93:
221:
synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters (e.g. 100mM for acetylcholine). Evidence shows that neuropeptides are released after high-frequency firing or bursts, distinguishing dense core vesicle from synaptic vesicle release. Neuropeptides utilize volume transmission and are not reuptaken quickly, allowing diffusion across broad areas (nm to mm) to reach targets. Almost all neuropeptides bind to
286:. At low frequency activation, only glutamate is released, yielding fast and rapid excitation of the muscle. At high frequency activation however, dense core vesicles release proctolin, inducing prolonged contractions. Thus, neuropeptide release can be fine-tuned to modulate synaptic activity in certain contexts.
589:
In the early 1900s, chemical messengers were crudely extracted from whole animal brains and tissues and studied for their physiological effects. In 1931, von Euler and Gaddum, used a similar method to try and isolate acetylcholine but instead discovered a peptide substance that induced physiological
203:
where it is proteolytically cleaved and processed into multiple peptides. Peptides are packaged into dense core vesicles, where further cleaving and processing, such as C-terminal amidation, can occur. Dense core vesicles are transported throughout the neuron and can release peptides at the synaptic
194:
called prepropeptides. Prepropeptides contain sequences for a family of distinct peptides and often contain duplicated copies of the same peptides, depending on the organism. In addition to the precursor peptide sequences, prepropeptides also contain a signal peptide, spacer peptides, and cleavage
249:
Although peptides mostly target metabotropic receptors, there is some evidence that neuropeptides bind to other receptor targets. Peptide-gated ion channels (FMRFamide-gated sodium channels) have been found in snails and Hydra. Other examples of non-GPCR targets include: insulin-like peptides and
245:
Most neuropeptides act on G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Neuropeptide-GPCRs fall into two families: rhodopsin-like and the secretin class. Most peptides activate a single GPCR, while some activate multiple GPCRs (e.g. AstA, AstC, DTK). Peptide-GPCR binding relationships are highly
220:
signaling, neuropeptide signaling is more sensitive. Neuropeptide receptor affinity is in the nanomolar to micromolar range while neurotransmitter affinity is in the micromolar to millimolar range. Additionally, dense core vesicles contain a small amount of neuropeptide (3 - 10mM) compared to
597:
was the first neuropeptide to be isolated and sequenced. In 1975, Alvin
Starratt and Brian Brown extracted the peptide from hindgut muscles of the cockroach and found that its application enhanced muscle contractions. While Starratt and Brown initially thought of proctolin as an excitatory
33:
246:
conserved across animals. Aside from conserved structural relationships, some peptide-GPCR functions are also conserved across the animal kingdom. For example, neuropeptide F/neuropeptide Y signaling is structurally and functionally conserved between insects and mammals.
289:
Some regions of the nervous system are specialized to release distinctive sets of peptides. For example, the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland release peptides (e.g. TRH, GnRH, CRH, SST) that act as hormones In one subpoplation of the
228:
Expression of neuropeptides in the nervous system is diverse. Neuropeptides are often co-released with other neuropeptides and neurotransmitters, yielding a diversity of effects depending on the combination of release. For example,
153:
Peptide signals play a role in information processing that is different from that of conventional neurotransmitters, and many appear to be particularly associated with specific behaviours. For example,
1373:
Childs GV, Westlund KN, Tibolt RE, Lloyd JM (September 1991). "Hypothalamic regulatory peptides and their receptors: cytochemical studies of their role in regulation at the adenohypophyseal level".
565:, some of oldest living animals with nervous systems or neural-like tissues. Recent studies also show genomic evidence of neuropeptide processing machinery in metazoans and
590:
changes including muscle contractions and depressed blood pressure. These effects were not abolished using atropine, ruling out the substance as acetylcholine.
79:, extremely basal animals which do not possess neurons, use peptides for cell-to-cell communication in a way similar to the neuropeptides of higher animals.
274:
and dense core vesicles can have differential activation properties for release, resulting in context-dependent corelease combinations. For example, insect
262:
Due to their modulatory and diffusive nature, neuropeptides can act on multiple time and spatial scales. Below are some examples of neuropeptide actions:
2868:
2863:
2853:
2898:
58:
Neuropeptides are synthesized from large precursor proteins which are cleaved and post-translationally processed then packaged into dense core
2052:
2818:
535:
311:
581:
such as acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin. This also suggests that neuropeptide signaling developed before amine neurotransmitters.
553:
are ancient signaling systems that are found in almost all animals on Earth. Genome sequencing reveals evidence of neuropeptide genes in
66:
in a single neuron, yielding a multitude of effects. Once released, neuropeptides can diffuse widely to affect a broad range of targets.
840:
Nässel DR, Zandawala M (August 2019). "Recent advances in neuropeptide signaling in
Drosophila, from genes to physiology and behavior".
956:
Dori I, Parnavelas JG (July 1989). "The cholinergic innervation of the rat cerebral cortex shows two distinct phases in development".
2444:
329:
The following is a list of neuroactive peptides cor-eleased with other neurotransmitters. Transmitter names are shown in bold.
1262:
Nusbaum MP, Blitz DM, Swensen AM, Wood D, Marder E (March 2001). "The roles of co-transmission in neural network modulation".
639:
199:. The signal peptide sequence is removed in the endoplasmic reticulum, yielding a propeptide. The propeptide travels to the
254:
and atrial natriuretic peptide and eclosion hormone with membrane-bound guanylyl cyclase receptors in mammals and insects.
2299:
1932:
Starratt AN, Brown BE (October 1975). "Structure of the pentapeptide proctolin, a proposed neurotransmitter in insects".
303:
2267:
2045:
1984:
1916:
1410:"CART neurons in the arcuate nucleus and lateral hypothalamic area exert differential controls on energy homeostasis"
140:
122:
270:
Neuropeptides are often co-released with other neurotransmitters and neuropeptides to modulate synaptic activity.
2808:
509:
163:
59:
118:
910:
Nässel DR, Winther AM (September 2010). "Drosophila neuropeptides in regulation of physiology and behavior".
477:
403:
338:
230:
114:
17:
1048:
DĂĽrrnagel S, Kuhn A, Tsiairis CD, Williamson M, Kalbacher H, Grimmelikhuijzen CJ, et al. (April 2010).
2823:
2294:
2038:
1801:
Varoqueaux F, Williams EA, Grandemange S, Truscello L, Kamm K, Schierwater B, et al. (November 2018).
2437:
2024:
162:
have striking and specific effects on social behaviours, including maternal behaviour and pair bonding.
2933:
2113:
2096:
2079:
604:
first used the term "neuropeptide" in the 1970s to delineate peptides derived from the nervous system.
569:, suggesting that neuropeptide signaling may predate the development of nervous tissues. Additionally,
326:(AGRP). These peptides are all released in different combinations to signal hunger and satiation cues.
222:
52:
2843:
2309:
2304:
2118:
1593:
Sachkova MY, Nordmann EL, Soto-Ă€ngel JJ, Meeda Y, GĂłrski B, Naumann B, et al. (December 2021).
2401:
2091:
1160:"Substrates for Neuronal Cotransmission With Neuropeptides and Small Molecule Neurotransmitters in
103:
2229:
2201:
2128:
2108:
1457:
Luckman SM, Lawrence CB (March 2003). "Anorectic brainstem peptides: more pieces to the puzzle".
1348:
513:
505:
432:
362:
107:
740:
Hökfelt T, Bartfai T, Bloom F (August 2003). "Neuropeptides: opportunities for drug discovery".
195:
sites. The signal peptide sequence guides the protein to the secretory pathway, starting at the
2938:
2893:
2430:
2241:
2214:
323:
2367:
2329:
2209:
2155:
2133:
2086:
225:(GPCRs), inducing second messenger cascades to modulate neural activity on long time-scales.
196:
2838:
2338:
2334:
2286:
1706:
1314:
1112:
307:
233:
is typically co-released with acetylcholine. Neuropeptide release can also be specific. In
8:
2695:
2396:
2379:
2065:
710:
1710:
1550:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
1318:
1116:
55:(GPCRs) to modulate neural activity and other tissues like the gut, muscles, and heart.
2527:
2502:
2138:
2030:
1976:
1908:
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1832:
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1239:
1214:
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1159:
1135:
1100:
1076:
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1025:
1000:
981:
935:
865:
814:
789:
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684:
659:
523:
501:
1470:
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753:
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1980:
1949:
1945:
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1824:
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1628:
1616:
1575:
1526:
1504:
1474:
1439:
1390:
1330:
1305:
Adams ME, O'Shea M (July 1983). "Peptide cotransmitter at a neuromuscular junction".
1279:
1244:
1195:
1140:
1081:
1030:
973:
927:
857:
819:
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689:
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191:
63:
1836:
1486:
985:
939:
923:
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853:
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2343:
2272:
2168:
2101:
1972:
1941:
1904:
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1867:
1863:
1814:
1803:"High Cell Diversity and Complex Peptidergic Signaling Underlie Placozoan Behavior"
1773:
1765:
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1714:
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1606:
1565:
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1516:
1466:
1429:
1421:
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1322:
1291:
1271:
1234:
1226:
1185:
1175:
1130:
1120:
1071:
1061:
1050:"Three homologous subunits form a high affinity peptide-gated ion channel in Hydra"
1020:
1012:
965:
919:
849:
809:
801:
749:
679:
671:
578:
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271:
217:
2003:
2858:
2583:
2573:
2251:
1425:
1230:
539:
422:
388:
379:
291:
200:
2027:
excellent, and very accessible, discussion of neuropeptide biology in C. elegans
1644:"Insight into the molecular and functional diversity of cnidarian neuropeptides"
1408:
Lau J, Farzi A, Qi Y, Heilbronn R, Mietzsch M, Shi YC, Herzog H (January 2018).
2878:
2873:
2606:
2601:
2578:
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2384:
2191:
2061:
1699:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1105:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
887:
627:
452:
384:
355:
333:
319:
213:
1819:
1802:
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neurotransmitter, proctolin was later confirmed as a neuromodulatory peptide.
2927:
2555:
2550:
2517:
2186:
1769:
1180:
601:
396:
279:
2016:
1719:
1386:
1326:
1125:
1066:
69:
Neuropeptides are extremely ancient and highly diverse chemical messengers.
2883:
2759:
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2749:
2744:
2711:
2706:
2411:
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1885:
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369:
295:
275:
167:
2422:
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1334:
1016:
977:
892:
Basic
Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects. 6th edition
2888:
2798:
2726:
2701:
2637:
2622:
2542:
2512:
2497:
2406:
2219:
1660:
1595:"Neuropeptide repertoire and 3D anatomy of the ctenophore nervous system"
489:
472:
457:
444:
427:
408:
373:
159:
237:
larvae, for example, eclosion hormone is expressed in just two neurons.
2690:
2654:
2644:
2627:
2593:
2565:
2522:
2359:
2012:
Neuropeptides reference website (a comprehensive neuropeptide database)
1101:"Receptor guanylyl cyclases in Inka cells targeted by eclosion hormone"
969:
805:
675:
570:
558:
527:
482:
350:
315:
75:
44:
2903:
1953:
1800:
2828:
2813:
2659:
2649:
2632:
2489:
2389:
2123:
1695:"Molecular evolution of peptidergic signaling systems in bilaterians"
653:
651:
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531:
493:
464:
299:
283:
179:
171:
92:
2803:
2782:
2777:
2721:
2181:
577:
neural signaling is entirely peptidergic and lacks the major amine
574:
562:
554:
519:
415:
175:
155:
70:
62:. Neuropeptides are often co-released with other neuropeptides and
648:
2848:
2833:
2453:
2163:
1546:"The chemical brain hypothesis for the origin of nervous systems"
550:
497:
345:
32:
2011:
1852:"An unidentified depressor substance in certain tissue extracts"
2769:
1592:
1047:
48:
2682:
488:
Some neurons make several different peptides. For instance,
2908:
1372:
2060:
657:
337:(noradrenaline). In neurons of the A2 cell group in the
212:
Neuropeptides are released by dense core vesicles after
27:
Peptides released by neurons as intercellular messengers
1751:
1261:
166:
has several functions including regulating heart rate,
1502:
545:
1001:"Drosophila melanogaster G protein-coupled receptors"
658:
Elphick MR, Mirabeau O, Larhammar D (February 2018).
1899:
Lange AB, Orchard I (2006). "Proctolin in
Insects".
1505:"Neuropeptides as Regulators of Behavior in Insects"
1407:
739:
43:are chemical messengers made up of small chains of
1503:Schoofs L, De Loof A, Van Hiel MB (January 2017).
1099:Chang JC, Yang RB, Adams ME, Lu KH (August 2009).
790:"Overview of Neuropeptides: Awakening the Senses?"
182:has a role in cuticle pigmentation and moulting.
1752:Yañez-Guerra LA, Thiel D, Jékely G (April 2022).
2925:
1349:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977"
1098:
2025:Neuropeptide chapter in the C. elegans Wormbook
1641:
1456:
1304:
839:
2899:Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide
1754:"Premetazoan Origin of Neuropeptide Signaling"
955:
660:"Evolution of neuropeptide signalling systems"
2819:Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript
2438:
2046:
1931:
1849:
1215:"Neuropeptide transmission in brain circuits"
998:
909:
1898:
1692:
536:cocaine-and amphetamine regulated transcript
312:cocaine-and-amphetamine-regulated transcript
190:Neuropeptides are synthesized from inactive
2452:
1648:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
1212:
885:
625:
121:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2445:
2431:
2053:
2039:
282:and some contain dense core vesicles with
1875:
1818:
1777:
1728:
1718:
1669:
1659:
1610:
1569:
1520:
1433:
1238:
1189:
1179:
1134:
1124:
1075:
1065:
1024:
813:
683:
314:(CART), and in another subpopulation two
141:Learn how and when to remove this message
1901:Handbook of Biologically Active Peptides
1375:Journal of Electron Microscopy Technique
31:
14:
2926:
1966:
1642:Takahashi T, Takeda N (January 2015).
1543:
1459:Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism
1157:
711:"nEUROSTRESSPEP: Insect Neuropeptides"
204:cleft, cell body, and along the axon.
2426:
2034:
1498:
1496:
787:
47:that are synthesized and released by
951:
949:
905:
903:
901:
881:
879:
835:
833:
783:
781:
779:
735:
733:
731:
705:
703:
621:
619:
617:
178:controls tanning of the cuticle and
119:adding citations to reliable sources
86:
2300:Transcription preinitiation complex
1850:V Euler US, Gaddum JH (June 1931).
1054:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
664:The Journal of Experimental Biology
584:
546:Evolution of Neuropeptide Signaling
240:
216:of the cell. Compared to classical
24:
2268:Signal transducing adaptor protein
1977:10.1016/B978-0-12-801028-0.00067-2
1843:
1522:10.1146/annurev-ento-031616-035500
1493:
1168:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience
634:(6th ed.). Lippincott-Raven.
341:), norepinephrine co-exists with:
51:. Neuropeptides typically bind to
25:
2950:
1997:
999:Brody T, Cravchik A (July 2000).
946:
898:
876:
830:
776:
728:
700:
614:
512:(in parvocellular neurons of the
174:regulate food intake and growth,
1909:10.1016/B978-012369442-3/50030-1
1693:Mirabeau O, Joly JS (May 2013).
500:in magnocellular neurons of the
304:α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone
91:
2809:Calcitonin gene-related peptide
1960:
1925:
1892:
1794:
1758:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1745:
1686:
1635:
1586:
1537:
1450:
1401:
1366:
1341:
1298:
1255:
1213:van den Pol AN (October 2012).
1206:
1151:
1092:
1041:
992:
924:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.04.010
854:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2019.02.003
1967:Tanaka Y (2016). "Proctolin".
1868:10.1113/jphysiol.1931.sp002763
13:
1:
1471:10.1016/S1043-2760(02)00033-4
1276:10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01723-9
754:10.1016/S1474-4422(03)00482-4
607:
339:nucleus of the solitary tract
250:tyrosine-kinase receptors in
231:vasoactive intestinal peptide
2824:Delta-sleep-inducing peptide
1946:10.1016/0024-3205(75)90134-4
1426:10.1016/j.molmet.2017.10.015
1231:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.09.014
886:Mains RE, Eipper BA (1999).
626:Mains RE, Eipper BA (1999).
265:
207:
185:
7:
1509:Annual Review of Entomology
1158:Nässel DR (23 March 2018).
1005:The Journal of Cell Biology
958:Experimental Brain Research
318:peptides are co-expressed,
302:peptides are co-expressed:
223:G protein-coupled receptors
82:
53:G protein-coupled receptors
10:
2955:
257:
2844:Gastrin-releasing peptide
2791:
2768:
2737:
2681:
2672:
2615:
2592:
2564:
2541:
2488:
2479:
2464:
2352:
2322:
2285:
2260:
2237:
2228:
2200:
2154:
2147:
2072:
1856:The Journal of Physiology
1820:10.1016/j.cub.2018.08.067
1612:10.1016/j.cub.2021.09.005
2380:Neuroendocrine signaling
1181:10.3389/fncel.2018.00083
912:Progress in Neurobiology
842:Progress in Neurobiology
1720:10.1073/pnas.1219956110
1544:JĂ©kely G (March 2021).
1387:10.1002/jemt.1060190104
1327:10.1126/science.6134339
1264:Trends in Neurosciences
1126:10.1073/pnas.0812593106
1067:10.1074/jbc.M109.059998
514:paraventricular nucleus
506:paraventricular nucleus
433:Glucagon-like peptide-1
2894:Pancreatic polypeptide
2242:cAMP-dependent pathway
1770:10.1093/molbev/msac051
1562:10.1098/rstb.2019.0761
324:agouti-related peptide
37:
2368:Synaptic transmission
2364:Neurocrine signaling
2287:Transcription factors
2134:PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway
1017:10.1083/jcb.150.2.f83
788:Russo AF (May 2017).
742:The Lancet. Neurology
715:www.neurostresspep.eu
197:endoplasmic reticulum
35:
2839:Galanin-like peptide
1969:Handbook of Hormones
1903:. pp. 177–181.
1813:(21): 3495–3501.e2.
1661:10.3390/ijms16022610
1605:(23): 5274–5285.e6.
1414:Molecular Metabolism
632:Basic Neurochemistry
308:galanin-like peptide
115:improve this section
2397:Mechanotransduction
2385:Exocrine signalling
2192:Signaling molecules
2066:Signal transduction
1711:2013PNAS..110E2028M
1705:(22): E2028–E2037.
1319:1983Sci...221..286A
1117:2009PNAS..10613371C
1111:(32): 13371–13376.
1060:(16): 11958–11965.
894:. Lippincott-Raven.
888:"The Neuropeptides"
670:(Pt 3): jeb151092.
628:"The Neuropeptides"
2407:Ion channel gating
2139:Integrin receptors
2073:Signaling pathways
1556:(1821): 20190761.
970:10.1007/BF00247899
806:10.1111/head.13084
800:(Suppl 2): 37–46.
676:10.1242/jeb.151092
524:supraoptic nucleus
502:supraoptic nucleus
192:precursor proteins
38:
2934:Molecular biology
2921:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2668:
2667:
2420:
2419:
2402:Phototransduction
2360:Intracrine action
2318:
2317:
2281:
2280:
2169:Neurotransmitters
1313:(4607): 286–289.
641:978-0-397-51820-3
579:neurotransmitters
567:choanoflagellates
437:nucleus accumbens
272:Synaptic vesicles
151:
150:
143:
64:neurotransmitters
16:(Redirected from
2946:
2679:
2678:
2486:
2485:
2447:
2440:
2433:
2424:
2423:
2373:Chemical synapse
2273:Scaffold protein
2235:
2234:
2230:Second messenger
2156:Receptor ligands
2152:
2151:
2055:
2048:
2041:
2032:
2031:
1991:
1990:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1940:(8): 1253–1256.
1929:
1923:
1922:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1879:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1822:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1781:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1732:
1722:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1673:
1663:
1654:(2): 2610–2625.
1639:
1633:
1632:
1614:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1573:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1524:
1500:
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1405:
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1345:
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1302:
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1242:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1193:
1183:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1138:
1128:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1079:
1069:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1028:
996:
990:
989:
953:
944:
943:
907:
896:
895:
883:
874:
873:
837:
828:
827:
817:
785:
774:
773:
737:
726:
725:
723:
721:
707:
698:
697:
687:
655:
646:
645:
623:
585:Research history
241:Receptor targets
218:neurotransmitter
146:
139:
135:
132:
126:
95:
87:
21:
2954:
2953:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2924:
2923:
2922:
2913:
2869:Neuropeptide VF
2864:Neuropeptide SF
2859:Neuropeptide FF
2854:Neuropeptide AF
2787:
2764:
2733:
2674:
2664:
2611:
2588:
2560:
2537:
2506:
2481:Opioid peptides
2475:
2460:
2451:
2421:
2416:
2348:
2314:
2277:
2256:
2252:Lipid signaling
2224:
2196:
2143:
2068:
2059:
2000:
1995:
1994:
1987:
1965:
1961:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1897:
1893:
1848:
1844:
1807:Current Biology
1799:
1795:
1750:
1746:
1691:
1687:
1640:
1636:
1599:Current Biology
1591:
1587:
1542:
1538:
1501:
1494:
1455:
1451:
1406:
1402:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1355:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1303:
1299:
1260:
1256:
1211:
1207:
1156:
1152:
1097:
1093:
1046:
1042:
997:
993:
954:
947:
908:
899:
884:
877:
838:
831:
786:
777:
738:
729:
719:
717:
709:
708:
701:
656:
649:
642:
624:
615:
610:
587:
548:
540:cholecystokinin
526:co-exists with
492:co-exists with
423:Cholecystokinin
389:arcuate nucleus
380:Cholecystokinin
292:arcuate nucleus
268:
260:
243:
210:
201:Golgi apparatus
188:
147:
136:
130:
127:
112:
96:
85:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2952:
2942:
2941:
2936:
2919:
2918:
2915:
2914:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2879:Neuropeptide Y
2876:
2874:Neuropeptide S
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2795:
2793:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2785:
2780:
2774:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2741:
2739:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2731:
2730:
2729:
2724:
2716:
2715:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2693:
2687:
2685:
2676:
2670:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2641:
2640:
2630:
2625:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2612:
2610:
2609:
2607:Leu-enkephalin
2604:
2602:Met-enkephalin
2598:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2570:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2547:
2545:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2533:β-Neoendorphin
2530:
2528:α-Neoendorphin
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2504:
2494:
2492:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2468:
2466:
2462:
2461:
2450:
2449:
2442:
2435:
2427:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2382:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2362:
2356:
2354:
2353:Other concepts
2350:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2341:
2332:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2291:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2275:
2270:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2238:
2232:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2206:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2187:Growth factors
2184:
2179:
2166:
2160:
2158:
2149:
2145:
2144:
2142:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2105:
2104:
2099:
2089:
2084:
2082:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2069:
2062:Cell signaling
2058:
2057:
2050:
2043:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2022:
2014:
2009:
1999:
1998:External links
1996:
1993:
1992:
1985:
1959:
1924:
1917:
1891:
1842:
1793:
1764:(4): msac051.
1744:
1685:
1634:
1585:
1536:
1492:
1449:
1400:
1365:
1353:NobelPrize.org
1340:
1297:
1270:(3): 146–154.
1254:
1205:
1150:
1091:
1040:
1011:(2): F83–F88.
991:
964:(2): 417–423.
945:
897:
875:
829:
775:
748:(8): 463–472.
727:
699:
647:
640:
612:
611:
609:
606:
586:
583:
547:
544:
486:
485:
480:
475:
461:
460:
455:
453:Neuropeptide Y
441:
440:
430:
425:
412:
411:
406:
393:
392:
385:Neuropeptide Y
382:
377:
359:
358:
356:Neuropeptide Y
353:
348:
334:Norepinephrine
320:neuropeptide Y
267:
264:
259:
256:
242:
239:
214:depolarization
209:
206:
187:
184:
149:
148:
99:
97:
90:
84:
81:
36:Neuropeptide Y
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2951:
2940:
2939:Neuropeptides
2937:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2790:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2767:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2680:
2677:
2675:neuropeptides
2671:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2639:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2618:
2614:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2591:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2557:
2556:Endomorphin-2
2554:
2552:
2551:Endomorphin-1
2549:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2518:Big dynorphin
2516:
2514:
2511:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2473:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2458:neuropeptides
2455:
2448:
2443:
2441:
2436:
2434:
2429:
2428:
2425:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2391:
2388:
2387:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2351:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2288:
2284:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2215:Intracellular
2213:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2177:Neurohormones
2174:
2173:Neuropeptides
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2124:Fas apoptosis
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2051:
2049:
2044:
2042:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2018:Neuropeptides
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2005:Neuropeptides
2002:
2001:
1988:
1986:9780128010280
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1963:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1934:Life Sciences
1928:
1920:
1918:9780123694423
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1895:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1846:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1638:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1589:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1497:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1445:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1404:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1354:
1350:
1344:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1301:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1258:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1225:(1): 98–115.
1224:
1220:
1216:
1209:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1163:
1154:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1095:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
995:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
952:
950:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
918:(1): 42–104.
917:
913:
906:
904:
902:
893:
889:
882:
880:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
836:
834:
825:
821:
816:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
784:
782:
780:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
736:
734:
732:
716:
712:
706:
704:
695:
691:
686:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
654:
652:
643:
637:
633:
629:
622:
620:
618:
613:
605:
603:
602:David de Wied
599:
596:
591:
582:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
484:
481:
479:
476:
474:
471:
470:
469:
467:
466:
459:
456:
454:
451:
450:
449:
448:(adrenaline)
447:
446:
438:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
420:
419:
418:
417:
410:
407:
405:
402:
401:
400:
399:
398:
397:Acetylcholine
390:
386:
383:
381:
378:
375:
371:
368:
367:
366:
365:
364:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
343:
342:
340:
336:
335:
330:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
287:
285:
281:
280:glutamatergic
277:
276:motor neurons
273:
263:
255:
253:
247:
238:
236:
232:
226:
224:
219:
215:
205:
202:
198:
193:
183:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
145:
142:
134:
131:February 2024
124:
120:
116:
110:
109:
105:
100:This section
98:
94:
89:
88:
80:
78:
77:
72:
67:
65:
61:
56:
54:
50:
46:
42:
41:Neuropeptides
34:
30:
19:
18:Neuropeptides
2884:Neurophysins
2712:Neurokinin B
2707:Neurokinin A
2543:Endomorphins
2469:
2457:
2412:Gap junction
2247:Ca signaling
2210:Cell surface
2172:
2020:eBook series
2017:
2004:
1968:
1962:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1900:
1894:
1862:(1): 74–87.
1859:
1855:
1845:
1810:
1806:
1796:
1761:
1757:
1747:
1702:
1698:
1688:
1651:
1647:
1637:
1602:
1598:
1588:
1553:
1549:
1539:
1512:
1508:
1465:(2): 60–65.
1462:
1458:
1452:
1417:
1413:
1403:
1381:(1): 21–41.
1378:
1374:
1368:
1356:. Retrieved
1352:
1343:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1267:
1263:
1257:
1222:
1218:
1208:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1153:
1108:
1104:
1094:
1057:
1053:
1043:
1008:
1004:
994:
961:
957:
915:
911:
891:
845:
841:
797:
793:
745:
741:
718:. Retrieved
714:
667:
663:
631:
600:
593:In insects,
592:
588:
549:
518:
487:
463:
462:
443:
442:
414:
413:
395:
394:
370:Somatostatin
361:
360:
332:
331:
328:
296:hypothalamus
288:
269:
261:
251:
248:
244:
234:
227:
211:
189:
168:allatostatin
152:
137:
128:
113:Please help
101:
74:
68:
57:
40:
39:
29:
2889:Neurotensin
2799:Angiotensin
2738:Neuromedins
2727:Physalaemin
2702:Substance P
2696:Tachykinins
2691:Bradykinins
2638:Hemorphin-4
2623:Adrenorphin
2594:Enkephalins
2584:Îł-Endorphin
2579:β-Endorphin
2574:α-Endorphin
2513:Dynorphin B
2503:Dynorphin A
2498:Dynorphin A
2323:By distance
2261:Assistants:
2220:Co-receptor
1420:: 102–118.
1358:15 December
538:(CART) and
508:, and with
490:vasopressin
473:Substance P
458:Neurotensin
445:Epinephrine
428:Neurotensin
409:Substance P
374:hippocampus
160:vasopressin
45:amino acids
2928:Categories
2718:amphibian
2655:Spinorphin
2645:Nociceptin
2628:Amidorphin
2566:Endorphins
2523:Leumorphin
2490:Dynorphins
2390:Pheromones
2330:Juxtacrine
1162:Drosophila
848:: 101607.
608:References
571:Ctenophore
559:Ctenophora
528:enkephalin
483:Enkephalin
351:Enkephalin
316:orexigenic
252:Drosophila
235:Drosophila
76:Trichoplax
71:Placozoans
2829:FMRFamide
2814:Carnosine
2698:: mammal
2660:Valorphin
2650:Opiorphin
2633:Hemorphin
2344:Endocrine
2339:Paracrine
2335:Autocrine
2202:Receptors
2182:Cytokines
1629:238210404
1515:: 35–52.
720:25 August
595:proctolin
532:dynorphin
494:dynorphin
465:Serotonin
306:(α-MSH),
300:anorectic
284:proctolin
266:Corelease
208:Mechanism
186:Synthesis
180:corazonin
172:proctolin
102:does not
2804:Bombesin
2722:Kassinin
2472:hormones
2465:Hormones
2454:Peptides
2164:Hormones
2114:JAK-STAT
2102:MAPK/ERK
2097:TGF beta
1886:16994201
1837:53044824
1829:30344118
1788:35277960
1739:23671109
1680:25625515
1621:34587474
1580:33550946
1531:27813667
1487:25055675
1479:12591175
1444:29146410
1284:11182454
1249:23040809
1200:29651236
1145:19666575
1086:20159980
1035:10908591
986:19504097
940:24350305
932:20447440
870:84846652
862:30905728
824:28485842
794:Headache
770:23326450
762:12878434
694:29440283
575:Placozoa
563:Placozoa
555:Cnidaria
551:Peptides
520:Oxytocin
435:(in the
416:Dopamine
387:(in the
372:(in the
298:, three
176:bursicon
156:oxytocin
83:Examples
73:such as
60:vesicles
2904:RVD-Hpα
2849:Ghrelin
2834:Galanin
2770:Orexins
2295:General
2119:Akt/PKB
2007:Journal
1877:1403098
1779:9004410
1730:3670399
1707:Bibcode
1671:4346854
1571:7935135
1435:5784325
1395:1660066
1335:6134339
1315:Bibcode
1307:Science
1292:8994646
1240:3918222
1191:5885757
1136:2726410
1113:Bibcode
1077:2852933
1026:2180217
978:2767193
815:5424629
685:5818035
522:in the
498:galanin
468:(5-HT)
346:Galanin
294:of the
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