070: 3060: 3048:. Retrieved 3044: 3031: 3008: 3001: 2981: 2974: 2955: 2949: 2941: 2936: 2929: 2923: 2916: 2904:. Retrieved 2900: 2890: 2871: 2865: 2853: 2843: 2821: 2817: 2807: 2785: 2781: 2758: 2722:. Retrieved 2708: 2696:. Retrieved 2694:. climage.ch 2686: 2674:. Retrieved 2659: 2631: 2624: 2604: 2597: 2577: 2570: 2562: 2557: 2548: 2539: 2509: 2497: 2485:. Retrieved 2471: 2463: 2458: 2426: 2418: 2414: 2403:The Neutrals 2402: 2381:November 26, 2379:. Retrieved 2374: 2364: 2344: 2337: 2321: 2313: 2293: 2286: 2273: 2263:February 12, 2261:. Retrieved 2249: 2239: 2202: 2195:Bonjour 1978 2190: 2178:. Retrieved 2171: 2161: 2139: 2116:the original 2111: 2102: 2090:. Retrieved 2081: 2072: 2064:the original 2054: 2044: 2022: 2018: 2006:. Retrieved 2001: 1992: 1982: 1960: 1943: 1921: 1917: 1907: 1885: 1859: 1853: 1834: 1827: 1822: 1813: 1762: 1726: 1712:Federal Mint 1385:Vichy France 1374: 1344: 1332: 1310: 1298: 1287: 1274: 1234: 1222: 1185: 1154: 1138:André Béguin 1130:Wauwilermoos 1111: 1108: 1071: 1050: 1041: 1028:military law 1025: 1011: 1007: 998:and Colonel 993: 973:Allen Dulles 950: 938: 907: 901: 889:Henri Guisan 877:World War II 874: 848:World War II 841: 810:Swiss German 803: 801: 754: 727: 713:In 1934 the 712: 693: 689:Swiss-French 658: 638: 603:Robert Grimm 596: 580: 560:sealed train 521: 487: 482: 479:Stelvio Pass 474: 472: 463: 439:Unterengadin 434:Ulrich Wille 431: 419: 400: 392:Unterengadin 333: 328:Umbrail Pass 292:World War II 285: 219:LGBT history 184: 160:Regeneration 29: 5443:Switzerland 5394:New Zealand 5360:Oceania and 5314:Switzerland 5275:Byelorussia 5230:Netherlands 5072:Philippines 4912:Puerto Rico 4867:El Salvador 4698:New Zealand 4658:Switzerland 4608:Netherlands 4380:East Africa 4360:World War I 4358:History of 4223:Röstigraben 4100:Immigration 3907:Agriculture 3781:Government 3665:Earthquakes 3390:Restoration 3375:Reformation 3338:Enlargement 3304:Switzerland 2906:January 14, 2724:October 23, 2698:October 23, 2676:October 23, 2487:October 23, 2377:(in German) 2008:December 9, 1731:brought in 1394:Swiss franc 1379:and by the 1319:(Colditz). 1294:Ładoś Group 1122:ski resorts 1016:Léon Savary 941:Franz Burri 858:Axis Powers 836:Councillor 789:war economy 723:Third Reich 661:World War I 570:in Russia. 556:Nicholas II 544:proletariat 443:Val Müstair 310:World War I 304:belligerent 298:maintained 296:Switzerland 288:World War I 209:Immigration 187:(1914–1945) 162:(1830–1847) 156:(1814–1830) 154:Restoration 150:(1798–1814) 133:(1648–1798) 127:(1516–1648) 125:Reformation 121:(1291–1516) 49:Switzerland 47:History of 5453:Categories 5389:New Guinea 5369:Antarctica 5362:Antarctica 5351:Yugoslavia 5270:Azerbaijan 5225:Luxembourg 5008:New Guinea 4907:New Mexico 4897:California 4804:Madagascar 4789:Gold Coast 4784:The Gambia 4603:Luxembourg 4230:Literature 4085:Healthcare 4070:Euthanasia 4050:Corruption 3962:Swiss made 3941:(currency) 3844:Parliament 3839:Neutrality 3460:Swiss Alps 3400:World wars 3363:Rütli Oath 3267:Yad Vashem 3194:Dimensions 2318:Peter Noll 2180:August 18, 1845:References 1402:Reichsbank 1369:See also: 1317:Oflag IV-C 1114:internment 1103:See also: 934:Swiss Army 915:, such as 908:Neuordnung 897:Phoney War 769:Swiss Army 738:Nazi Party 669:Vorarlberg 581:While the 524:Bolsheviks 502:Bolsheviks 458:Swiss Army 422:Swiss Army 401:While the 396:Graubünden 394:region of 388:trench war 214:Swiss Jews 185:World Wars 102:(900–1300) 75:Prehistory 5374:Australia 5339:Gibraltar 5297:Catalonia 5220:Lithuania 5082:Singapore 5030:Indochina 5020:Hong Kong 4996:Manchuria 4965:Venezuela 4935:Argentina 4872:Greenland 4826:Nyasaland 4693:Australia 4502:Palestine 4472:Hong Kong 4446:Venezuela 4198:Languages 4065:Education 3987:Transport 3929:Companies 3772:Elections 3710:Mountains 3690:Hydrology 3627:Districts 3441:Geography 3348:Roman era 3206:, editor 3159:, (2013) 2921:Reid, Pat 2482:swissinfo 2258:0376-6829 1614:Argentina 1435:Purchases 1419:Holocaust 1246:Adelboden 1238:Bad Ragaz 1078:Luftwaffe 1060:squad in 1010:(French: 939:In 1941, 785:boot camp 781:divisions 746:extradite 649:Red Cross 601:erupted. 564:Petrograd 370:selected 92:(400–900) 86:Alemannia 80:Roman era 5260:Slovenia 5255:Slovakia 5245:Portugal 5133:Bulgaria 5087:Thailand 5062:Mongolia 5035:Cambodia 4955:Suriname 4945:Colombia 4769:Ethiopia 4628:Portugal 4548:Bulgaria 4462:Caucasus 4424:Americas 4390:Ethiopia 4312:Category 4257:Religion 4193:Helvetia 4188:Folklore 4105:Pensions 4035:Abortion 3967:Taxation 3829:Military 3738:Politics 3685:Glaciers 3653:By topic 3333:Timeline 3308:articles 3076:June 25, 3050:June 25, 2529:Archived 2448:Archived 2375:bz Basel 1773:See also 1737:New York 1733:Brooklyn 1586:Slovakia 1530:Portugal 1407:tungsten 1217:Freiburg 989:Sardinia 885:invasion 881:mobilize 777:war bond 728:In 1936 700:monetary 687:and the 615:pacifism 506:Dadaists 504:and the 441:valley, 195:Timeline 100:Burgundy 90:Burgundy 38:a series 36:Part of 5431:History 5417:Portals 5302:Galicia 5280:Ukraine 5250:Romania 5200:Ireland 5195:Iceland 5185:Hungary 5175:Germany 5153:Finland 5148:Estonia 5143:Denmark 5128:Belgium 5123:Austria 5118:Albania 4960:Uruguay 4892:Arizona 4819:Morocco 4814:Tunisia 4799:Liberia 4686:Oceania 4676:Ireland 4663:Ukraine 4633:Romania 4588:Ireland 4583:Hungary 4573:Germany 4563:Estonia 4558:Denmark 4553:Croatia 4543:Belgium 4533:Albania 4512:Vietnam 4400:Morocco 4395:Liberia 4296:Outline 4267:Symbols 4218:Romansh 4213:Italian 4178:Cuisine 4150:Culture 4135:Welfare 4115:Poverty 4110:Prisons 4023:Society 3977:Tourism 3912:Banking 3890:Economy 3695:Islands 3680:Forests 3660:Climate 3488:Cantons 3325:History 3269:website 3198:excerpt 3186:(2013) 3176:(2011) 2839:Italian 2803:Italian 2092:May 30, 2082:bbc.com 2040:Italian 1978:Italian 1939:Italian 1903:Italian 1707:−818.6 1693:−596.2 1572:Hungary 1567:−102.3 1558:Romania 1553:−185.1 1539:−451.5 1497:1211.6 1488:Germany 1455:1528.7 1134:Lucerne 1062:Ukraine 1032:treason 985:Corsica 981:Salerno 893:General 826:Grisons 814:Romansh 587:Romania 540:Marxist 456:of the 411:Italian 372:Belgium 340:Germany 286:During 201:Topical 5309:Sweden 5240:Poland 5235:Norway 5210:Latvia 5180:Greece 5158:France 5111:Europe 5097:Turkey 5057:Malaya 4986:Ceylon 4940:Brazil 4902:Nevada 4877:Mexico 4857:Canada 4747:Africa 4653:Sweden 4643:Serbia 4638:Russia 4623:Poland 4613:Norway 4578:Greece 4568:France 4526:Europe 4436:Canada 4431:Brazil 4375:Angola 4368:Africa 4317:Portal 4208:French 4203:German 4168:Cinema 4158:Anthem 4080:Health 3939:Franc 3934:Energy 3871:Voting 3760:Courts 3720:Rivers 3368:Growth 3306: 3245:, in: 3234:, in: 3210: 3163: 3145: 3141:–438. 3019: 2989: 2962: 2878: 2833:French 2827:German 2797:French 2791:German 2786:Asylum 2769: 2647: 2612: 2585: 2352: 2328: 2301: 2256: 2227: 2150: 2112:c2d.ch 2034:French 2028:German 1972:French 1966:German 1933:French 1927:German 1897:French 1891:German 1866: 1704:1087.9 1684:Market 1656:Sweden 1642:Greece 1637:193.2 1628:France 1609:−14.8 1600:Turkey 1595:−11.3 1581:−16.3 1511:150.1 1491:1231.1 1474:Canada 1469:668.6 1449:2242.9 1377:Allies 1292:; the 1252:(a US 1205:Zürich 1195:, and 1181:Bf 109 1179:, and 1083:Hitler 1026:Swiss 891:to be 830:Ticino 683:, the 677:Allies 675:, the 621:, the 517:Zürich 498:Geneva 496:, and 494:Zürich 407:French 403:German 362:, the 352:France 181:(1848) 119:Growth 96:Swabia 40:on the 5384:Nauru 5329:Wales 5287:Spain 5205:Italy 5092:Tibet 5067:Nepal 5052:Japan 5025:India 4991:China 4981:Burma 4794:Kenya 4764:Egypt 4672:Wales 4648:Spain 4593:Italy 4517:Yemen 4492:Japan 4477:India 4467:China 4385:Egypt 4303:Index 4262:Sport 4240:Music 4235:Media 4140:Women 4055:Crime 3715:Parks 3700:Lakes 3675:Fauna 3265:, on 3041:(PDF) 3013:(PDF) 2763:(PDF) 2506:(PDF) 1805:Notes 1721:−3.3 1701:269.3 1690:667.8 1679:43.2 1665:74.5 1631:193.2 1623:32.7 1564:112.1 1550:185.1 1544:Spain 1536:536.6 1525:−5.0 1516:Japan 1505:150.1 1502:Italy 1483:65.3 1463:668.6 1452:714.3 1438:Sales 1432:Party 1242:Davos 1201:Basel 1006:. In 734:Davos 356:Italy 5102:Tuva 5047:Iraq 5042:Iran 4974:Asia 4862:Cuba 4507:Siam 4487:Iraq 4482:Iran 4455:Asia 4183:Flag 4002:road 3997:rail 3807:LGBT 3208:ISBN 3161:ISBN 3143:ISBN 3078:2017 3052:2017 3017:ISBN 2987:ISBN 2960:ISBN 2908:2022 2876:ISBN 2836:and 2824:in 2800:and 2788:in 2767:ISBN 2726:2015 2700:2015 2678:2015 2645:ISBN 2610:ISBN 2583:ISBN 2489:2015 2383:2023 2350:ISBN 2326:ISBN 2299:ISBN 2265:2024 2254:ISSN 2225:ISBN 2182:2016 2148:ISBN 2094:2016 2037:and 2025:in 2010:2018 1975:and 1963:in 1936:and 1924:in 1900:and 1888:in 1864:ISBN 1830:the 1718:45.8 1715:42.5 1687:71.6 1676:18.3 1673:61.5 1659:77.5 1651:0.5 1617:32.7 1606:14.8 1592:11.3 1578:16.3 1533:85.1 1494:19.5 1477:65.3 1441:Net 1381:Axis 1203:and 1197:Rafz 1193:Vals 987:and 969:Bern 955:and 953:Axis 828:and 783:and 702:and 522:The 490:Bern 384:Jura 354:and 342:and 290:and 3992:air 3819:Law 3139:419 2672:SRF 2086:BBC 1670:BIS 1645:0.5 1561:9.8 1446:USA 761:BGB 740:'s 562:to 5455:: 4674:, 3618:ZH 3613:ZG 3608:VS 3603:VD 3598:UR 3593:TI 3588:TG 3583:SZ 3578:SO 3573:SH 3568:SG 3563:OW 3558:NW 3553:NE 3548:LU 3543:JU 3538:GR 3533:GL 3528:GE 3523:FR 3518:BS 3513:BL 3508:BE 3503:AR 3498:AG 3493:AI 3095:. 3069:. 3043:. 2928:, 2899:. 2830:, 2794:, 2734:^ 2639:: 2635:. 2547:. 2518:^ 2508:. 2480:. 2437:^ 2391:^ 2373:. 2320:: 2248:. 2211:^ 2170:. 2124:^ 2110:. 2084:. 2080:. 2031:, 2000:. 1969:, 1953:^ 1930:, 1894:, 1878:^ 1835:to 1828:by 1735:, 1191:, 1175:, 1148:, 991:. 725:. 710:. 691:. 679:, 651:. 492:, 429:. 398:. 294:, 98:· 88:· 5419:: 5191:) 5187:( 4732:e 4725:t 4718:v 4678:) 4670:( 4351:e 4344:t 4337:v 3296:e 3289:t 3282:v 3249:. 3238:. 3151:. 3080:. 3054:. 3025:. 2995:. 2968:. 2910:. 2884:. 2812:. 2775:. 2728:. 2702:. 2680:. 2653:. 2618:. 2591:. 2512:. 2491:. 2385:. 2358:. 2332:. 2307:. 2267:. 2233:. 2184:. 2096:. 2049:. 2012:. 1987:. 1948:. 1912:. 1872:. 1662:3 1648:0 1634:0 1620:0 1603:0 1589:0 1575:0 1547:0 1522:5 1519:0 1508:0 1480:0 1466:0 350:( 338:( 275:e 268:t 261:v 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.